critical appreciation for drama notes

7/22/2019 Critical Appreciation for Drama notes

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BIS3043 CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF DRAMA

DRAMA/PLAY

A drama is a story performed on stage for an audience although a genre called closet drama is meant to

be read only. A drama, like any other work of fiction, is usually a work of the imagination of the writer.

The writer of drama is called a playwright or dramatist. Nowadays, a playwright sometimes collaborates

with a director to produce the play on stage. And more often than not, the director will present the drama

on stage according to his understanding of its meanings and themes.

A drama is usually composed of acts and scenes although some drama may have only scenes.

Compared to Greek or Shakespearean drama, which use verse form, modern drama normally uses

prose. Some of the main genres of drama are tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy, farce, dark comedy,history, musical and documentary drama.

Helmer and Nora arguing inA Dolls House

The play A Dolls Houseby Henrik Ibsen is a realist drama. What this means is that, among others,

the play is written in prose instead of in verse, the characters involve common people instead of the

nobility and issues presented are more everyday instead of the higher concerns such as the issues of


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human destiny and purpose of existence.

DRAMA SUBGENRES AND PERFORMANCE SPACE

INTRODUCTION

When we talk about drama or play we always associate the art with what we understand the drama as is

shown on television or the theatre. We know that the actors on stage perform fictionalisation of ideas or

issues or, at other times, a dramatisation of real events. Drama was supposed to tell a story through play

acting and normally there are messages presented through the themes of the drama. It is only partly the

real story.

In fact, drama had not begun as the generalised fictionalisation of human conflicts and concerns. It

has a long tradition and history and at the beginning it was more theological than secular. What this means

is that early Western drama was performed as part of religious activities in worshipping the gods. Initially

Western drama was performed in order to reflect religious beliefs and values. In Greece, as the cradle of

Western civilisation, drama started as a performance to worship Dionysius, the Greek god of wine and

fertility. The annual event was staged in the hope of receiving the gods favour and avoiding his

displeasure. But what started as religious rituals eventually evolved into dramatic performance for

entertainment and leisure as we understand it today. Since then drama has come a long way to represent

all issues affecting all walks of life of human society.

CONTENT

Possible Origins of Drama

It is difficult to know how drama developed into part of human cultural activities. Therefore, we can only

speculate how it became part of our artistic culture. Basically, there are three theories about the origin ofdrama.

The first theory proposes that drama or theatre came into being due to early humans perceptions

of the forces that appear to influence or control their lives. Having little understanding of natural causes,

they attributed natural events that affected them to supernatural or magical forces. They began to perform


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rituals to see if the actions would affect natural events. Perceiving a connection between these actions and

the results they wanted, the group began to perform these actions into rituals. Ultimately, rituals also

include elements that entertain and give pleasure through performance and the skill of the participants.

As people become more knowledgeable, their conception of supernatural forces and causal

relationships may change. As a result they may modify or abandon some rites. But the myths that have

grown up around the rites may continue as part of the groups oral tradition. When this occurs, the first step

has been taken toward theatre as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic

values may gradually replace the former mystical concerns.

Natural phenomena such as storms and tsunamis are fearsome to humans and, therefore, need to be

appeased.

The second theory of the origin of theatre is that it came about through the activity of storytelling. Under this

theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus the recalling of a

significant event such as a hunt, a battle or other meritorious feats was elaborated through the narrators

pantomime and eventually through each role being played by a different person. Thus, so this theory

proposes, the theatre is borne.

The last theory proposes that the theatre evolved out of imitations of animals or out of narrative

forms of dances and songs. Admiration for the performers skills, talent and grace was seen as motivation

for elaborating the activities into fully realised theatrical performances.


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Which of the theory above do you feel best explains the early development of drama? Give your

reason.

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Play, Drama and Theatre

What are the differences between a play, drama and theatre? To a beginner these three terms can be

confusing. When is a drama a play and when is it a theatre?

The word drama is more limited in meaning. Drama comes from the Greek word dran, meaning to

do. In our context, drama refers mainly to written words of a play whether acted or merely read. Drama is a

form of literary composition where actors take the role of characters, perform the actions indicated, and

utter the written dialogue.

A play, on the other hand, is the physical realisation of the drama. A play, by definition is an event

or an action. It is actually what happens on a stage. It involves characters, conflicts, settings, sounds, music

emotion and passion. It is an interaction between all these elements and the audience.

The word theatre comes from the Greek theatron, meaning seeing place. Our modern definition

of theatre may vary, but in terms of performative art, theatre refers to the building or space where a play is

performed. But it is not only that. When we say theatre, the word also refers to all activities related to a

dramatic performance. Therefore, the theatre covers elements such as architecture, setting and acting.


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The Development of Drama into Theatrical Performance

A play is also an imitation of a slice of life. What is presented on stage as conflicts brings out

human problems that are somehow related to our struggles in life. The themes presented or the problems

probed make us reflect on our own conditions as we grapple with our existence.

There are many dramas that have been performed on stage. Have you

read and watch the same drama/play? Are there differences in your experiences between

reading a drama and watching it performed? What are the differences? Explain to a friend next

to you.

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drama theatre play


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Types of Drama

Like any other literary productions such as the novels or films, we can also classify plays based on certain

subgenres or types.

Types of Drama

A tragedyis a play that deals with serious human issues such as suffering, downfall and more often than

not, death. It normally involves the fall from grace of the main protagonist who, in classical tragedy, must be

of noble birth. Tragedy brings out pity and fear in the audience as it shows how weak we are as mere

mortals in the face of a greater power that determines our fate. Oedipus Rexby Sophocles is acclaimed by

Aristotle as the perfect tragedy. You will read more about this play in the following chapter.

DRAMA

Tragedy

Comedy

Melo-

drama

Farce

Tragi-

comedyDark

Comedy

History

Docu-

mentary

Musical

Social


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Aristotle in his literary text, Poetics, regarded Oedipus Rexas the perfect tragedy

However, the concept of tragedy has changed over time. Starting with Henrik Ibsen, who is considered the

father of modern drama, tragedy can also include the downfall of a common man or woman. His famous

play, A Dolls House, is a modern tragedy that explores the unequal husband-wife relationship. On a

broader thematic sense, Ibsen portrays the unfair treatment of women by men in nineteenth-century

European culture. Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman is another good example of a modern tragedy. The

play revolves around the crumbling world of an aged travelling salesman named Willy Loman that ends with

his eventual suicide. The two modern tragedies are a far cry from classical tragedies that focus on

characters of noble or aristocratic birth.

A comedy is the opposite of tragedy. A tragedy begins with the elevation of the protagonist to a

higher social or moral status and ends with his or her downfall. A comedy, on the other hand, begins with

confusions and conflicts and ends happily with the resolution of the confusions and conflicts, and is usually

followed with a marriage or marriages. As a subgenre it is less emotive and intense in theme since a

comedy does not attempt to evoke a deep sense of pity and terror but more to elicit laughter than shock.

The Taming of the Shrewby Shakespeare is an example of comedy. It tells of Katharina who is shrewish in

nature so much so that no man wants to take her as wife. Baptista the father announces that his younger

daughter, Bianca, will not be wooed until her elder sister is married. Eventually Petruchio manages to

tame Kate to be a submissive wife. Therefore, the drama ends happily when everything goes back to

normal as Katharina and Bianca are married.


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The Taming of the Shrew

A melodrama is a serious play with unimportant theme. The protagonists are more likeable than

heroic and the villains are too obvious in their wickedness. In terms of messages and themes melodrama

presents to the audience a simplified version of life of good versus evil and good against bad. It seldom

delves into the more complex human issues as in a tragedy and a play of this genre normally ends

pleasantly. Intellectually a melodrama is empty but it is compensated by pleasurable and amusing endings.

