Epidemic: A widespread occurrence of a disease

The Era of Interregional Unity (300 CE – 1500CE)

Section 1 Crisis in the Classical World

Early in the first millennium C.E., a series of crises shook the classical civilizations of China, Rome, and India. The Han, Roman, and Gupta empires had flourished for hundreds of years. They had dominated their separate worlds and produced great cultural achievements. By 550 C.E., however, they had all collapsed and new civilizations rose in their place

The Han Decline The first to fail was the Han Empire. The Han dynasty had ruled China for four hundred years. It created a system of strong, centralized rule and expanded China’s borders. Agriculture, trade, and commerce grew. It was a time of peace and increased prosperity.

In 220 C.E., however, the Han dynasty fell. The causes of that collapse were complex and went back many years. Political factors played an important part. Internal struggles for control weakened the empire and made it less possible to deal with other issues

Other factors played a role, too. One key factor was pressure on China’s borders by nomadic tribes from Central Asia. These tribes had long threatened northern China. Faced with this constant danger, China spent heavily on military defense. Much of the cost was financed by higher taxes on Chinese peasants. Unable to pay their taxes, many peasants had to sell their land to wealthy landowners. The gap between rich and poor grew, and peasant revolts broke out. In addition, deadly diseases such as smallpox—brought to China along the Silk Road from other parts of the world—sparked epidemics that ravaged the population.

All these factors caused instability in China and weakened the Han dynasty. Regional warlords began to challenge Han power. Bandits roamed the land. In 220, the last Han emperor gave up the throne. China broke into warring kingdoms for nearly four centuries.

The Fall of Rome Two centuries later, the Roman Empire collapsed. Rome suffered from many of the same problems that troubled the Han, including attacks from nomadic tribes. Like the Han, Rome declined over a period of many years.

Political problems were one factor. Rome never developed a reliable system for choosing its leaders. By the 200s C.E., most Roman emperors were generals who seized power by force. They depended on their soldiers for support, and few stayed in power for

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

The Art Archive / Galerie Ananda Louvre des Antiquaires / Gianni Dagli Orti ]

These painted terracotta warriors date from the Han dynasty period.

watch a short video on the collapse of the Roman Empire

Autonomy: A right to self-govern

long. Twenty-six emperors ruled Rome in the last half of the third century. All but one was killed or committed suicide.

Other problems were economic and social in nature. To support the empire and its defense, Rome raised taxes to levels that were too high for most poor farmers to bear. Many left their farms and fled to the cities.But there were not enough jobs to support these migrants.

Poverty and social problems increased. Diseases also swept across the empire, killing as much as one fourth of the population. Farming and trade suffered, and tax revenues plummeted. The price of food and other goods shot up. This inflation fueled anger and social unrest.

The Roman Empire’s enormous size had always made it difficult to govern. To solve this problem, the emperor Diocletian split the empire into eastern and western halves. In 324, Emperor Constantine transferred the capital to the eastern city of Byzantium, which became Constantinople.

In the meantime, Germanic tribes continued to attack the western empire. Invaders entered Rome and sacked the city twice, once in 410 and again in 455. Rome was teetering on the brink of collapse. In 476, a Germanic leader overthrew the last western emperor. The eastern empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, survived for another thousand years. But it never regained the strength or glory of the Roman Empire at its height.

The End of Gupta Rule The Gupta Empire was the third classical civilization to fall. The Gupta kings ruled northern India for more than two centuries, beginning around 320 C.E. Although they created a strong central government, they gave local rulers a good deal of autonomy.During the Gupta era, the economy prospered and Indian civilization entered a golden age.

Compared with the fall of the Han dynasty and imperial Rome, the reason for the Gupta collapse was simple: foreign invasion. For years, a nomadic group known as the White Huns had threatened India from the northwest. By 550, the White Huns succeeded in conquering India and the Gupta age was over. Except for a brief period in the 600s, under King Harsha, India was divided into small kingdoms for the next six centuries.

Civilizations on the Rise The collapse of classical empires had a significant impact across much of Afro-Eurasia. For centuries, large portions of North Africa, Europe, and Asia had enjoyed peace and stability under imperial rule. The security those empires provided helped promote trade and the

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

Eastern Orthodox Christianity: The Christian beliefs and practices that

originated in the Byzantine Empire. Their beliefs are a result of disagreements with the Roman Catholic Church, popular in

Western Europe. The Orthodox and Roman Catholic beliefs formally split apart

in 1045 CE.

exchange of ideas across the continents. Now that system had collapsed. Other strong states survived, however and new empires eventually emerged.

