criminal proc. - p. l. o. lumumba
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UNDER REVISION
A HANDBOOK ON
CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
IN KENYA
P. L. O. LUMUMBA Ph. D
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Publication Financed by:
University of Nairobi Enterprises and Services (UNES) Ltd P.O. Box
30197 Nairobi.
Tel: 714240/7114144 A P.L.O Lumumba Publication
P.L.O Lumumba 1998 First Published in 1998
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the Author.
Computer Typesetting by:
Dypac Information Technology Consultants
P.O. Box 49482 Nairobi
Tel: 334092
Publishing Consultancy Printing by:
Business Trends Limited P.O. Box 74327 Nairobi
Tel: 554397 ISBN 9966-939-00-8
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CONTENTS
Foreword ......................................................................................... xii
Acknowledgement .................................................................................. xiii
Introduction ............................................................................................ xiv
Dedication ..................................................................................xviii
Table of Statutes ........................................................................................ xix
Acronyms ................................................................................................. xx
Table of Cases ........................................................................................... xxi
CHAPTER I: THE NATURE OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTIONS 1
A. Introduction .................................................................................. 1
B. The Attorney - General's Constitutional Position ...................... 2
C. Private Prosecution ........................................................................ 4
D. Limitation of Time ...................................................................... 8
CHAPTER II: CONTROL OF PROSECUTIONS ..................... 12
A. Introduction..................................................................................... 12
B. Nolle Prosequi................................................................................. 12
C. Withdrawal ...................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER III: ARREST............................................................ 16
A. Introduction .................................................................................... 16
B. Arrest Without Warrant ................................................................. 17
i) Arrest by a Police Officer ...................................................... 17
ii) Arrest by Magistrate ........................................................... 19
iii) Arrest by a Private Person .................................................. 20
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C. Arrest with Warrant ........................................................................ 20
D. Others .............................................................................................. 22
E. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER IV: SEARCHES AND SEARCH WARRANTS
24
A. Introduction . 24
B. Searches with a search Warrants . 24
C. Searches without a search Warrant . 27
D. Conclusion 29
CHAPTER V: Bail . .
A.
Introduction.. 31
B.
Bail in Kenya 32
C.
Constitution of Kenya (Amendment)Act, No. 20 of 1987 37
D.The abolition of the Discretion of the High Court .. . 38
E. Pre-Trial Bail 40
F.
Bail pending Appeal . 46G.
Sureties 53
H.
Bail Bond . 56
I.
Renewal of Bail Application ... . 58
J. Bail as viewed by the High Courts 60
K.Variance between Law and practice 62
L. Suggested Reforms . 63
M.
The law of bail: Further thoughts on reform... 64
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CHAPTER VI: CHARGES AND INFORMATION. 70
A. Introduction .. 70
B. Charges . 70
C. Effect of Citing Wrong or Non-existent Sections . 71
D. Particulars of the Offence Charged ... 74
E. Lack of particulars and wrong ingredients 76
F. General form . 79
G. Joinder of Counts .. 81
H. Joinder of persons .. 84
I. Duplicity 87
J. Alternative Charges 92
K. Amendment of Charges .. 93
L. Amendment after conviction 95
M. Quashing of information 95N. Conclusion 96
CHAPTER VII: PLEAS 98
A. Introduction. 98
B.
Plea Taking in the subordinate Courts... 99C.
Recording of pleas. 99
D.
Plea of Autrefois Acquit, Autrefois Convict and pardon. 102
E.
Change of plea and the Functus officio Rule 102
F. Plea bargaining 104
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CHAPTER VIII: TRIAL PROCEDURE IN
THE SUBORDINATE COURTS.. 105
A.
Introduction105
B.
The Structure and Jurisdiction of Criminal Courts107
C. Trial procedure:..108
i) The prosecution Case 108
ii)
Prima-facie Case.110
iii)
The defence Case.. 111
CHAPTER IX: TRANSFER OF CASES. 113
A.
Introduction.. 113B.
Factors Giving Rise to Transfer.. 114
C.
Effects of transfer. 117
CHAPTER X: TRIAL IN THE HIGH COURT.. 131
A.
Introduction 131
B.
Committal proceedings and the Committal in the High court 132
C.
Arraignment and the Plea. 135
D. Taking the Plea. 138
i) Plea of guilt. 139
ii) Plea of not guilty. 140
iii)
Option of silence.. 140
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iv) Objection to jurisdiction... 141
v) Demurrer 142
vi) Autrefois Convict..143
vii)
Autrefois Acquit. 143
viii)
Pardon. 144
E.
Procedure when Accused Stands Mute of Malice or is
Deaf and/or Dumb. 144
F. procedure when Accused Pleads Guilty: The practice 148
G. The hearing and conduct of the trial 148
H.