A farceis a comical and humorous play on a trivial theme. The most common plots of a farce will

be mistaken identity, illicit romance and elaborate misunderstandings. Identical twins, lovers in closets, full

stage chases, switched potions, switched costumes (often involving man and woman), and misheard

instructions are the often used methods to produce outrageous situations and uproarious response from

the audience. The Bear by Anton Chekov is an example of a farce. It is about a young widow named

Popova who vowed never to marry again after the death of her husband. One day a man named Smirnov

comes to collect his debt from her late husband. After some quarrel between them that leads to an eventualduel Smirnov and Popova ends the play with them kissing each other. It is an amusing play with the

insignificant theme of love to break mans (and womans) resistance to it.


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Tragicomedy is often called a tragedy that ends happily. As a subgenre it attempts to bridge

between tragedy and comedy. Tragicomedy maintains the serious mood and tone throughout the play but it

always ends happily.

Dark comedy is the opposite of tragicomedy. If tragicomedy ends happily, dark comedy is a

comedy that ends tragically.

The historyplay deals with dramatisation of historical personalities and the events that surround

their lives. As a subgenre it was established by William Shakespeare. Shakespearean history plays

normally deal with English kings especially from 1377 to 1547 such as kings Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V,

Henry IV, Richard III, and Henry VIII. Most of these plays maintain a serious tone but with sprinklings of

humour thrown in.

Richard ll by William Shakespeare

The documentarygenre is a fairly recent subgenre. In such plays plots are taken from trial transcripts, news

reports, personal and official records. These materials are then brought on stage to highlight particular

issues and points of view.


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The musicalplay, as its name implies, relies on extensive use of music and songs. Usually the

musical aspect is combined with another genre to create musical comedy, a musical documentary or a

musical history.

The famous Broadway musical cats. It was the second longest running show that ran from 1982-2000.

Social dramas, sometimes called problem plays, evolved in the nineteenth century and dominated

the stage through the early part of the twentieth century. This type of drama explores social problems and

the individuals place in society; the plays can be tragic, comic or mixed. Examples of social drama are

Susan Glaspells Trifles, Arthur Millers Death of a Salesmanand Henrik IbsensA Dolls House.


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PERFORMANCE SPACES

There are many different types of performance spaces. This section looks more closely at the more

common stages and types of production within them.

Different types of performance spaces

The Amphitheatres

Amphitheatres were of Greek origin and were slightly modified by the Romans. These theatres normally

accommodate a large number of audiences for large scale productions. Plays that are full of ceremony and

movement are suitable for these theatres.

Ampitheatres

Open stage

Theatre in-the-round/arenas

Thrust stage

Proscenium arch theatre


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The Amphitheatres

The Proscenium Arch Theatre

This type of theatre is the most recognisable form of dramatic performance space. The proscenium is a

space in front of the back scenery. The word proscenium now means the front opening of the stage and the

area around it.

The arch is the frame surrounding the front of the stage. It is normally constructed as a permanent

structure. The impression this type of theatre gives is that the audience is watching the play through a

picture frame.

The Proscenium Arch Theatre


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The Open stage

The open stage has the audience facing the stage whereby the stage is at one end of the building. Modern

and school theatres are open or a mix between this and proscenium. The advantage of these theatres is

that they suit many kinds of production with their simplicity in conceptual framework.

The Open Stage

The Thrust stage

This type of stage has a raised platform that thrusts out into the audience, who sits on all three sides. This

theatrical set-up allows for excellent actor-audience contact and which draws in the audience into the

action.


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The Thrust Stage

Theatre in-the-round/arenas

In this form of theatre the audience is not necessarily seated in a circle; it could be seated in a square, for

example. However, as the name implies, it does surround the acting space. This form of theatre is ideal for

close, intimate contact with the audience without requiring much setting or scenery preparations.

The Theatre in-the-round/arenas


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UNDERSTANDING DRAMA

Drama and fiction are different. Undoubtedly, the best way to understand and appreciate a drama is to

watch it performed on stage. Watching a life performance and reading a drama are two different

experiences. In a theatre performance there is a close relationship between audience and actors. What is

more important is that there is no narrator to direct our understanding of the drama. Instead, the audience

has to observe and come to his own conclusion about what is presented on stage. Therefore, it is very

important that you, as a student studying drama, know some of the technical aspects and conventions of a

play presentation.

Performing a Play

The play you read is only the first half of understanding and appreciating the drama. The written text is

merely a blueprint for the performance before an audience. The second half of appreciating a drama is to

see it performed on stage. When you begin reading a drama you are also asked to think like a director.

Unlike a novel that provides the reader with detailed explanation of plot, settings and characters, a drama

only provides him with dialogues and stage directions. The reader, thus, has to imagine the stage, settings,

costumes, lighting, actors and their voices and movements. For example, when the text says:

Mrs Linde (in a dispirited and somewhat hesitant voice): Hello, Nora

Nora (uncertain): Hello

the reader has to imagine the line being spoken by the characters as the bracketed stage directions

instruct. As the reader continues reading he will build up a more complete picture of the play derived from

how he imagined the scene should be played out. Therefore, it is necessary for the reader to understand

some of the conventions and technical aspects of a dramatic performance.


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A play is a performance art. Unlike a written text, the audience has to make his own assumptions based on

what he sees

Verse and Prose

A play may be written in verse or in prose. What do they mean? Verse writing tends to be more poetic. On

the other hand prose writing is more colloquial, which means that it is used more frequently by the common

folks as opposed to the nobility. The use of verse writing is much more evident in earlier plays. Modern

plays, more often than not, use prose writing.

In Shakespearean plays, verse is spoken by more noble and serious characters and prose by

commoners or low characters. Compare Macbeths soliloquy in Act 2, Scene 1 with the porters dialogue in

Act 2, Scene 3.

Macbeth:

Is this a dagger which I see before me,

The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee.

I have thee not, and yet I see thee still.

Art thou not,fatalvision,sensible

To feeling as to sight? or art thou but

A dagger of the mind, a false creation,

Proceeding from theheat-oppressed brain?
http://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/fatal.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/fatal.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/fatal.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/sensible.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/sensible.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/sensible.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/heat.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/heat.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/heat.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/sensible.htmlhttp://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/macbeth/soliloquies/fatal.html


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(2.1.52)

Porter:

Marry, sir, nose- painting, sleep, and urine.

Lechery, sir, it provokes and unprovokes; it provokes

the desire, but it takes away the performance. Therefore,

much drink may be sai to be an equivocator with

lechery:

(2.3.54)

Acts and Scenes

Plays are usually divided into acts and scenes. During Shakespeares time plays are divided into five acts

with several scenes in each act. Later on, plays had three acts and some contemporary plays do not have

acts, but mere successive scenes. A Dolls House is a play with three acts.

A scene is understood to define an action at a particular place and time. The scene ends and another

begins to indicate the shift in time and place mentioned.

Stage Directions

A written drama has only the dialogues and stage directions. The stage directions are very important

because they tell how various aspects of the play should appear- how the characters should look and

sound, the place of the action, the time of the action, the weather or any other thing that the dramatist feels

are necessary to the understanding of the play. Some playwrights give brief stage directions while others

may provide detailed descriptions.


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The Stage

You have been introduced to different types of stages where a play can be performed. Understandably,

some plays are more suitable to some types of plays. Shakespearean plays were normally staged on the

thrust stage with the stage protruding towards the audience, allowing for audiences to sit around three

sides of the stage. This type of stage brings the audience closer to the actors. However, this kind of stage

allows for minimal settings, if at all. Therefore, dialogues are very important to indicate aspects that settings

could not provide. Since all of Shakespearean plays were stage during the day, for a night scene an actor

has to mention that it is night.

The proscenium stage is commonly found in contemporary theatre. As technology becomes more

sophisticated, proscenium stage allows for these modern gadgets to be used to their full advantage.