One of the strongest surviving states was the Sassanian Empire of Persia.The Sassanians, who ruled from 226 to 651 C.E., controlled a large territory that extended from the Roman Empire in the west to Gupta India in the east.

Chinese power and influence was not revived until the Tang Dynasty in 618. They ruled for 300 years and were followed by another great dynasty, the Song (soong), which ruled for another three centuries. Under the Tang and Song, China enjoyed a long period of prosperity and cultural achievement.

In Western Europe, the fall of Rome led to a long period of decline, often referred to as the Dark Ages. Cities crumbled. The economy shrank and the population fell. But new political structures gradually emerged, and order began to return. Around 800 C.E., a powerful leader named Charlemagne united parts of central and western Europe in a kingdom known as the Holy Roman Empire. By 1000, farming and trade were on the rise, and the population began to grow. In Eastern Europe, the Byzantine Empire (formerly part of the Roman Empire) continued to thrive and expand and spread Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

In southwest Asia the new world religion of Islam began. The religion would go on to form a large empire in the region and spread the religion of Islam. The Islamic Empire also greatly increased trade in Afro-Eurasia

States and empires also developed in Africa. In East Africa, the kingdom of Axum built a prosperous trading empire that ruled the coast and highlands of what is now Ethiopia between 100 and 600 C.E. In southern Africa, the kingdom of Zimbabwe grew rich by trading in gold and other products. And in West Africa, the kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai also gained wealth and power through the gold trade.

Section 2 – Patterns of Inter-Regional unity

For more than five millennia the population of Afroeurasia had grown steadily. Larger and more complex societies such as the Han Chinese and Roman Empire were created. When those empires collapsed around 300 to 400 CE the ancient world came to an end. Over the next 1200 many elements of the modern world first came into view. In this section we examine some of the patterns and themes of this era.

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

Population Growth This era began with a sharp population decline that lasted from the third to the sixth centuries CE. The population decline affected large areas of Afro-Eurasia. Historians do not entirely understand why the population decreased but there are a few factors that likely affected it. The climate became drier and agriculture decreased. Another factor was the outbreak of infectious diseases. These changes left large empires like Roman and the Han dynasty weaker and open to invasions by pastoral nomadic peoples.

By the sixth century CE, however, the overall population of Afro-Eurasia started to rise again. But this time it kept going up for more than 700 years. By around 1250 CE global population reached about 235 million. The early 1300’s, a change in the climate and the Black Death caused a decline in population. That decline was only temporary and world population started to go back up again. By 1500 world population had surpassed all previous levels, reaching 400 million

Why did the population continue to grow during this era? The population continued to grow for many of the same reason it increased in previous eras. Civilizations continued to develop new technologies and farming methods that made agriculture more productive. Increased trade and exchange across Afro-Eurasia also led to population growth.

Trade Networks Afro-Eurasia experienced a general trend of economic growth from about 700 to 1500. Most of that economic growth came as a result of increased trade throughout the people of Afro-Eurasia.

The largest trade network connected the various parts of Asia with each other and with Africa and the Mediterranean. The Silk Road was the major land route in this network. It carried an enormous amount of trade over the centuries, particularly during the time of the Han and Mongol empires.

Sea routes were also important to trade across Afro-Eurasia. The Indian Ocean became a central hub for sea trade routes across Afro-Eurasia. Trade centers, like Malacca in Malaysia, became major trade centers of Afro-Eurasia. Merchants there would trade items from all over Afro-Eurasia.

Other smaller trade networks became connected to larger trade networks throughout Afro-Eurasia. Furs, lumber, glass and slaves were traded from Europe. Kingdoms south of the Saharan desert also became linked to the larger trade networks of Afro-Eurasia. Arab traders were able to cross the large Sahara Desert to trade for salt and gold with the African kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

© North Wind Picture Archives / AlamyThis medieval European illustration shows merchants transporting merchandise on the Silk Road, the major land route between Europe and Asia. The use of camels, as shown here, made overland travel through desert regions easier.

Locate the trade city of Malacca

Crusades: A series of wars launched by the Catholic Church. The goal of these wars was to retake site holy to Christianity that had been taken control of by the Muslim

Empire.

Trade also contributed to increased urbanization. More and bigger cities began to appear in all parts of Afro-Eurasia. By 1500, more humans lived in cities than ever before.

