cultural and linguistic discrimination tesol 2015
TRANSCRIPT
Cultural & Linguistic
Discrimination:
Building Bridges After
Crossing Borders
Elisabeth L. Chan
TESOL International Convention 2015
Toronto
Agenda
Background
2013 Study Results compared to
Initial Results of 2015 Study
Implications
Conclusion
Linguistic Discrimination
“Are you concerned that
Americans are increasingly
being made to adapt to the
languages of foreign-
language speakers who are
immigrating here in greater
numbers?”
(Lawton, 2013)
Linguistic Discrimination
“ideologies, structures and practices which are used to legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce an unequal division of power and resources (both material and immaterial) between groups which are defined on the basis of language”
(Phillipson, 1992; as cited in Bleichenbacher, 2012) (Han, 2014)
particular
language
varieties and
accents,
speech
dysfluency,
and
nonstandard
grammar
Linguicism
(Clement & Gardner, 2001, and Lippi-Green, 1996; as cited in Ng, 2007)
indicators of
low intelligence
relational
disharmony
and social
unacceptability
Ken asked Tom for help with his English
homework.
What color is
Tom’s shirt?
(Romney 2010)
(Kang & Rubin 2009)
(Rubin 1992;
Roberts et al 1992
as cited in
Han 2014)
Cultural Discrimination
“Rationalizes the subordination of people of color on the basis of culture, which is of course acquired through acculturation within an ethnic group, while traditional racism rationalizes it fundamentally in terms of biology. Neo-racism is still racism in that it functions to maintain racial hierarchies of oppression.”
(Spears, 1999; as cited in Lee & Rice, 2007)
Acculturation
“Acculturation is defined as the
process of adapting to a new culture,
including the behavioral and other
internal changes that take place during
this process.”
(Sodowsky and Plake (1991, 1992) as cited in
Nilsson, Butler, Shouse & Chetan, 2008)
Acceptance of
U.S. & its people
Proficiency in
English
Perceived
Prejudice &
Acceptance by
the U.S.
School as a Racializer
great societal equalizer
forming identities
order rank
sort
equip
(Pollock, 2004 as cited in Talmy, 2010)
Silence Race Talk
Future Talk Silenced
Systemic Change
Reduced
Gaps, Inequities
Patterned Privilege & Oppression
(Castagno 2008)
Linguistic Imperialism Cycle
Linguistic & Ethnic Groups
Targeted
Schools Keep Majority Culture
Children Vulnerable to Ideology
English-Only Measures
(Pac 2012)
Linguistic Imperialism Cycle
Linguistic & Ethnic Groups
Targeted
Stigmatization
Low Self-EsteemHigh Attrition
Low Academic
Achievement
Low Representation
in Higher Ed
(Pac 2012)
Linguistic Imperialism Cycle
Low Academic
Achievement
(Pac 2012)
Low
Socioeconomic
Status
Low Political
Representation of
Language Group
Capability
Deprivation
Acculturative
Stress
Acculturative Stress“Sources of acculturative stress often include
English language difficulties,
academic struggles,
cultural adaptation,
problematic perfectionism,
lack of social supports,
homesickness,
and perceived discrimination.”
(Tung, 2011)
“Perceived
discrimination
is a unique
source of
stress that is
different from
general
stress”
(Harrell, 2000; Meyer,
2003; as cited in Wei
et al., 2008)
Effects on Success
(Grant & Zwier, 2011)(such as gender, race,
ability)
Effects on Recruitment
“The most important influence leading a
student to recommend the host university
to others was the perception of receiving
fair and equal treatment.” (Lee, 2010)
“Compared with U.S. counterparts,
international students are at greater risk of
perceiving or experiencing discrimination”
(Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007)
Discrimination? A Matter of Perception?
“Also, some people have been impolite when I have reached their office with an appointment: I was
not invited to have a sit, but I had to talk from the door.” (Chilean
male)
“Experiencing the whole issue of racism was surprising, I had never
in my life even given thought to racism. And never before had I tick a
box for my race when filling out documents.” (Estonian female)
2013 & 2015
Study Comparisons
2013 vs 2015 Studies
2013 56 Participants
24 male, 32 female
Ages 17-30+ (avg: late
20s)
International students
4-year public university
In the US average 4 years
(range 1-21 years)
2015 40 Participants
13 male, 26 female, 1 n/a
Ages 18-72; (avg: 28)
11 Int’l, 24 Immigrant, 5
other (ex: DACA students)
2-year community college
In the US average 6 years
(range 1-51 years)
Race of Study Participants
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
White Black S, SE, E Asian Arab, MiddleEastern
Latino/a Multiracial Other
2013 Study 2015 Study
Top Countries & Languages
2013 Study 2015 Study
TOP COUNTRIES TOP LANGUAGES TOP COUNTRIES TOP LANGUAGES
India Chinese Ethiopia Spanish
China French & Spanish Bolivia French
Mexico Hindi Pakistan Arabic
42 languages &
80% self-
identified as
English speakers
28 languages &
48% self-
identified as
English speakers
Questions in Focus
How do the 2015 study results compare to the 2013
study?
