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Cultural Considerations Cultural Considerations

ETM5361/MSIS5600ETM5361/MSIS5600Managing Virtual Project TeamsManaging Virtual Project Teams

Nicholas C. Romano, Jr., Ph.D.Nicholas C. Romano, Jr., Ph.D.Nicholas-Romano@mstm.okstate.eduNicholas-Romano@mstm.okstate.edu

Paul E. Rossler, Ph.D., P.E.Paul E. Rossler, Ph.D., P.E.prossle@okstate.eduprossle@okstate.edu

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OverviewOverview

• What types or dimensions of culture are What types or dimensions of culture are encountered in virtual teams?encountered in virtual teams?

• Is culture a management variable or is it a Is culture a management variable or is it a constraint more often than not?constraint more often than not?

• What is alignment?What is alignment?• What makes alignment difficult to achieve What makes alignment difficult to achieve

in general and in virtual teams in particular?in general and in virtual teams in particular?

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What is culture?What is culture?

““People in organizations, as in social life generally, People in organizations, as in social life generally, generate ideologies that tell them what is, how it got generate ideologies that tell them what is, how it got that way, and what ought to be. Such ideologies that way, and what ought to be. Such ideologies form the substance of cultures. They are form the substance of cultures. They are not not rationally basedrationally based belief systems. Rather they are belief systems. Rather they are relatively implicit sets of relatively implicit sets of taken-for granted beliefs, taken-for granted beliefs, values, and normsvalues, and norms.” .” (Trice and Beyer, (Trice and Beyer, The Cultures of The Cultures of Work OrganizationsWork Organizations, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, , Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1993, p. 2)1993, p. 2)

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Margaret Mead’s Margaret Mead’s Definition of CultureDefinition of Culture

• Shared patterns of behaviorShared patterns of behavior– Coming of Age in Samoa, Coming of Age in Samoa, 19531953

• Behavioral definitionBehavioral definition– Same behavior can have different significanceSame behavior can have different significance– Different types of behavior can have the same Different types of behavior can have the same

meaning, for example, eye contactmeaning, for example, eye contact• Observation not sufficient to detect Observation not sufficient to detect

differencesdifferences

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Schein’s Definition of CultureSchein’s Definition of Culture

Shared solutions to universal problems of Shared solutions to universal problems of external adaptation (external adaptation (how to survivehow to survive) and ) and internal integration (internal integration (how to stay togetherhow to stay together) ) which have evolved over time and are handed which have evolved over time and are handed down from one generation to the nextdown from one generation to the next

– Schein, 1985Schein, 1985

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Geertz’s definition of cultureGeertz’s definition of culture

• Systems of shared meaning or Systems of shared meaning or understandingunderstanding

• Meaning expressed as value and attitudeMeaning expressed as value and attitude– underlying assumptions are not always clearunderlying assumptions are not always clear– culture is a codeculture is a code

• must be broken to understand itmust be broken to understand it

• Culture is ”thick”Culture is ”thick”

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Functional CultureFunctional Culture

• EngineeringEngineering• Software DevelopmentSoftware Development• Research and DevelopmentResearch and Development• Sales and MarketingSales and Marketing• Production and ManufacturingProduction and Manufacturing

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““The Alien from The Alien from Outer Space” ExerciseOuter Space” Exercise

Imagine that an alien spacecraft is hovering Imagine that an alien spacecraft is hovering over your workplace, collecting data on the over your workplace, collecting data on the decisions people make and the behaviors they decisions people make and the behaviors they exhibit toward one another and customers. exhibit toward one another and customers. As part of his (or her or its) 4As part of his (or her or its) 4 thth grade science grade science project, the alien must submit a report that project, the alien must submit a report that lists the rules that seem to be guiding people’s lists the rules that seem to be guiding people’s decisions and behaviors. What rules do you decisions and behaviors. What rules do you think would be found on that list? think would be found on that list?

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Example rules Example rules

Company ACompany A• Share your ideas Share your ideas

because; you’ll get because; you’ll get credit for themcredit for them

• He who does the best He who does the best work gets rewardedwork gets rewarded

• Tell it like it isTell it like it is

Company BCompany B• Play it close to the Play it close to the

vest; information is vest; information is powerpower

• He who does the best He who does the best work gets the most work gets the most workwork

• Shoot the messengerShoot the messenger

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Culture has long been considered Culture has long been considered a part of the teamwork equationa part of the teamwork equation

• FormingForming• StormingStorming• NormingNorming• PerformingPerforming

Note that culture is not a value-laden term. A Note that culture is not a value-laden term. A team’s culture can facilitate effective teamwork team’s culture can facilitate effective teamwork

as easily as it can inhibit effective teamwork.as easily as it can inhibit effective teamwork.