The Setting

If you wish to stage a play you must pay attention to the setting. Of course, minimal stage directions allow

you to be more imaginative on how to design the setting. Detailed stage directions, however, minimise your

ability to be imaginative but they provide precise settings the way the dramatist wishes them to be.

Setting can be minimal or it can be spectacular. Most often it is the directors imagination that creates the

setting especially with a play that provides minimal stage directions.


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Costume

Costumes also play a very important function in a play. Costume may indicate the time period of the drama,

social class or personality of characters. Oedipus in Oedipus Rexwill be suitably attired in kingly fashion

that is different from his lesser subordinates and subjects. The costumes worn by the characters on stage

also tell us of the time period and country of origin of the drama. Similarly, a playboy will wear his attire

differently from a businessman, a farmer or a beggar.

A dramatist may be precise in his descriptions of what each character wears or he may not indicate

detailed descriptions of what the characters should wear. Under this circumstance you should try to fulfil the

spirit of the dramatists instructions and have the actors give the correct impression.

A scene from the play The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde. The costume indicates the

characters as being from the middle-class Victorian society


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Movement

In a play each character should move appropriately to the role given to him. Characters with power, such

as kings or overbearing husbands, may move with certain confidence and arrogance. An old tramp may

move with certain clumsiness and a worried father may walk with a particular haste and alacrity.

Movement, or positioning of characters, may indicate relationships too. A king heads a procession and

his seat is raised on a dais with his subjects standing humbly around him. A crowd on one side and a

solitary man on the other may indicate a conflict between these two sides. Every movement and every

grouping presented on stage gives some meaning to the audience. It is up to you to interpret their

meanings.

Lighting

Stage lighting can also be a useful tool in a play. Lighting can be used realistically or metaphorically.

Realistically, light can be dimmed or brightened to suit the time of day. A dimmed lighting may indicate

night time and a brightened lighting can imply the day time. In Waiting for Godotby Samuel Beckett, the

night settings may indicate the dilemma and uncertainty faced by the two tramps over the existence of

Godot. Similarly, a modern director may want to play with red lighting and darkness to indicate the dark

themes of Shakespeares Macbeth.

Sound Effects

Sound effects may be used realistically or metaphorically to enhance the audiences understanding of

scenes in the play. The screeching sound of a car may indicate Willy Lomans last moment in life as he

crashes his car or the sound of clashing swords may indicate a battle. Metaphorically, the rumbling sound

of thunder may imply troubles that a character may soon face or the chirping of a bird may indicate N oras

condition in her relationship with her husband, Helmer in A Dolls House.


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ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

INTRODUCTION

Drama, as a literary production, is quite unique. It is written to be performed on stage. There are plays that

are meant to be read only but most playwrights write their drama for the enjoyment of a live audience.Because of this unique characteristic, students wanting to learn about drama must understand its elements

and conventions. Some of the elements of drama are familiar to students because these elements overlap

with other literary genres such as diction, symbolism and plot. But there are also other differences that

separate drama from other forms of literature. For example, the audience must determine the personality of

a character by watching how he plays the role in the drama and by comments by other characters. This is

very different from fiction, for example, because the narrator will normally describe the character for the

reader. In this unit, you will learn about the many elements of drama and some of the similarities and

differences with other forms of literature.

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

Similar to prose and poetry, there are many elements of drama.

dramaplot

character

point of

view

setting diction

tone

symbolism

theme


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Elements of drama

Plot

The Plot Structure of Drama

Like any other literary genres a drama consists of a structured sequence of particular elements. Basically a

drama follows four standard dramatic sections.

Climax

Rising action Falling action

Exposition Denouement

Figure 1.8 Freytags Pyramid of Plot Structure

The Exposition: The exposition introduces important early information about the play where characters,

situations and conflicts are introduced. In Oedipus Rex, we are introduced to Oedipus the King and the

crisis faced by the city of Thebes in the form of the plague. We are also introduced to some of the major

characters such as Jocasta, Creon and Tiresias.

The Rising Action/Conflict/Complication: In this stage conflicts are beginning to develop. Conflicts can

be internal and/or external. Internal conflicts occur within a character. In Macbeth, Macbeth is torn between

his guilty conscience of the killings that he committed and the need to preserve himself from his enemies.

On the other hand, external conflicts happen between a character and outside forces. These forces may be

another character (protagonist), a society, fate or against natural forces such as a storm or an earthquake.


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In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus is in conflict with Creon and Tiresias whom he accuses as trying to usurp the

throne.

The Climax: Conflicts or complications in a drama cannot remain unresolved. As the conflict heats up it will

reach a climax when something occurs that sets the turning point to the conflicts or complications. In

Macbeth the climax is when Macbeth murders King Duncan after which he will have to face the

consequences of his deed. In Oedipus Rex, the play reaches its climax when Oedipus realises that he had

inadvertently committed the two sins as prophesied by the Oracle of Apollo.

The Falling Action: The falling action stage happens after the climax when the following events are set to

reach the resolution or denouement. Again by using Macbeth as an example, falling action is when

Macbeth tries to forestall the witches prophecies by killing those he feels threaten his kingship. The

realisation of the prophecies also forms part of the falling action in the drama. In Oedipus Rex, the falling

action reaches its conclusion with Jocasta hanging herself and Oedipus stabbing his own eyes with

Jocastas brooch.

The Denouement: In this stage the conflicts are resolved and life goes back as normal. With reference to

the same drama Macbeth, the denouement would be the death of Macbeth at the hands of Macduff and

Malcolm is installed as the new king of Scotland. In Oedipus Rex, the denouement is when Oedipus is

exiled and the city returns to normal.


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Character

A character in a play is the actor who is given the role to imspeakerte the fictional figure of the drama. The

actor who acts as the character will perform the actions and dialogues, and display emotions of the given

dramatic character. A character in a drama, like a fictional character in prose, may be human or nonhuman.

There are two types of characters- round characters and flat characters. Round characters are fully

developed and they normally undergo some change in the course of the play. Basically, the audience is

given more elaborate descriptions of round characters than flat characters. Round characters are usually

the major characters and flat characters play minor roles in the drama. Since round characters play major

roles, the central plot and events of the play normally revolves around them. Flat characters, on the other

hands, serve as additional characters to sustain the plot of the play. They are normally static- that is these

characters do not undergo any changes throughout the course of the play.

A drama always has conflicts within the plot. The conflicts are usually between a protagonist and

antagonist. A protagonist is the main character of the drama and the antagonist is the character who is

opposed to the protagonist. Although a protagonist is sometimes called a hero, he or she may not have the

necessary characteristics to be described as a hero. In Death of a Salesman, the protagonist of the play is

Willy Loman but he lacks the heroic characteristics necessary to be deemed a hero. Similarly, the main

character Macbeth in Shakespeares Macbethis a protagonist who is a traitorous villain. Another dramatic

character is a foil. A foil serves to contrast with the protagonist in terms of behaviour and attitudes. In

Macbeth, Macduff functions as a foil to Macbeth in his loyal and heroic qualities to the traitorous Macbeth.


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Basic Types of Character

Point of View

Unlike prose fiction and poetry, drama does not have a specific point of view. Therefore, what we have

learnt about first-person or third-person point of view does not apply to drama. Instead, it has what is called

dramatic point of view. In drama, the audience (or reader) is given only actions and words of characters

without any particular perspectives given by the playwright. Therefore, the audience has to draw his own

conclusion based on the points of view of the many characters in the play.

However within the dramatic limitation above, characters (heroes or villains alike) do have the

opportunity to present their specific perspectives. The first is by the use of soliloquy, a device whereby a

character reveals his or her thoughts directly to the audience. One of the most famous soliloquies is

Hamlets To Be or Not to Be, a monologue about a decision he should make in the face of the apparentimmorality that surrounds him. Usually, there will be only the character on stage to tell the audience what

his thoughts and feelings are. Another similar device is aside, a brief remark made by a character to the

audience with the understanding that other characters on stage do not hear his thoughts.