What new themes arise in the 2015 data?
Does there seem to be a difference between
international students’ and immigrant students’
perceptions?
Race of City Populations
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
White Black Asian Hispanic Other
% Populations by Race
2013 Study (123k) 2015 Study (149k)
Race of Campus Populations
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
White Black Asian Hispanic Native Am Other
% Populations by Race
2013 (35k students; 121 countries) 2015 (18k students; 183 countries)
Comparison of Languages Spoken at
Home & Birthplace
2013
22.9% of population 5+ speak a
language other than English at
home
13.8% Foreign-born
2015
29% of population 5+ speak a
language other than English at
home
29.5% foreign born
2013 THEMES
1• Significant change in students’ perceptions of
Americans’ knowledge and opinions of their countries
2• Students’ lack of accurate knowledge and awareness
of discrimination
3• Challenges to students’ acceptance & intelligence
4• On campus discrimination
11%
66%
13%4% 7%
2013 Study
Knew nothing/little
Had a negative view
Had a positive view
Had a positive &negative view
Other/unclear
1
Before coming to the U.S., I thought
Americans…
48%
30%
10%3% 10%
2015 Study
“I thought that they feel contempt to people from my country. It made feel fear, because I
would have to study with them.” (Mexican Male)
“I thought that they think Arabs are terrorist and very conservative. I was afraid that I not gonna be accepted by [this] culture.” (Saudi
female)
12013 Study: 66% believed Americans had a
negative view of their home country
“When I was a child I thought that Americans new little or cared little about my country.”(Bolivian
female)
“Not much, only the stereotype.” (Brazilian female)
“None they have a completely miss conception of my country and our beliefs.” (Panamanian male)
12015 Study: 48% believed Americans had
little or no knowledge of their country
How did students’ perceptions change?
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
Changed Perceptions Added Positive Views Added Negative Views Think Know Little/Nothing
% Change in Perceptions
2013 Study 2015 Study
“People seem to be very polite and to follow all the "politically correctness" that the system forces them to follow.” (Greek
female)
“after I came, I feel that Americans are very sensitive about racism than I thought before.” (Turkish female)
"dark ages" impression of my country… showed how ignorant and uneducated they mostly were.
People thought my language and culture was barbaric and restrictive. (Nigerian female)
2013 Study: Perception Changes1
“They are curious to know about itbecause most of them do not know much
about it.” (Albanian female)
“ranges from shock that mexico has cars and television and that I dress ‘normal’ to more educated views.” (Mexican female)
“Most people think it is none civilized country.” (Saudi male)
2015 Study: Perception Changes1
19%
30%26%
16%9%
2013 Study
Knew nothing/littleof racism
Knew some, didn'taffect
Knew some,affected
Thought racism nolonger exists
Other/Unclear
2Students’ Knowledge of Race Relations
33%
33%
20%
15%
2015 Study
“…from media that showed everything is "peace". However, some of my
friends who had ever studied in U.S. told me that this is not true.”
(Taiwanese male)
“I knew… slavery and racism in the U.S. but thought that things had completely
turned around… a consulate officer told me that things were still not 100%
perfect… I freaked out a little.” (Cameroonian female)
22013 Study: Inaccurate Knowledge
22015 Study: Lack of Knowledge
“i was ignorant about it because i was so young. i was very innocent.”(Eritrean
male)
“racism used to exist before the Civil War… now everyone is treated as
equal.”(Colombian female)
“Americans were over racism. [with] immigrants from all over the world, I figured the only way they could live is by tolerating each other.”
(Ethiopian female)
“[acts of discrimination are] often invisible to the casual observer, and they are sometimes not even articulated as forms of oppression” (Eriksen,
1992)
Those who reported not
experiencing
discrimination were
unaware of racism or
knew little and did not
worry about it prior to
studying abroad.