Conduct of the case and Order of Hearing.. 149
I.
Summing up to Assessors.. 159
J.
The role and conduct of Judges and Assessors.. 161
K. Judgment and Sentence.. 165
L. Conclusion.. 165
CHAPTER XI: ASSESSORS 166
A. Introduction.. 166
B. Evaluation of the Assessors System in Kenya. 167
C. The Assessor System and the Jury System169
D. Procedural Aspect of the Assessor System. 170
E. Selection of Assessors.. 171F. The assessor in court. 177
G. Opinion of Assessors..181
H. Assessors as expert 183
I. Evaluation And Recommendations.. 184
J. A Case for reform..185
CHAPTER XII PROCEDURE IN CASES OF INSANITY.. 187
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A. Introduction .. 187
B. Procedure in case of lunacy or other incapacity of
the accused person 188
C.
Resumption of proceedings. 190
D.
Refusal to plead insanity.. 196
E. Insanity and the prosecution 196
F. Position in Kenya 202
G. Insanity as a Defence: The verdict of Guilty But
Insane versus Not Guilty On Account of Insanity 204
H.
Insanity: Evolution 205
I.
Guilty but insane or Not guilty on Account of
Insanity?.. 206
J. Insanity as and Absence of Mensrea 207
K. Procedure after a finding of Guilt and Sanity210
CHAPTER XIII: JUDGEMENT. 215
A. Introduction. 215
B. Delivery... 215
C. Form and Content 218
D. Minor and Cognate Offences.. 219E. Order of Judgment 222
F. Conclusion.. 222
CHAPTER XIV: SENTENSING..223
A. Introduction. 223
B. Historical Development of Sentencing and Punishment.. 224
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HABEAS CORPUS282
A. Introduction 282
B. Territorial Ambit of Habeas Corpus 283
C.
Habeas Corpus... 284
D.
Application of Habeas Corpus. 287
CHAPTER XVIII: REVISIONS 288
A. Introduction. 288
B.
Revision in Practice. 290
C.
Extent of powers of revision 294
D.
Revision Jurisdiction When Right of Appeal Exists
and is Not Exercised 299
E. A Finding of Autrefois Acquit and Revision.. 302
F. Effect of Revision of a Civil Case upon a Criminal case.. 303
CHAPTER XIX: RE-TRIAL 305
A. Introduction.. 305
B. Orders for retrial.. 305
CHAPTER XX: INQUIRIES AS TO SUDDEN DEATHS.. 313
A.
Introduction. 313
B.
Inquest Jurisdiction. 313
C. Inquest where death occurs in police custody or prison.. 313
Findings after Inquest. 314
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FOREWORD
Law students, practitioners, judicial officers and academics will breathe a sigh
of relief as they can now resort to a comprehensive hand book on Criminal
Procedure for quick reference. The book is written in simple language which
affords a comprehensive treatment of the subject. The book is made rich
because it incorporates the most recent unreported decisions of the Court of
Appeal and the High Court of Kenya, most of which may not be easily available
to the reader due to the haphazard and unsystematic law reporting system
currently prevailing in the country. The book also affords quick and precise
comparison of the subject with the English and the American systems where
appropriate.
The author of the book has done service to the development of the law in
Kenya, not only in devoting time to the writing and compilation of a much
needed book, but the admirable and reliable treatment of the subject of the
Criminal Procedure based on the latest decisions of the Highest Court in theland. The author must also be commended for ensuring the book is available at
the shelves at such a reasonable cost to the reader.
As the author is a practising lawyer and lecturer at the Faculty of Law,
University of Nairobi, this book cannot have a more authoritative source.
PAUL M. WAMBUA
ADVOCATE & LECTURER AT
THE KENYA SCHOOL OF LAW
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INTRODUCTION
This book is written for Law Students, Practitioners, Judicial Officers and
Academics. It is written as a Handbook to be resorted to for quick reference. At
the same time, it provides comprehensive treatment of the subject.
The book covers most of the key areas of Criminal Procedure that interest
the Student, the Practitioner, the Magistrate, the Judge and the Academic. There
are a number of chapters that puritanical students of procedure may consider out
of place but are rendered here owing to their close nexus with procedure in a
manner that underscores the often quoted statement, Procedure is the
handmaiden of Substance. The chapters in the category include those of
Criminal prosecutions, Methods of Controlling Prosecution, Contempt of Court
Proceedings, Directions in the nature of habeas corpus and inquiries as to
sudden deaths.