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Form Cross-Form Cross-FunctionalFunctionalProduct Product

DevelopmentDevelopmentTeamsTeams

Integration ofIntegration ofDiverse SkillsDiverse Skills

Willingness Willingness toto

CooperateCooperate

Access to Access to InformationInformation

and Resourcesand Resources

Top Management’sTop Management’sTolerance for DelaysTolerance for Delays

and Failuresand Failures

Level of Interpersonal TrustLevel of Interpersonal Trust

Comfort LevelComfort LevelWith ChangesWith Changes

Team LeadershipTeam LeadershipCultureCulture

Propensity to Propensity to Experiment and AdaptExperiment and Adapt

(Based on Jassawalla, A.R. and H.C. Sashittal, 1999)(Based on Jassawalla, A.R. and H.C. Sashittal, 1999)

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Types or categories of cultures Types or categories of cultures that can affect virtual teamsthat can affect virtual teams

• NationalNational• OrganizationalOrganizational• FunctionalFunctional

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Dimensions of National CultureDimensions of National Culture

• Power distancePower distance• Uncertainty avoidanceUncertainty avoidance• Individualism-collectivismIndividualism-collectivism• Masculinity-femininityMasculinity-femininity• Long term-short termLong term-short term• High or low contextHigh or low context

(Source: Hofstede and Hall as presented in Duarte and Snyder, 2001)(Source: Hofstede and Hall as presented in Duarte and Snyder, 2001)

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Types or categories of cultures Types or categories of cultures that affect virtual teamsthat affect virtual teams

• NationalNational - “ - “collective mental collective mental programmingprogramming” of the people of any ” of the people of any particular nationalityparticular nationality““inherited ethical habitinherited ethical habit” that can consist of ” that can consist of an idea or value, or of a relationshipan idea or value, or of a relationship

• OrganizationalOrganizational - management styles, - management styles, appraisals, rewards, and communication appraisals, rewards, and communication styles used by employees.styles used by employees.

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• ProfessionalProfessional - ingrained through highly - ingrained through highly structured formal education during structured formal education during formative years and continued through formative years and continued through training programs.training programs.

• FunctionalFunctional - norms and habits associated - norms and habits associated with functional roles within the with functional roles within the organization, such as marketing, R&D, and organization, such as marketing, R&D, and manufacturing.manufacturing.

• TeamTeam - emerges from bonding through - emerges from bonding through common work experiences.common work experiences.

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Hofstede’s Dimensions of National CultureHofstede’s Dimensions of National Culture

• Power DistancePower Distance• Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance• Individualism-CollectivismIndividualism-Collectivism• Masculinity-FemininityMasculinity-Femininity• Long term-Short termLong term-Short term• High or Low contextHigh or Low context

(Source: Hofstede and Hall as presented in Duarte and Snyder, 2001)(Source: Hofstede and Hall as presented in Duarte and Snyder, 2001)

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Lessen and Nebulae - effect of Lessen and Nebulae - effect of national culturenational culture

PragmatismPragmatism that is a dominant influence in the that is a dominant influence in the conceptualizing of management principles and conceptualizing of management principles and practice.practice.

Rationalism Rationalism that is defined as a theory, which that is defined as a theory, which regards reason than sense as the foundation of regards reason than sense as the foundation of certainty in knowledge.certainty in knowledge.

Idealism/HolismIdealism/Holism that is something made up of that is something made up of parts in combination, a complex unity or system.parts in combination, a complex unity or system.

Humanism Humanism that defined as pertaining to the social that defined as pertaining to the social life or collective relations of mankind.life or collective relations of mankind.

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Lewis differentiates mono- and Lewis differentiates mono- and polychronic culturespolychronic cultures

• Monochronic cultures that act in a focused Monochronic cultures that act in a focused manner, concentrating on one thing at a manner, concentrating on one thing at a time within a set time scaletime within a set time scale

• Polychronic cultures that are flexible and Polychronic cultures that are flexible and unconstrained by concerns with timeunconstrained by concerns with time

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Trompenaars National Cultural Trompenaars National Cultural ParametersParameters

• Universalism vs. ParticularismUniversalism vs. Particularism: The universalist : The universalist approach is to say that what is good and right approach is to say that what is good and right applies everywhere, while the particularist applies everywhere, while the particularist emphasizes the obligations of relationships.emphasizes the obligations of relationships.