CHARACTER

FOIL

ANTAGONISTPROTAGONIST


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Setting

Setting in drama or play functions to indicate the specific time and place of events. For example, the play

Hang Jebat: The Death of a Warriorby Usman Awang has its setting in and around the fifteenth-century

Malacca palace. This setting tells us that the play was set at an era of the glorious Malacca sultanate. But

the same setting also gives the reader the context from which the play is written. During those days the

sultan had full power over his subjects and to disobey him, let alone to dishonour him, would mean certain

death.

Setting can also help to create a suitable mood for the play. A dark and sombre background may

indicate a sense of foreboding or evil of a particular scene in a play. In Macbeth, the appearance of the

three witches in a dark and gloomy weather suggests the sinister nature of their meeting.

Setting can be realistic or non-realistic. A realistic drama or play will pay attention to details in how

the stage is set. This is in order to produce an actual real life setting. The drama Triflesby Susan Glaspell

is one example of a drama that attempts to produce a realistic setting for the play. Unlike realistic setting, a

non-realistic setting is more symbolical or representational. It pays less attention to real life details than to

the meaning behind such setting. In Waiting for Godotby Samuel Beckett, the only conspicuous details are

a tree with two leaves and a mound. Similarly, in The Sandboxby Edward Albee the setting consists of a

few chairs and a sandbox. In these two plays the sense of realism is less important than the symbol that

the settings represent.


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Different types of setting

Thinking about drama:

Read the setting of the play Waiting for Godotby Samuel Beckett and determine whether the

setting is realistic or non-realistic. What do you think is the significance of the setting to the

theme of the play?

SETTING UNREALISTICREALISTIC

A country road. A tree.

Evening.


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Exercise 2

And now read the setting from Trifles by Susan Glaspell. Is the setting realistic or non-

realistic? Discuss within your group the significance of the setting to the theme of the play.

Compare the effects of the two settings on your expectations of the plays.

The setting of Waiting for Godotby Samuel

Beckett

The setting of Trifles by Susan Glaspell

SCENE: The kitchen in the now abandoned farmhouse of John Wright, a gloomy kitchen, and

left without having been put in order unwashed pans under the sink, a loaf of bread

outside the breadbox, a dish towel on the table other signs on incompleted work. At the

rear the outer door opens and the Sheriff comes in followed by the County Attorney and

Hale. The Sheriff and Hale are men in middle life, the County Attorney is a young man.; all

are much bundled up and go at once to the stove. They are followed by the two women- the

Sheriffs wife first; she is a slight wiry woman, a thin nervous face. Mrs. Hale is larger and

would ordinarily be called more comfortable looking, but she is disturbed now and looks

fearfully about as she enters. The women have come slowly, and stand close together near

the door


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Diction

Play and drama are basically about words. These words carry the meaning of the play and drama as they

are spoken by characters or as the reader read the printed text. The diction of drama can be formal or

informal, rich in details or in can be simple in factual information. For example, the play Oedipus Rexby

Sophocles is very formal in sentence structure and word choice . TheDeath of Salesmanby Arthur Miller,

on the other hand, is very colloquial.

Playwrights must choose their words carefully. First of all, the words used should be suitable to the time,

place and even characters. Playwrights also use rhetorical devices to project emotions and themes of their

drama or play. In drama, as in prose or poetry, words can have many layers of meaning. A doll in A Dolls

House is both physical and symbolical. Symbolically, it tells of Noras circumstance of living with her

husband, Helmer.

Tone

Tone relates to mood and attitude. In our everyday lives we understand the mood and attitude of someone

by the tone of his or her voice. A pleased teacher and an angry mother use different tones of voice to show

their moods and feelings. It is similar to drama (or prose and poetry). A playwright conveys his attitude to

certain issues by way of the tone of his literary work. In Jebat: The Death of a Warrior the playwright

informs the reader/audience of his notion of the idea of loyalty in the dialogue between Jebat and Tuah

while they duel to the death. The tone of this play is of sadness and also sympathy for natural justice and

anger at the abuse of power. However, the reader or audience should be aware of the difference between

the tone of individual characters and that of the play as a whole. Jebat and Tuah may project different tones

in their viewpoints on justice and loyalty. The tone of a play is derived from our overall understanding of the

play and the feeling it impresses on our sensitivity, whether sad, cynical, tragic, reflective or resentment.

And by that definition tone in literature can be endless.


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The different shades of tone

Symbolism

Symbols are one of the most usual literary devices used in drama (as well as prose and poetry). A symbol

in a literary text goes beyond its natural meaning into ideas beyond it. Symbols can be in many forms-objects, persons, settings, actions, or even situations. There are two types of symbols- universal symbols

and private symbols. Universal symbols are those representing ideas that are collectively accepted by the

audience or general reading public. A rose is universally accepted as representing love and dove as a

symbol of peace. The same rule applies to darkness, a scale, a lion or a crown (respectively signifying

ignorance/evil, justice, courage and monarchy). Private symbols derive their meanings within the context of

the drama or play only. The dead bird in Trifles is not merely a dead bird but it signifies the oppressive

marital state of Mrs. Wright. Similarly, in The Death of a Salesman, Willy Loman symbolises the illusory

nature of the American Dream.

tonedisgusted

romantic

sympa-

thetic

scornful

wistfulmelan-

choly

ironic

playful

joyful


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These are universal symbols. What do you think are their meanings? Can they have more than one

universal meaning?

_________________ _________________ _________________

_________________ _________________ _________________

Can you think of other universal symbols that are commonly used? List out as many universal symbols

as possible in five minutes. Compare your symbols with your friends. Are there symbols that your

friends do not recognise?


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List out your universal symbolisms here

SYMBOLS MEANINGS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.7.

8.

9.

10.


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Theme

When a playwright puts pen to paper he already has an issue which he wishes to express in his play. It is

normally an issue related to the society the playwright lives in. He could be endorsing or criticising the issue

involved. The issue could be about womens fight to gain equal rights with men as in A Dolls House, mans

powerlessness against fate in Oedipus Rexor the sense of purposelessness of human existence in Waiting

for Godot. These are the themes of the plays.

Playwrights do not normally state the theme(s) of their play. This issue that the playwright wishes

to highlight is weaved into the plot to become the theme of the play. As a reader/audience we are expected

to recognise the main theme of the play. However, a play or drama does not usually have a single theme.

Within the main theme there could be several minor themes embedded in the play or drama. Therefore,

while the main theme may be obvious to the audience or reader, other minor themes are dependent on the

ability of the audience or reader to perceive them.


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UNDERSTANDING DRAMA THROUGH TEXTS

INTRODUCTION

The previous unit introduces students to some of the basic facts about drama. This and the following units

will try to explain the elements of drama based on the play Oedipus Rex by the Athenian playwright

Sophocles. This play is chosen for three main reasons. Firstly, it is acknowledged as a tragedy of enduring

quality that is still studied and performed. The play also exhibits universal values that even Malaysian

students can relate to. Secondly, the drama is quite short and can be read in a single sitting. It is, therefore,

not a burden for students to read. Lastly, it is not difficult to understand the play and its underlying theme.

Therefore, students will find it accessible as well as engaging. However, students are advised to read the

play in The Bedford Introduction to Literature given in the module which is easier to understand and

appreciate.

In this unit we will analyse some of the elements of drama based on the play Oedipus Rex. However, it is

important that students read the drama before they continue. Students will also be asked to analyse the

playA Dolls Houseby Henrik Ibsen as a form of analytical exercise.