“One can be oppressed unknowingly but
offense requires (logically or conceptually)
the awareness and acknowledgment of its
victim” (Gay, 1998)
2Importance of Accurate Knowledge
2013 Results
Discrimination By race By Language By Culture
YES 32 37 22
NO 18 10 18
Other 3 7 13
Did not answer 3 2 3
Race reported as
racism
Linguicism
reported as
racism
Neo-racism
reported as
racism
Unclear
16 8 10 8
47%reported linguistic
and/or cultural
discrimination as racism
2
Racism is used as an umbrella term for
any type of discrimination2
“my coworkers will mimick my accent (which I didnt think I have), in HS people would bash immigrantsunknowingly that I am an immigrant.”
(El Salvadorian female)
“I had a few guys who kept distant after learning I was gay. I have also
been asked about killing Jesus Christ. (I'm Jewish)” (Israeli male)
Discrimination By race By Language By Culture
YES 32 37 22
NO 18 10 18
Other 3 7 13
Did not answer 3 2 3
NO RACISM NO RACE,
LANGUAGE,
CULTURE
LANGUAGE
ONLY
CULTURE
ONLY
LANGUAGE
AND
CULTURE
18 4 5 2 7
14 (78%) experienced
differential treatment
based on language
and/or culture
Only 4 (7%)reported
experiencing
no differential
treatment
2013 Results2
Comparing Students’ Experiences
2013 Study
52 of 56 (93%) reported
differential treatment on the basis of race, language, and/or culture
Of those who reported NO differential treatment based on race:
78% DID report differential
treatment based on language and/or culture
2015 Study
30 of 40 (75%) reported
differential treatment on the basis of race, language, and/or culture
Of those who reported NO differential treatment based on race:
52% DID report differential
treatment based on language and/or culture
Challenges to Acceptance &
Intelligence3
“But the rest… look at us when we are talking in our own
language like we are so strange and unacceptable.” (Iranian
male)
“Every time… in a group project, I always had to prove my intelligence
to the other Americans. Even as a graduate student. Many other
international students… had the same experience.” (Barbadian female)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
White (n=8) Black (n=6) Asian (n=30) Latino (n=7) Middle East(n=4)
West Indian(n=1)
% Reported Discrimination by Race
Racial Linguistic Cultural Any
2013 Study3
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
White(n=9)
Black(n=6)
Asian (n=10) Latino(n=9)
Multiracial(n=3)
Other (n=2) MiddleEastern (n=1)
% Reported Discrimination by Race
Racial
Linguistic
Cultural
Any
2015 Study3
Visible Minorities Reported More3
“I have heard and witnessed many situations… Most of them are about the black people, Hispanic, and
Asians. But most of cases are black people.” (Vietnamese female)
“I didn't have any positive or negative experience. The main
reason because I am white girl and most at time people think that I am
American.” (Ukrainian female)
“Jokes about being asian.” (Thai female)
“Name callings, hiring process on campus,being scolded at the supermarket”
(Malaysian male)
“People calling me racist names a few times or people like me (from Hispanic/Latino
origin).” (Mexican female)
2013: 68% Non-acceptance by Race 3
“I never have been mistreated because of my race. I learned to express myself properly and whenever anybody has made an attempt to do so I put them
in its proper place.” (Nicaraguan male)
“I did not feel anything much different from people. Sometimes people would stare at me specially if I was wearing my cultural dress.”
(Pakistani male)
“NO AT ALL ,NEVER” (Moroccan student)
2015: 52% Acceptance by Race 3
People would not talk to me as often as with other local people. They might not
understand what I said sometimes. (Hong Kongese male)
“I have experienced a hidden racism… they have shown intolerance to my difficulties with the language even when they knew that I was
coming to study English. (Chilean male)
“…ask very rudely for me to repeat what I say like I'm speaking some alien language. Others seem to like my accent… Either way, I feel like an animal on display” (Cameroonian female)
2013: 84% Non-acceptance by
Language3
“Yes. Many time I experienced different treatment negative because American
English is not my first language.” (Mauritania female)
“I have negative experience with people who were not English native speaker, their would be more judgmental.”
(Lithuanian female)
“Also a stupid question. People tease the ones without fluent speaking. Certainly.