• Collectivism vs. IndividualismCollectivism vs. Individualism: Similar to : Similar to Hofstede’s model. Hofstede’s model.

• Neutral vs. EmotionalNeutral vs. Emotional: Some cultures are : Some cultures are affective in that they show emotions while others affective in that they show emotions while others are neutral, control and subdue their emotionsare neutral, control and subdue their emotions

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• Specific vs. DiffuseSpecific vs. Diffuse: In specific oriented cultures : In specific oriented cultures the manager separates the work relationships with the manager separates the work relationships with subordinates from other dealings with them.subordinates from other dealings with them.

• StatusStatus: While some cultures give status on the : While some cultures give status on the basis of achievement, others ascribe it on the basis basis of achievement, others ascribe it on the basis of age, class, gender, education, etc.of age, class, gender, education, etc.

• Sequential vs. SynchronicSequential vs. Synchronic: In the former cultures : In the former cultures time is treated as a sequence of events while on time is treated as a sequence of events while on later cultures a number of events are juggled at the later cultures a number of events are juggled at the same time.same time.

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• Inner-Directed vs. Outer-DirectedInner-Directed vs. Outer-Directed: The former : The former cultures believe that they can and should control cultures believe that they can and should control nature while the later go along with nature.nature while the later go along with nature.

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Hall’s Five Dimensions of Hall’s Five Dimensions of National CultureNational Culture

• SpaceSpace: Different cultures have different : Different cultures have different attitudes towards space. Social distance or attitudes towards space. Social distance or bubbles vary by culture.bubbles vary by culture.

• Material GoodsMaterial Goods: Such goods are used for : Such goods are used for power and status.power and status.

• FriendshipFriendship: Interpersonal relationships vary : Interpersonal relationships vary considerably across cultures.considerably across cultures.

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• TimeTime: Linear time cultures take time and : Linear time cultures take time and deadlines very seriously, in a very deadlines very seriously, in a very rationalist sense. Time is structured, rationalist sense. Time is structured, sequential and linear.sequential and linear.

• AgreementAgreement: Expressing agreement and : Expressing agreement and disagreement varies by culture. In some disagreement varies by culture. In some cultures the detailed written contract is cultures the detailed written contract is essential to agreement, while in others a essential to agreement, while in others a handshake is sufficient.handshake is sufficient.

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Fukuyama – Trust and CultureFukuyama – Trust and Culture

Low TrustLow Trust societies can organize societies can organize workplace on a more flexible and group-workplace on a more flexible and group-oriented basis - responsibility delegated to oriented basis - responsibility delegated to lower levels of the organizationlower levels of the organization

High TrustHigh Trust societies must fence in and societies must fence in and isolate their workers with a series of isolate their workers with a series of bureaucratic rulesbureaucratic rules

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Overview of National Cultural Overview of National Cultural ModelsModels

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Dimensions of Dimensions of Organizational CultureOrganizational Culture

• Clan vs. marketClan vs. market– ““Relationship” oriented vs. results orientedRelationship” oriented vs. results oriented

• Hierarchy vs. adhocracyHierarchy vs. adhocracy– Procedures vs. adaptiveProcedures vs. adaptive

(Source: Cameron and Quinn as presented in Duarte and Snyder, 2001)(Source: Cameron and Quinn as presented in Duarte and Snyder, 2001)

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Functional CultureFunctional Culture

• EngineeringEngineering• Software DevelopmentSoftware Development• Research and DevelopmentResearch and Development• Sales and MarketingSales and Marketing• Production and ManufacturingProduction and Manufacturing

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Is culture a given or is it a Is culture a given or is it a variable or is it both?variable or is it both?

• Ontogenetic HypothesisOntogenetic Hypothesis– More compatible with current culture, greater More compatible with current culture, greater

likelihood of effective implementation and uselikelihood of effective implementation and use• Cultural Lag HypothesisCultural Lag Hypothesis

– Changes in the social dimensions of culture Changes in the social dimensions of culture typically lag behind changes in the typically lag behind changes in the technological (material) dimensionstechnological (material) dimensions

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A Framework for Using Cultural Models Dimensions

in Virtual Teams

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Possible “cultural states”Possible “cultural states”

2266 x 2 x 222 x 5 x 511 = 1,280 = 1,280

National – 6 variables, 2 statesNational – 6 variables, 2 statesOrganizational - 2 variables, 2 statesOrganizational - 2 variables, 2 states

Functional – 1 variable, 5 statesFunctional – 1 variable, 5 states

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Personality also plays a rolePersonality also plays a role