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CONTENT

Plot, Action and Conflict in Oedipus Rex

Like any typical prose or drama, the play Oedipus Rexalso follows Freytags plot structure. This means

that the play follows the five basic plot developments of exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and

denouement. Here, we will try to explain the plot structure of Oedipus Rexso that students can get some

understanding of how the structure functions.

Climax(Oedipus knows the truth)

Rising action Falling action(Oedipus blinds himself)

(conflicts between Oedipus/Tiresias,

Oedipus/Creon, Oedipus/Jocasta)

Exposition Denouement(Oedipus exiled from Thebes)

(characters and circumstances

in Thebes introduced)

Exposition:

In exposition the reader is introduced to the main characters, circumstances and conflicts that they face. In

Oedipus Rex, the reader is presented with the characters Oedipus, Creon, Tiresias, Jocasta, and other

minor characters. Oedipus is portrayed as a caring king who wishes to find the solution to the misery of his

city-state. It appears that the city-state has been ravaged by a plague. Oedipus has sent his brother-in-law

Creon to the temple of Delphi to seek the answer to the cause of the plague. Creon comes back to tell

Oedipus that the plague is because the murderer of Laius, the previous king, has not been brought to

justice and the only way to rid of it is to bring the perpetrator to justice. Hearing this, Oedipus resolves to

find and punish the murderer of Laius.


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Rising action:

At this stage, conflicts begin to take shape. We must understand that conflicts can happen between

characters, between a character and other elements or even within a particular character. There are many

types of conflict in this play. For example, it is a conflict between characters (Oedipus/Tiresias,

Oedipus/Creon, and Oedipus/Jocasta). In the broader picture there is also a conflict between a character

and supernatural forces (Oedipus/Fate).

One of the most significant conflicts between characters is between Oedipus and the blind prophet,

Tiresias. Their conflict begins when Tiresias refuses to tell Oedipus the answer that could lead to Laiuss

murderer. Moreover, Tiresias advises Oedipus not to pursue the matter further. This enrages Oedipus who

accuses Tiresias of conspiring with Creon to undermine his kingship.

Climax:

The conflicts that are described above will eventually lead to a climax as a way to resolve all the conflicts.

In Oedipus Rexthe climax is when Oedipus realises the sins that he has inadvertently committed. He now

realises that all the prophesies have come true- he has killed his father and married his own mother.

Falling action:

After the climax, the plot will go downhill as conflicts are disentangled to be eventually resolved. Falling

action in this play is when Oedipus laments his fate and as an act of redemption blinds his eyes with the

pins taken from his dead mother/wifes dress.

Denouement:

This last part of the plot serves as a closure to the play. As a form of further self-punishment Oedipus asks

to be exiled from Thebes. His exile brings things back to normal in the city-state.

The play fulfils neatly all the constructs of the plot structure indicated in Freytags model. Ho wever, a play

does not clearly indicate where the structure is separated. What we have given above as example is our

view of the plot structure of the play. When students begin to read this play (and any other plays or prose)

they have to find out for themselves the formation of the plot structure. This is where students ability to

recognise literary elements is tested.


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Setting in Oedipus Rex

Oedipus Rex is a Greek drama that goes back to the earliest period of Western stage performance. In one

version the drama opens with time and scene described as below:

This description of the setting contextualises the play to a specific time and space. The scene is outside the

main gate of the royal house of Thebes. It provides the reader with a wealth of background information.

Previously it was terrorised by the Sphinx but Oedipus managed to save the city-state from furthering

suffering by the Sphinx. But from the description we also know that the city is currently suffering from a

plague the cause of which baffles the citizens. Therefore, the people slowly marches to the palace to seek

protection and guidance form Oedipus, the king who had saved them once.

There is also information that we can deduce from the setting. It tells us of some of the beliefs of that

society. For example, the citizens of Thebes still believed in the supernatural forces that could affect their

immediate wellbeing. It is their belief that the plague is caused by a wrongdoing committed by an unknown

perpetrator who is yet to face justice. Therefore, the setting plays the role of contextualising the play within

a world where gods and humans are closely bound to an extent that a displeased god could inflict

immediate misery to humans.

The explanation above shows how important setting is in providing information in order for the reader to

contextualise the play. Once we understand the background setting it is easier for us to analyse the play.

Time and Scene:

The royal house of Thebes. Double doors dominate the facade; a stone

altar stands at the centre of the stage.

Many years have passed since Oedipus solved the riddle of the

Sphinx and ascended the throne of Thebes, and now a plague struck the

city. A procession of priests enters; suppliants, broken and despondent,

they carry branches wound in wool and lay them on the altar.

The doors open. Guards assemble. Oedipus comes forward, majestic

but for a telltale limp, and slowly views the condition of his people.


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The setting forA Dolls Houseis late 1800s Norway (the play is published in 1879). What

does it tell you about women of that era?

___________________________________________________________________________

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Character in Oedipus Rex

There are major as well as minor characters in the play. In this section we will discuss some of the major

characters based on our understanding of the play. Remember that in drama a playwright does not provide

his opinion of characters. Whatever we understand of characters is through their actions and opinion about

them by other characters. We as reader/audience make deductions based on these two sources.

Character and characterisation depends on audiences perception. A playwright may want to

project his ideas of characters in their characterisations but eventually it is the audience, based on her life

experience, to decide the nature of the characters speakerlities. For example, one audience may feel that

Jocasta is a heartless mother who gives away her son to be abandoned Mount Cithaeron. Another

audience may decide that she is merely a victim of circumstance in a culture still steep in superstitious

beliefs and the power of supernatural forces. As a student, you should not merely parrot what other critics

say about each of the characters in a play. Instead, you should draw on your own life experience to

determine the qualities, be they good or bad, of the characters.

Below are the attributes of some of the major characters in Oedipus Rex. You may or may not

agree to these interpretations. However, as a literature student your argument must be supported by a

close analysis of the play. What this means is that you should be able to identify the lines from the play that

support your argument about characters (or any other argument related to the play).


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Oedipus

In this play we can perceive how in the early part of the play the playwright paints a positive view of

Oedipus. As early as the beginning of the play the reader is presented with a compassionate nature of the

Theban king.

This extract reveals the softer side of Oedipus character. As a king he is wise and just. Oedipus is also

shown as a compassionate ruler who is willing to speakerlly hear about the misery that befalls his subjects.

In this instance, the reader is introduced to Oedipus characteristics by way of his words and actions.

Oedipus is also persistent in his effort at finding the truth although Tiresias and Jocasta advise him

against it. This shows his strong sense of justice and responsibility. He wants to do what is right for the city-

state and for natural justice.

But Oedipus personality is much more complex than that. As we read on we will notice that he is

also a temperamental king and quick to make hasty judgments. For example, in an argument with Tiresias,

Oedipus: Oh my children, the new blood of ancient Thebes,

why are you here? Huddling at my altar,

praying before me, your branches wound in wool.

Our city reeks with the smoke of burning incense,

rings with cries for the Healer and wailing for the dead.

I thought it wrong, my children, to hear the truth

from others, messengers. Here I am myself

you all know me, the world knows my fame:I am Oedipus.

Helping a Priest to his feet.

Speak up, old man. Your years,

your dignity- you should speak for the others.

Why here and kneeling, what preys upon you so?

Some sudden fear? Some strong desire?

You can trust me; I am ready to help,

Ill do anything. I would be blind to misery

not to pity my people kneeling at my feet.


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Oedipus accuses him of conspiring with Creon to take over the throne. Later on, Oedipus also confronts

Creon on his perceived traitorous intention. Oedipus also intends to have Creon executed for this

misplaced judgement.

Jocasta

As a wife and mother Jocasta shows a less exemplary personality if we judge her by our standard. She is

someone who only obeys decisions made by her husband even with regard to the life of her own son. She

is also used to the life of comfort and ignorance. Therefore, once she realises the truth of Oedipus

background she tries to stop him from pursuing the truth for fear of the unimaginable shame. Once she

realises that he would not stop until the truth is revealed she runs to her room and kills herself rather than

face the reality.