You will too.” (Chinese female)
2015: 68% Non-acceptance by
Language3
“In Russia women are not very emancipated, it makes me look like immature and [dependent] person in the US. Some people like it and think that it is charming, other think that it is ridiculous.” (Russian female)
“And they use to make fun of me because I use knife and fork to eat that. Sometimes one
person or another would talk about my clothes” (Brazilian female)
“People not wanting to shake your hand. People not wanting to sit next to you. And
people condemning our meals/foods.” (Nigerian female)
2013: 70% Non-acceptance by Culture3
“I am working with American people.They love my culture, speciality my
food.” (Peruvian female)
“Positive, since i tried to explain to people about where im from and
so on.”(Sudanese female)
“No, because I don't stand out culturally… slight differences between my cultural background and their's (and they're not even all that different).”
(Gabonese male)
2015: 52% Acceptance by Culture3
“they know I am not an native speaker, they don’t take my talking seriously… think like "oh they would not do anything good". They do not say
that, but I am sensitive enough to understand.” (Vietnamese female)
“I had a lady in the Student Accounting Department treat me like an idiot once I
started talking and she heard the accent. I was mad walked away…”(Barbadian female)
“I've been treated as if I was mentally incapacitated, I was made fun of both in a bad
and in a good way.” (Italian female)
2013 Challenges to Intelligence3
“I experienced a positive treatment becuasemy family and I got used the new culture
easily and there was no problem.” (Bolivian male)
“i never been in my religious place(Temple) and i don't celebrate my won festivals. It is impossible and will be, because of big fish always eat small fish.” (Nepalese male)
“Yes, by just living in different place I have to go with the culture of this place without forgetting my culture.” (Sudanese
male)
2015 References to Acculturation3
“[It’s hard in group discussions] the member might think I am an international student so I might not have a great answer to contribute
the assignment.” (Taiwanese female)
“In my English class we formed small groups to work… my group pretty much ignored me and any comments I had to make. I could see they thought
my input was valueless.” (Mexican female)
“people [in class] show surprise at my knowledge and experience with technology because they did not expect that we have ‘such things’. Americans
really think that life in my country is like living in hell.” (Nigerian female)
2013: Discrimination by Students4
“once (here, [Southern University]) a professor thought my Asian education
didn't work with her taste.” (Taiwanese female)
I got all As with one C, then I don't need to explain why I got that C in that class.
Racism is real…” (Chinese female)
Professors like those who talk fluently.... and they easily pass viva exams just because of that... But though we are good in subject...
we fail... This is not fair (Indian male)
2013 Discrimination by Professors4
“I only had one bad experience that was when I got a job at school and the person… asked my
boss: "are you sure you want to hire an international student?". (Brazilian female)
I attended a university in Mississippi and I believe that I wasn't given an assistantship because of my nationality. (Cameroonian
female)
“I couldn't get a proper on campus job due to this. It's a cliched mind that they have got thinking we
don't speak proper English and we are not so very good in getting things done.” (Indian male)
2013 Discrimination in Campus Jobs4
“difficult to communicate with Americans, who have never traveled, and… not interested in learning about different cultures. My first supervisor was like that
and our work relationship did not work well." (Ukrainian female)
“Yes [I experienced different treatment by culture] especially around work areas.”
(Ethiopian female)
“in my job… continue hearing ‘white manager is good than black manager’, ‘black employees are
lazy’, ‘the company will be out of business because there're a lot of black employees’ and so
on.” (Sudanese male)
2015 Discrimination in the Workplace4
IMPLICATIONS
Reform Student Orientations
Unmet expectations =
poorer adaptation & isolation
Realistic & social expectations
Pre-departure & on-arrival
Smith & Khawaja, 2011
Khawaja & Stallman, 2011
Ramburuth & Tani, 2009;
Ych & Inose 2003 as cited in
Nilsson Butler, Shouse & Chetan, 2008)
Designated Support Systems
Lee & Rice, 2007;
Ly, 2008;
Curran, 2003;
Smith & Khawaja, 2011;
Nilsson, Butler, Shouse & Chetan, 2008
Intercultural Communication
(Lee, 2007;
Charles-Toussaint & Crowson, 2010;
Hung & Hyun, 2010;
Nilsson, Butler, Shouse & Chetan, 2008;
Alfred, 2009)
Faculty
StudentsStaff
Incorporate Diversity & Intercultural
Issues in Curriculum
Materials on Race & Ethnicity
Counter Narratives
Anti-Racist PedagogySocially Responsible
Teaching
Change School Environment
(Glass, 2012;
Curran, 2003;
Briscoe, 2003 as cited in
Grant & Zwier, 2011)
Global Issues & Peace Content
(Swenson & Cline, 1993; Yoshimura, 1993 as cited in Kruger, 2012)
Examples
http://gameslearningsociety.org/
http://www.gamesforchange.org/play/
(Using Games to Bridge Social Responsibility & Language Learning, Fri 3:00-3:45 802A)
Limitations
Number of Participants
Number of Factors
Self-reported*
Follow-up Needed
*(Saperstein, 2006)
Summary
Environmental Differences
Seem to Be a Large Factor
Divergent foci of on-campus versus off-
campus
Majority Add Positive Views
References
Faez, F. (2012). Linguistic Identities and Experiences of 1.5 Generation Teacher Candidates: Race Matters.