• Heredity and experience (nature v. nurture)Heredity and experience (nature v. nurture)– Nature can be reinforced or mitigated by Nature can be reinforced or mitigated by

nurture (and vice versa)nurture (and vice versa)• Jung’s typology (Myers-Briggs)Jung’s typology (Myers-Briggs)

– Introvert-extrovertIntrovert-extrovert– Thinking-feelingThinking-feeling– Sensing-intuitiveSensing-intuitive– Perceiving-judgmentalPerceiving-judgmental

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Some teams’ cultures are better Some teams’ cultures are better than othersthan others

• At-stakenessAt-stakeness• TransparencyTransparency• MindfulnessMindfulness• SynergySynergyIn other words, team members are “aligned”In other words, team members are “aligned”

Source: Jassawalla, A.R. and H.C. Sashittal, Source: Jassawalla, A.R. and H.C. Sashittal, Building collaborative cross-Building collaborative cross-functional product teams.functional product teams. Academy of Management Executive, 1999. Academy of Management Executive, 1999. 1313(3): p. 50-63.(3): p. 50-63.

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What is alignment? What is alignment? The textbook definitionThe textbook definition

““The condition where appropriate project The condition where appropriate project participants are working within accepted participants are working within accepted tolerances to develop and meet a uniformly tolerances to develop and meet a uniformly defined and understood set of project defined and understood set of project objectives.”objectives.”

Griffith, A. F. and G.E. Gibson (2001). "Alignment during pre-project planning." Journal of Management in Engineering 17(2): 69-76.Griffith, A. F. and G.E. Gibson (2001). "Alignment during pre-Griffith, A. F. and G.E. Gibson (2001). "Alignment during pre-project planning." project planning." Journal of Management in EngineeringJournal of Management in Engineering 17(2): 69- 17(2): 69-76.76.

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The word on the street…The word on the street…

““Everyone rowing in the same direction Everyone rowing in the same direction singing from the same sheet of music singing from the same sheet of music and being on the same page.”and being on the same page.”

Griffith, A. F. and G.E. Gibson (2001). "Alignment during pre-project planning." Journal of Management in Engineering 17(2): 69-76.

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Conversion

Implementation

StrategicStrategic

TacticalTactical

OperationalOperational

Definition& Design

Cross-Functional

TeamTeam

Conceptual

Planning

Intra-Organizational Project AlignmentIntra-Organizational Project Alignment

Cross-Phase

Cross-PhaseVe

rtica

lVe

rtica

l

Adapted from Griffith and Gibson (2001)Adapted from Griffith and Gibson (2001)

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Inter-Organizational Project-Team AlignmentInter-Organizational Project-Team Alignment

Organization A

Organization A

Cross-Cross-FunctionalFunctional

Cross-Phase

Cross-Phase

Cross-Phase

Cross-Phase

Cross-Cross-FunctionalFunctional

TeamTeam

TeamTeam

Verti

cal

Verti

cal

Verti

cal

Verti

cal

Organization B

Organization B

GoalGoal

Implementation

Implementation

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Hypothesized Hypothesized Goal Goal Alignment DriversAlignment Drivers

InterventionsInterventions CommunicationCommunicationShared Shared GoalsGoals TrustTrust LeadershipLeadership

Team StructureTeam Structure

Meeting Structure Meeting Structure and Facilitationand Facilitation

Risk/Reward Risk/Reward Sharing Mech.Sharing Mech.

Team BuildingTeam Building

Use of Planning Use of Planning ToolsTools

(Source: Romano, Moran, and Rossler, 2003)(Source: Romano, Moran, and Rossler, 2003)

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Hypothesized Hypothesized ImplementationImplementation Alignment DriversAlignment Drivers

InterventionsInterventions CommunicationCommunication CoordinationCoordination LeadershipLeadershipConflict Conflict

resolutionresolution

Team StructureTeam Structure

Meeting Structure Meeting Structure and Facilitationand Facilitation

Project ProceduresProject Procedures

Use of ITUse of IT

(Source: Romano, Moran, and Rossler, 2003)(Source: Romano, Moran, and Rossler, 2003)

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SummarySummary

• Culture influences virtual team performanceCulture influences virtual team performance• Virtual teams often cut across different Virtual teams often cut across different

national, organizational, and functional national, organizational, and functional culturescultures

• Achieving goal and implementation Achieving goal and implementation alignment is challengingalignment is challenging

• How to influence culture in reliable, How to influence culture in reliable, predictable ways is a matter of uncertaintypredictable ways is a matter of uncertainty