However, we must not denounce Jocasta as someone who is selfish and weak. We should also try

to understand her from the perspective of the culture that she is in. In those days women were still

regarded as inferior to men. The right to rule was in the hands of men, whether it be of the city-state or a

household. As a wife and mother Jocastas actions are restricted by the cultural norms of her society.

Creon

Creon is a co-ruler Thebes but he also respects Oedipus as a good ruler. From the play we know that

Oedipus is the more dominant of the two rulers. When the people come to the palace it is Oedipus that the

regard as our greatest power. Creon is a loyal friend to Oedipus and he still maintai ns the loyalty even

though Oedipus accuses him of treachery.


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Tiresias

Tiresias is the blind prophet who knows the unspeakable truth. However, he initially refuses to reveal it to

Oedipus thereby incurring Oedipus anger. Although Tiresias is a subject to Oedipus he shows uncanny

courage in debating with Oedipus about the truth that Oedipus forces him to reveal. Note the angry retorts

of the two characters.

This extract reveals Tiresias independent nature although faced with the power of a king. But it also tells us

that Tiresias is a kind man who does not wish to cause Oedipus to suffer had he known the truth. However,

pushed by Oedipus, Tiresias eventually reveals that Oedipus is the murderer that he seeks.

Why do you think Tiresias has such courage? Consider his status as the Apollos

priest. Do you think that is the reason why Tiresias is able to speak freely to

Oedipus? What does it tell you about the role of religion in Greek politics.

Before you read further think of some of the major characters such as Oedipus, Jocasta, Tiresias and

Creon. What is your opinion of each of them? Discuss these characters with your friends. You will find

that there are differences of opinion about the same characters. Why?

Tiresias: Id rather not cause pain for you or me.

So why this ... useless interrogation?

Youll get nothing from me.

Oedipus: Nothing! You,

You scum of the earth, youd enrage a heart of stone!

You wont talk? Nothing moves you?

Out with it, once and for all!

Tiresias: You criticise my temper ... unaware

Of the one you live with, you revile me.


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Write down some of the personalities of the major characters of the play A Dolls House. Discuss

with your friends whether you have the same descriptions of their personalities. What are the

similarities and differences?

Nora Helmer

Characteristics:

1.

2.

3.

Characteristics:

1.

2.

3.


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Mrs. Linde Krogstad

Characteristics:

1.

2.

3.

Characteristics:

1.

2.

3.

Point of view in Oedipus Rex

As has been mentioned earlier, drama or play does not have point of view as there are no narrators to tell

the story. But in drama there is what we call dramatic point of view which is information told by characters.

Therefore, in Oedipus Rex the reader/audience is presented with as many points of view as there are

characters. Each character offers his or her point of view. The reader has to make his own conclusions

based on the individual perspectives of the characters. Consider this scene:


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In this heart-rending scene, Jocasta begs Oedipus not to seek the truth further as she already knows the

consequence of it. As Oedipus keeps on insisting to know the truth Jocasta is left with only one option-to kill

herself. When she says, Man of misery! No other name shall I address you by, ever again, she is, in fact,

pronouncing her intention to commit suicide.

Here we are presented with the points of view of Oedipus and Jocasta in relation to Oedipus

insistence to know the truth as opposed to Jocastas pleading forhim not to pursue it. Both of them have

their own reasons for their views and we as readers may agree or disagree with any one of them.

. Consider this scene fromA Dolls House. What do you think is Helmers point of view with

regard to Nora?

HELMER: [walking about the room] What a horrible awakening! All these eight years- she who was my joy and

pride- a hypocrite, a liar- worse, worse- a criminal! The unutterable ugliness of it all! For shame! For shame!

[Nora is silent and looks steadily at him. He stops in front of her.] I ought to have suspected that something of the

sort would happen. I ought to have foreseen it. All your fathers want of principle- be silent!- all your fathers want

of principle has come out in you. No religion, no morality, no sense of duty-. How I am punished for having

winked at what he did! I did it for your sake, and this is how you repay me.

NORA: Yes, thats just it

Jocasta: No, listen to me! Please! Dont do this thing!

Oedipus: I will not listen; I will search out the truth.

Jocasta: My thinking is for you- it would be best.

Oedipus: This best of yours is starting to annoy me.

Jocasta: Doomed man! Never find out who you are!

Oedipus: Will someone go and bring that shepherd here?Leave her to glory in her wealthy birth!

Jocasta: Man of misery! No other name shall I address you by, ever again.


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Diction and Language in Oedipus Rex

The language used in the play is formal. There is a reason to it. Sophocles Oedipus Rexis a tragedy in the

classical tradition. What we define as tragedy now is different from the concept of tragedy during

Sophocles or even Shakespeares time. In those days dramatic tragedy was meant to dramatise the rise

and fall (usually ending with exile or death) of characters of noble birth only. Hence, convention requires

that the language used be formal and dignified. Compare this with the contemporary tragedy Death of a

Salesmanby Arthur Miller. In this more recent drama we will notice that the language used is less formal

because the definition of tragedy has changed- a tragedy can even happen to a common man. Therefore, it

is not realistic and suitable for Death of a Salesman to use formal and elevated language as was commonly

used for classical plays.

Compare between the two excerpts taken from Oedipus Rexand Death of a Salesman.

Do you notice the difference in terms of diction and language used? Which is more

formal and poetic and which is more informal and colloquial? What are their impacts on

your reading experience?

Oedipus Rex

Oedipus: ... I will speak out now as a stranger to the story,

a stranger to the crime. If Id been present then,

there would have been no mystery, no long hunt

without a clue in hand. So now, counted

a native Theban years after the murder,

to all of Thebes I make this proclamation:

if any one of you knows who murdered Laius,

the son of Labdacus, I order him to reveal

the whole truth to me. Nothing to fear,

even if he must denounce himself,

let him speak up

and so escape the brunt of the charge-

he will suffer no unbearable punishment,

nothing worse than exile, totally unharmed.


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Death of a Salesman

Tone in Oedipus Rex

As we have discussed tone refers to the attitude of the playwright to the issue presented in the play. In this

play the playwright gives a sense of tragic hopelessness of man against fate as exemplified by the rise and

fall of Oedipus. The play reminds us that as humans we are mere mortals who have limited power over our

destiny. Even a good intention can turn out badly as in the fact that the servant, out of pity, gives Oedipus

to a shepherd who then presents him to his Corinthian king. The adult Oedipus will eventually return to

complete the prophecy.

But the play also reflects the noble nature of man even though he has no control over his destiny.

That nobility comes out of Oedipus steadfastness in pursuing the truth as well as in punishing himself by

blinding his eyes for a sin he inadvertently committed. Therefore, another tone is one of defiance against

the all-powerful Fate.

Willy: Remember, Christmas time, when you had the party here? You said youd try to think

of some spot for me here in town.

Howard: With us?

Willy: Well, sure.

Howard: Oh, yeah, yeah. I remember. Well, I couldnt think of anything for you, Willy?

Willy: I tell ya, Howard. The kids are all grown up, yknow. I dont need much anymore. If I

could take home- well, sixty dollars a week, I could swing it.

Howard: Yeah, but Willy, see I-

Willy: I tell ya why, Howard. Speaking frankly and between the two of us, yknow- Im just a

little tired.


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This scene reveals to us how Oedipus has a strong sense of duty and justice. Although he did not commit

those sins knowingly he still accepts his punishment. It is this fact that partly brings out the t ragic but

defying tone stated above.

What do you think is Oedipus tone in this scene? Where does it take place? Who is

the accused?

Chorus: Dreadful, what youve done ...

how could you bear it, gouging out your eyes?