World Religions The spread and influence of world religions continued to expand during this era. The new world religion of Islam also made an appearance during this era. Islam is an Abrahamic religion that began on the Arabian Peninsula around 610 CE. Within 150 years, a Muslim dynasty was created that stretched across North Africa, into Europe, across Southwest Asia and

In many cases, the religions interacted peacefully. In the Muslim world, for example, Jews, Christians, and Muslims often lived side by side, with little conflict. Religious tensions and conflicts did develop, however. Muslims showed little tolerance for Hinduism, with its belief in many gods. When Muslim conquerors invaded India, they tried to convert Hindus to Islam. Tensions also developed between the two branches of the Christian faith: Roman Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity. In 1054, the two churches split officially.

The biggest conflicts, however, occurred between Christian and Muslim armies. In 1095, the Catholic Church launched the Crusades in an effort to oust Muslims from the holy lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Christian armies also sought to retake Spain from the Muslims. By 1250, they had recaptured most of the Iberian Peninsula.

Exchanging Knowledge Ideas and technologies also continue to move through trade networks. It would be impossible to list all the ideas spread during this era. But such a list would include writing

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

systems and discoveries in math, astronomy, and medicine. It would also include technologies in such areas as irrigation, navigation, printing, and papermaking.

The system of Arabic numerals is one example. The Muslims adopted this system from India and later passed it along to Europe. Arabic numerals were much more practical than the Roman numerals used in Europe at the time. Based on the decimal system, they allowed for the development of modern math.

Environmental Factors The growth of exchange networks also had environmental effects, including the spread of disease. Populations suffered from devastating plagues that were transmitted along trade routes. Deadly diseases like smallpox, measles, and the bubonic plague helped cause the collapse of the Han, Roman, and Mongolian empires. As networks expanded, so did the danger of infectious disease.

Section 3 – The Byzantine EmpireThe first example of the new interregional unity that existed that you will read about is the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire was a new empire that grew after the collapse of the classical world. This great empire lay in two continents, Europe and Asia. It lasted from about 500 to 1453 C.E., when it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks. The empire served as a a connecting point between the regions of Asia, the Middle-East, Europe and Africa.

At first, the Byzantine Empire was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east. In 330 C.E., the Roman emperor Constantine moved his capital from Rome to the city of Byzantium. This city was an old Greek trading colony on the eastern edge of Europe. Constantine called his capital New Rome, but it soon became known as Constantinople, which is Greek for “Constantine’s City.”

Later, control of the huge original empire was divided between two emperors—one based in Rome and one based in Constantinople. After the fall of Rome, the eastern empire continued for another 1,000 years. We call this the Byzantine Empire, after Byzantium, the original name of its capital city.

The Capital of Constantinople Constantine chose the city of Constantinople as the new Roman capital for a few reasons. One reason was that the site was easy to defend. It was surrounded on three sides by water. The city was also a natural crossroads for trade. It was not long for Constantinople to become the richest part of the Roman Empire.

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

© Photo Researchers / AlamyThe growth of trade networks increased the spread of disease. For example, the bubonic plague spread along trade routes across Eurasia, devastating many different societies as it went.

Heritage: valued objects and qualities such as cultural traditions, unspoiled countryside,

and historic buildings that have been passed down from previous generations.

A Unique Culture    After the fall of Rome, the Byzantine Empire was regarded as the heir to Roman power and tradition.  Constantinople was known as “New Rome” because its emperors were Roman and spoke Latin.  

Over time, the Byzantine Empire looked less like Rome and created a unique culture.  Their Greek heritage was stressed and the Greek language replaced Latin.  Christianity also developed a distinct form known as Eastern Orthodoxy that was unique from Catholicism practiced in Europe.  Because of the Empire’s close proximity to Persia, the empire’s culture exhibited influences of Persia.  This mixture of Greek, Roman and Persian cultures created a distinct Byzantine civilization.  Between 500 and 1200 CE, this civilization was one of the most advanced in the world and had a higher standard of living than Western Europe.

Christianity in the Byzantine Empire To the Byzantines, Christianity was more than a religion. It was the very foundation of their empire. When Constantine built his new capital, he intended it to be the religious center of the empire, as well as the seat of government. Constantine himself tried to settle religious disputes by assembling a council of Christian leaders.

Over time, the Byzantine Church separated from the Church in Rome and became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. The word orthodox means “in agreement with right belief.” The leaders of the medieval Eastern Orthodox Church thought that their church was based on a set of beliefs that they could trace back to Jesus Christ and to the work of Christian leaders in early Christian councils.