TESL Canada Journal, 29(6), 124-141.
Glass, C. R. (2012). Educational experiences associated with international students' learning, development,
and positive perceptions of campus climate. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(3), 228-251.
doi: 10.1177/1028315311426783
Grant, C. A., & Zwier, E. (2011). Intersectionality and student outcomes: Sharpening the struggle against
racism, sexism, classism, ableism, heterosexism, nationalism, and linguistic, religious, and geographical
discrimination in teaching and learning. Multicultural Perspectives, 13(4), 181-188. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15210960.2011.616813
Han, H. (2014). “Westerners,” “Chinese,” and/or “Us”: Exploring the Intersections of Language, Race,
Religion, and Immigrantization. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 45(1), 54-70.
International student statistical report. (2012). Unpublished raw data, International Students & Scholar
Services, Retrieved from http://international.unt.edu/sites/default/files/advising/UNT-Statistical-Report-
Fall-2012.pdf
Kang, O., & Rubin, D. L. (2009). Reverse linguistic stereotyping: Measuring the effect of listener
expectations on speech evaluation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 28, 441-456.
Khawaja, N. G., & Stallman, H. M. (2011). Understanding the coping strategies of international students: A
qualitative approach. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 21(2), 203-224. doi:
10.1375/ajgc.21.2.203
Kruger, F. (2012). The role of TESOL in educating for peace. Journal of Peace Education, 9(1), 17-30.
Lawton, R. (2013). Speak English or Go Home: The Anti- Immigrant Discourse of the American ‘English Only’
Movement. Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis across Disciplines, 7(1), 100-122.
Lee, J. J. (2010). International students' experiences and attitudes at a us host institution: Self-reports
and future recommendations. Journal of Research in International Education, 9(1), 66-84. doi:
10.1177/1475240909356382
Lee, J. J., & Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? international student perceptions of discrimination.
Higher Education, 53, 381-409. doi: 10.1007/s10734-005-4508-3
Ly, P. (2008). Caught between two cultures. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 25(14), 24-25.
Mahboob, A., & Szenes, E. (2007). Linguicism And Racism In Assessment Practices In Higher Education.
Contact Info: References & Handout available at:
[email protected] http://www.slideshare.net/ElisabethChan
TESOL Diversity & Inclusion Committee
Co-chair, TESOL Social Responsibility Interest Section www.tinyurl.com/tesol-sris
That not all states
are equally
progressive when it
comes to matters
of race. I would
have liked to know
this before applying
to schools
US is good, US is
fun, but US can
also be very
lonely. And I
mean very, very
lonely.
I should have known
that all the
opportunities on
campus are given to
Americans and there is
no equal opportunity in
real. If I want some
hands on experience by
working on campus it is
very difficult.
I tried to read books
about US culture before
coming here, but to be
honest, I couldn't
understand it until I
experienced it. I wish I
just didn't take a lot of
things too personal.
It is important not to
judge the whole nation
by one unpleasant
person. I am for the
transparent media, but I
think sometimes in a
pursuit of sensation it
polarizes the country and
created disagreements
inside of the nation.
1+1=2 in math,
but white+ black
=1 at all
"Human". Thank
you.
Immigrant students are
an important because
they come from different
parts of the world and
have different knowledge
which we can learn from
each other. there should
be more opportunities to
make us succeed equally
not leaving us behind.
Either [Americans] have to
adapt to it or I have to
adapt to their likings,
after all, this is not my
country. I understand a lot
of international students
have trouble of surviving
in America because they
are reluctant to change.
But the experiences made
me grow up, hardened my
heart a little, and gave
me more confidence in
myself and to be proud of
my country. I do not
regret coming here. It
was a hard and lonely
road for 8 years.
Many new comer
don't know
language and
culture. They feels
discrimination only
because of lake of
their knowledge.
Thank you for
this chance
to share my
own
thoughts!!!!