What superhuman power drove you on?

Oedipus: Apollo, friends, Apollo-

He ordained my agonies- these, my pains on pains!But the hand that struck my eyes was mine,

mine alone- no one else-

I did it all myself!

What good were eyes to me?

Nothing I could see could bring me joy.

Oedipus:You- here? You have the gall

to show your face before the palace gates?

You plotting to kill me, kill the king-

I see it all, the marauding thief himself

scheming to steal my crown and power!

Tell me,

in gods name, what did you take me for,

coward or fool, when you spun out your plot?

Your treachery- you think Id never detect it

creeping against me in the dark? Or sensing it,

not defend myself? Arent you the fool,

you and your high adventure. Lacking numbers,

powerful friends, out for the big game of empire-

you need riches, armies to bring the quarry down!


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Symbolism in Oedipus Rex

There are many symbolisms in this play but we will discuss only two. The first symbolism is sight against

blindness. In fact the audience is reminded of this dualistic symbolism throughout the play. And it is more

apparent in the argument between Oedipus and the blind seer, Tiresias. In this scene the two characters

abuse each other over sight and blindness. In his rage, Oedipus accuses Tiresias of being blind, both

physically and of knowledge. He also boasts of the advantage of sight over blindness by acusing Tiresiass

physical blindness is also the cause of his diminishing prophetic power.

In this scene, Oedipus mocks Tiresias for his blindness and tells me him that because of that he can never

do anyone any harm (or any good either). Tiresias, on the other hand, mocks Oedipus back by stating that

his sight is of no use to him when he cannot see what he has done. As Tiresias explains:

Oedipus: It does

but not for you, old man. Youve lost your power,

stone-blind, stone-deafsenses, eyes blind as stone!

Tiresias: I pity you, flinging at me the very insults

each man here will fling at you as soon.Oedipus: Blind,

lost in the night, endless night that nurse you!

You cant hurt me or anyone else who sees the light-

you can never touch me.

Tiresias: So,

you mock my blindness? Let me tell you this.

You with your precious eyes,

youre blind to the corruption of your life,

to the house you live in, those you live with-

who are your parents? Do you know? All unknowing

you are the scourge of your own flesh and blood,The dead below the earth and the living here above,

and the double lash of your mother and your fathers curse

will whip you from this land one day, their footfall

treading you down in terror, darkness shrouding

your eyes that now can see the light!


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This scene focuses on the idea of physical sight and prophetic blindness as opposed to physical blindness

and prophetic vision. What the play suggests is that our physical sight has its limitation. Oedipus might

boast that since he has sight he is better than Tiresias who lives in his blind world. But we know how wrong

Oedipus is. It is actually the blind Tiresias who knows the real murderer and sinner. His initial refusal to tell

the truth is because it will hurt Oedipus more than he can imagine.

The other symbolism is the crossroads. Actually the crossroads is only mentioned in the play. It is

mentioned when Oedipus relates the circumstance behind how he kills a stranger (Laius, his father) at a

crossroads. How is the crossroads a symbolism? In a sense, the crossroads symbolises Oedipuss fate.

Imagine for a while what would have happened had things go out differently at the crossroads. Our

assumptions is had he not killed the stranger his fate would have been different. He might still solve the

Sphinxs riddle and save Thebes from the murderous Sphinx but he might not have been chosen as king

since Laius might have still been alive.

A three-way crossroads


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However, Oedipuss murder of Laius has become a self-fulfilling prophecy that leads from one

revelation to another that Oedipus could never have known. As Oedipus laments his past deed at the

fateful crossroads:

It is this explanation that makes the crossroads into a symbolism of our unknown future. We might prefer

one decision over another without really knowing the consequences of the decision that we have made.

Can you think of other symbolisms in this play? What about symbols associated to the sea

such the tides and harbours? Could they have any significance in explaining the play? What

do you think?

Oedipus: O, triple roads- it all comes back, the secret,

dark ravine, and the oaks closing in

where the three roads join...

You drank my fathers blood, my own blood

spilled by my own hands- you still remember me?

What things you saw me do? Then I came here

and did them all once more!


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Describe some of the symbolisms used inA Dolls House. What do they symbolise?

the tarantella dance the skylark

the Christmas treethe macaroons


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Theme in Oedipus Rex

Themes are the universal ideas that the playwright wishes to draw attention to. In Oedipus Rexthe major

theme is light and darkness. This theme is closely related to the symbol of sight and blindness mentioned

above. In the play, light (or sight) does not necessarily reveal the truth and darkness (or blindness) does

not essentially mean ignorance of truth. In this play it is actually the other way around. Lets analyse this

scene where the Messenger narrates what he sees in Jocastas chamber:

In this scene Oedipus realises that his sight (therefore, light) has failed him because it did not see what he

should have seen. Instead, Tiresias who is blind is able to see what is going on. Since his sight has failed

him Oedipus feels that it is useless and he is better off without it- to be in darkness and knowing is better

than to be with light but still not able to see/know. It is for that reason that he blinds his eyes.

Another apparent theme of this play is the question of free will as opposed to the future that is

determined by fate. This theme is very predominant in Greek drama. In Oedipus Rex, the question of free

will and the power of fate is pivotal. Throughout the play there is no protagonist-antagonist conflict of the

usual sense. The play is not about hero against villain. In fact, there are no bad guys that we can identify in

the play. The play is even full of well-meaning characters whose actions, unintentionally or otherwise, lead

to undesirable results. It is free will against fate. Hence, the action of the servant who gives the baby

Oedipus to a shepherd out pity eventually leads to disastrous results. Oedipuss action of running away

from his adopted city-state in order to avoid the realisation of the oracle is actually playing to the script of

destiny when he wanders to his own city-state that leads to the murder of his father and the incestuous

relationship with his mother. Oedipuss well-intentioned pursuance of justice, inadvertently, leads to the

exposure of his sins. Succinctly, these instances of free will against the power of fate lead to the theme of

Messenger: ... He rips off her brooches, the long gold pins

holding her robes- and lifting the high,

looking straight up into the points,

he digs them down the sockets of his eyes, crying, You,

youll see no more the pain I suffered, all the pain I caused!

Too long you looked on the ones you never should have seen,

blind to the ones you long to see, to know! Blind

from this hour on! Blind in the darkness- blind!


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the limited power of humans as mere mortals to determine their own destiny. Humans are helpless against

the all-encompassing supernatural power of Fate in influencing the future.

What do you think of Oedipus at the end of the play? Is he heroic or simply foolish? Do you

sympathise with him or feels that he is too arrogant? Justify your opinion of him.

CONCLUSION

In drama the audience is given more freedom to make his own conclusions on characters and themes. This

freedom is much more restricted in reading a novel because the author directs the reader to the

characterisation and themes by way of point of view of the narrator. As a critic we must be able to analyse

the play from various perspectives and weight them based on our understanding of relevant human issues.

We may want to study only characters and analyse their actions and decisions or we may want to focus on

certain aspects of the play that is worth discussing. For example, a critic may wish to analyse how a

contemporary feminist may judge on Noras actions and decision to leave her family or that Helmer is also

a victim of circumstance as much as Nora is. But at the end of the day, your analysis must be based on a

close analysis of the text.


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WRITING A CLOSE ANALYSIS OF TEXT

The close analysis of text is very important in literary criticism. Writing a close analysis of the text indicates

that you understand the text and is able to discuss, academically, issues presented in the text. A close

analysis of text means that you discuss certain issues based on your close reading of the text and by

providing excerpts to support your argument. For example, in your reading of Oedipus Rex, you may want

to argue that Jocasta is selfish in her attempt to stop Oedipus from continuing with his investigation.

Therefore, in your essay you must indicate the excerpt that shows that Jocasta is what you claim she is.