The Role of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Empire Religion and government were more closely linked in the Byzantine Empire than in the west. The Byzantines viewed the emperor not just as the head of the government but as the living representative of God and Jesus Christ. This meant that church and state were combined into one all-powerful body.The state religion also united people in a common belief. The Eastern Orthodox Church played a central role in daily life. Most people attended church regularly. Religious sacraments gave shape to every stage of the journey from birth to death. Monasteries and convents cared for the poor and the sick. These institutions were supported by wealthy people and became quite powerful. Let’s look at some of the practices of Eastern Orthodoxy.

Church Hierarchy Both Roman and Eastern Orthodox clergy were organized into a hierarchy. In Rome, the leader of the Church was the Patriarch of Rome, also called the Pope. The Pope had final say in all matters of the Catholic Church

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

A feature of Eastern Orthodox churches is an image of Christ the Pantocrator, like this one, watching over Orthodox worshippers from the dome above.

In Byzantine times, the emperor had supreme authority in the Church. He selected the patriarch of Constantinople, who ranked just below him in matters of religion. Unlike in the Roman Catholic Church, the patriarch of Constantinople was not the leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Architecture and Art Christian faith inspired magnificent architecture and artwork in the Byzantine Empire. With its square base and high dome, the cathedral Hagia Sophia served as a model for many Orthodox churches. The architecture of the church also reflects Orthodox views. The simple base represents the earthly world. Upon it rests the “dome of heaven.” Rich decorations on the inside were meant to remind worshippers of what it would be like to enter God’s kingdom.

Building on the Greek love of art, the Orthodox Church used many images in its services and prayers. Byzantine artists created beautiful icons, which were usually painted on small wooden panels. Artists also fashioned sacred images as mosaics and painted them in murals.

Many Byzantines believed that sacred pictures brought them closer to God. But later, icons also became a source of violent disagreement.

Conflict Between East and West Medieval Europe and the Byzantine Empire were united in a single faith, Christianity. Over the centuries, however, cultural, political, and religious differences brought the two parts of the old Roman Empire into conflict.

Perhaps most important was the conflict that developed between the churches of east and west. After the fall of Rome, popes gradually emerged as powerful figures in Western Europe. The popes claimed supreme religious authority over all Christians. The emperors and patriarchs of the east did not claim that power.

Other differences added to the conflict. Let’s look at three major disagreements and how they led to a split in the Christian Church.

Iconoclasm The first major disagreement concerned religious icons. Many Christians in medieval times used images of Jesus, Mary, and the saints in worship and prayer. Some Christians in the east, however, believed that people were wrongly worshipping the icons as if they were divine. In 730 C.E., Byzantine emperor Leo III banned the use of religious images in all Christian churches and homes.

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

Hagia Sophia was built between the years 532 and 537. Its architectural features inspired the design of many later Orthodox churches.

Take a virtual tour of the Hagia Sophia

Excommunicate: to officially exclude from the Catholic Church

Rites: religious acts

Schism: a split or division between strongly opposed groups caused by a difference of

opinion or beliefs. It can also specifically refer to the separation of the Christian Church into the

Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

This policy of iconoclasm (“icon smashing”) led to the destruction of much religious art. Throughout Christian lands, people cried out in protest. In Rome, Roman Church leaders were angry because Leo’s order applied to parts of Italy that were under Byzantine control. Pope Gregory III even excommunicated the emperor.

The Crowning of a Holy Roman Emperor Another major disagreement occurred in 800 C.E. At the time, Empress Irene was the ruler of the Byzantine Empire. Because she was a woman, Pope Leo III did not view her as true or strong enough to govern. He wanted the protection of a strong leader to help defend the Church in the west.

Instead, Leo decided to crown Charlemagne, the king of the Franks, as Holy Roman emperor. The pope’s action outraged the Byzantines, who felt that their empress was the rightful ruler of the remains of the Roman Empire.

The Final Break Matters between east and west came to a head in 1054. The patriarch of Constantinople, Cerularius, wanted to reassert Byzantine control of the Church. He closed all churches that worshipped with western rites. Pope Leo IX was furious. He sent Cardinal Humbert to Constantinople. The cardinal marched up to the altar of Hagia Sophia. In front of everyone, he laid down a bull (a proclamation by the pope) excommunicating Cerularius.

Cerularius responded by excommunicating the cardinal. This was only a symbolic act, for the patriarch did not have that power. But it showed that the split, or schism, between east and west was complete. Despite future attempts to heal the division, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church were now separate churches.

Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek

Bettmann/CorbisThe division between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches lasted until 1964. In that year, Patriarch Athenagoras (left) and Pope Paul VI (right) met in Jerusalem and made a formal statement that undid the excommunications of 1054.