The same rule applies with other thrusts of your arguments, always justify you view with excerpts from the

text. This unit will show you how to apply a close reading to text be it poetry, fiction or drama.

ASPECTS OF CLOSE ANALYSIS: READING AND WRITING

There are two important aspects of close analysis:

close reading- in close reading you focus on a passage to get a more complete and in-depthunderstanding of the text.

writing a close analysis- writing a close analysis of one or more passages is a basic skill in literarystudies. It is very common for student to be asked to write an analysis on a part of the text in detail

as this is the best way to provide supporting evidence for an interpretation of the texts wider

meaning.

CLOSE READING

In close reading, try to identify elements that deserve comment in an analysis. You can do this in many

ways:

by studying and discussing the opening passages of a text to see how narrative voice, characters,setting, ideas and values might be presented.

by reading and comparing the beginning and the ending of a text to find changes that might occur. by studying key scenes or passages to consider their literary importance in terms of character

development, narrative importance, emergence of views and values and use of language and

special literary techniques.


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CLOSE ANALYSIS

Close analysis of text helps you to understand the text better. By doing a close analysis you will understand

how the author constructs the text with all the principal elements that create meaning. Once you have

understood how the text is constructed, you will be able to discuss and analyse it much more confidently.

HOW TO WRITE A CLOSE ANALYSIS?

There are several ways in which you can write a close analysis of a text:

You could also compare and contrast between passages within the same text. You could analyse a passage to find its significance to the whole text. Or you could analyse two or three passages to identify their significance to the overall theme or

underlying views and values. This method is the most effective way of close analysis of text.

HOW TO READ A PASSAGE CLOSELY

You can start to read and analyse a passage by using the What? Where? How? and Why? questions. By

asking these questions you are actually moving progressively from what is obvious in the passage to the

more complex ideas and issues reflected in the text.

What- What happens in the text? What is the conflict? Between whom? Over what? What is theending?

Where- Where is the setting? What do we know about the setting? Does it have any impact on theideas and values in the text?

How- How is language used in terms of tone, sentence structure, choices of words and imagesand how they affect the reader.

Why- Why does the writer write in such a way? What is/are his views with regard to certain issues?Why does he use this particular language? Why is the ending written in such a way. This is the

most important question because it relates to the themes, ideas and values inherent in the text andits broader implication for meaning.


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A THREE-STAGE PROCESS OF TEXTUAL ANALYSIS

As with any other reading exercises you must have a plan of action for writing a close analysis of a text.

Basically it involves identifying, arranging and writing. Below is the process that you can follow to begin

writing an academic criticism:

1. Do a close reading of the passage and identify features o the text that will be useful in youranalysis. The features such as language use, characterisation, setting and imagery are useful

to understanding the themes and key ideas in the text.

2. Once you have identified the features related to your scope of analysis, you should arrangeyour material to form a logical sequence of ideas. The arrangement should be from specific

features of the text to its broader ideas, views and values.

3. Now you can begin writing the analysis. Remember that the basic rules of essay writing alsoapply in your academic writing. You must have an introduction that states the thesis statement

of your essay, each of your ideas must be in its own paragraph and finally there is a conclusion

to put a neat close your to your argument and criticism.

The Three- stage Process of Textual Analysis

CONCLUSION

Literature is like fashion, its definition changes over time. However, there are some things about literature

that remain constant. Literature teaches us about ourselves as human, not through preaching but through

READ

ARRANGE

WRITE


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stories and reflections. It is mostly about the play of words that appeals to our sense of beauty. And good

literature should be like onions; it should have many layers of meaning that provides the reader with new

insights each time it is read.

Understanding literature is about understanding how the text is written and to relate to what issue. It can

be about something speakerl, social, political or ecclesiastical. Those issues in the texts are the concerns

of the author and it is our job as a literature student to make academic criticisms of those issues. We may

agree or disagree with those values portrayed. What is important is that it allows for a discussion and

criticism with the eventual purpose of making us a better individual after an encounter with the text.

The contemporary world has seen literature blossoming into different genres. Besides the traditional

genres of fiction, play and poetry there are also new genres as the product of modern inventions. Movies,

television shows and biographies can also be considered into the realm of literature.


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Sample Essay:

The Fate of the Mortal: The Limitation of Oedipus Power to Chart His Own Destiny in the Play Oedipus

Rex

by

Lajiman Janoory

The Play Oedipus Rex by Sophocles puts into center stage the issue of fate, or destiny of man. Is man

the master of his own fate, or is there a power, omnipresent and omnipotent, that decides on his

actions and future? This issue has always been discussed, especially in philosophy, concerning the

existence of man. Is our existence accidental in a ready-made world so perfect in its formation and

equilibrium? Or are we the creation of the Supreme Being whose existence is felt but never seen by

naked eyes like the wind that touches us but never able to see. Oedipus Rexis another text that deals

with the religious connotation of man the mortal against Fate, or God the Immortal. In this text, Fate

makes itself present in the form of the Oracle and its fulfilment. In fact, the central plot of the play itself

is about the attempt by man to elude the Oracles prophcies. It is an attempt by man to cheat Fate by

doing whatever within his power to make it possible to avoid his predestined future. The Oracle and

Oedipuss pride will set the chains of events in motion and the influence of Fate on the whole text is so

pervasive that we cannot fail to notice it.

Throughout the text, there are three oracles that foretell basically the same prophesy. First, it is

revealed to Laius, the ruler of Thebes and the father of Oedipus. He is told in the oracle that his son will

kill him and marry his wife. As a result, Laius orders the infant to be left to die in the nearby Mt.

Cithareon. But before that his feet is pinioned to prevent him from crawling to safety. Human

kindness(or Fate?) has it that the shepherd takes pity on the baby and instead of leaving him to die,

gives the boy to another shepherd from Corinth, a city on the other side of the mountain. The Corinthian

shepherd then presents the infant to his king, Polybus, who raises him as his own son and names him

Oedipus or Swollen Feet due to the deformed limbs.

This first Oracle reveals to Laius the nature of the childs future. Laius is aware that Fate should


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be equated to the will of the God and as a mere mortal he is supposedly unable to change it or prevent

it from happening. But such is the propensity of man not to merely lament over what is yet to happen

but try to do something about it. He hopes that his action will break the Oracle and deny Fate its divine

course. Laius order for the boy to be killed is an attempt to avoid the horrifying fate. He is threatened

by the existence of his son so he tries to have him killed, thus ending his and his wifes problem and

deny Fate its course.

This is the unconscious effort of pitting himself against Fate to decide the better entity, man or

God? It is a test at how far man can go against the will of Fate. Is he independent In his actions, and if

he is, can his actions bring about the changes that he desires as oppose to the will of Fate? Fortunately

for Laius, he is not able to see how wrong he is and how Fate is able to show to him that a mere mortal

is no match for Fate.

The second Oracle is revealed to Oedipus. Oedipus travels to Delphi to confirm his parentage

at the Oracle of Apollo. The Oracle, however, reveals to him a horrific prediction that he will kill his

father and sleep with his mother. Oedipus, like his biological parents, tries to avoid Fate. Since he

believes that his foster parents are his natural parents, he runs away. Fate has it that he is running

away to complete the prophesy itself. This instance reflects to us the issue concerning knowledge. A

mere mortal is shallow in his knowledge, especially about his fate in the future and that Fate is all

knowing, thus to go against Fate is sheer foolishness.

Nothing but Fate could have arranged the meeting between Oedipus and his father at the

three-junctioned road since the Oracle states specifically that that is the place where Oedipus will kill

his father. It should be noted that at this period the city of Thebes is still under the spell of the Sphinx.

The fact that Laius is able to avoid the Sphinx and leaves the city, hence his meeting with Oedipus,

reveals to us the inexplicable workings of Fate. Oedipus meanwhile who is running from Fate

encounters his father and h

critical appreciation for drama notes

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