Elucidation, analysis and exposition of basic requirements of procedure
and aspects of criminal law, criminology and penology that are germane have
been employed and dovetailed to help deal with Kenyan Criminal Procedure. Incases where the use of comparative jurisprudence is deemed necessary reference
has been made to principles of English and American Law. Reference has also
been made to the decisions of the former East African Court of Appeal arising
from Uganda and Tanzania under the 'pari materia' rule. Heavy reliance has
been placed on judgements of the Court of Appeal and the High Court. Owing
to the absence of systematic and sustained law reporting most recent cases thatare used are un reported.
Decisions of the superior courts of Common Law Countries like the
United States of America and England have been used in spite of their little
precedential value, a number of decisions by magistrates have also been referred
to where there is paucity of other judicial opinion. Extensive reliance has been
placed on the Constitution and a number of statutes principally the Criminal
Procedure Code (Cap. 75), The Penal Code (Cap. 63), the Evidence Act (Cap.
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80) and the Traffic Act (Cap. 403). Being a Legal Practitioner and a teacher, the
author has made certain observations and rendered opinion informed by these
experiences but germane to the discourse in this book.
This book is divided into Twenty one Chapters arranged deliberately into
sub-topics for ease of reference and reading. To enhance clarity most chapters
commence with an introduction some of which take a historical bent.
To enhance the reading of this book it is necessary to outline the basic
contents of each of the Twenty One chapters.
Chapter 1 deals with the general nature of Criminal Prosecutions. There is
mention of the Attorney-Generals constitutional position vis-a-vis prosecutions.
There is equally an elaborate discussion on private prosecution.
Chapter 2 deals with the subject of control of prosecutions. These are
basically through, aNolle Prosequiand Withdrawal.
Chapter 3 covers arrest. The requisites for a valid arrest are given. Since
arrests can be with or without a warrant, the circumstances under which the
same can be effected and discussed. The chapter also identifies those who arelegally mandated to effect arrest.
Chapter 4 deals with searches and search warrants. Of special, interest are
searches without warrants and searches with warrants.
Chapter 5 examines the subject of bail. After giving a brief historical
account of the development of the subject, bail in Kenya is examined
extensively. There is a discussion of both pretrial bail and bail pending appealand the factors to be considered in each case. It is also noted that there is a
variance between law and practice and reforms are suggested. The Chapter then
concludes by looking at bail as viewed by the Courts.
Chapter 6 deals with charges and information. It analyses such aspects of
a charge, like contents of a charge, the effect of citing wrong or non-existent
sections of the law, and rules regarding the framing of dirges.
Chapter 7 is on pleas. It examines the importance of and the procedure of
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taking and recording pleas in the subordinate, courts. The pleas of' autrefois
acquit', 'autrefois convict' and pardon are discussed. Change of plea and its
effects is examined as well as the concept of plea bargaining.
Chapter 8 is on trial procedure in the subordinate courts. It gives the
structure of the court system in Kenya and the jurisdiction of Criminal courts.
The trial procedure is examined in detail from the prosecution case, a finding of
prima facie case upto the defence case.
Chapter 9 deals with transfer of cases. It examines factors giving rise to a
transfer and the factors that the High Court takes into cognisance before
effecting a transfer. It concludes by giving the effects of a transfer.
Chapter 10 is on trial in the High Court. It deals with arraignment and
plea-taking and the procedures to be followed.
Chapter 11 is on assessors. It begins with a discussion of the evolution of
the assessor system in Kenya. Comparison between the assessor and the Jurysystem is undertaken. Selection of assessors and their role and/or importance to
trials in the High Court is also undertaken.
Chapter 12 examines procedure in cases of insanity and begins with a
historical account of the law relating to insanity. Insanity is discussed at two
levels:- Insanity at the time of trial and insanity at the time of commission of anoffence.
Chapter 13 is on judgments. It highlights the subtleties of a judgment -
delivery, form and content.
Chapter 14 deals with sentences. After giving a brief historical
development of sentencing and punishment and the objectives of sentencing, the
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various sentences are highlighted. The sentencing of young persons and
sentencing examines committal proceedings beginning with its origin. To
enhance the understanding of the Committal process a brief discussion of the
erstwhile process of preliminary enquiries is undertaken.
Chapter 16 is on appeals. It highlights the rules governing appeals, the
rules governing summary allowance and rejection of appeals and mentions
those entitled to appeal against convictions, sentences and acquittals.
Chapter 16 addresses contempt of court proceedings and the attendant
modes of punishment.
Chapter 18 is on directions in the nature of habeas corpus. It provides
insight into the nature and types of the writ of habeas corpus and concludes by
setting out the procedure for seeking the writ of habeas corpus.
Chapter 19 covers revisions. The procedure on revision is discussed and
the extent of powers on revision. Reference is made to instances such as,revisional jurisdiction when right of appeal exists and is not exercised; a finding
of 'autrefois acquit' vis-a-vis revision and the effect of revision of a civil case
upon a criminal case based on the same facts.
Chapter 20 covers retrial and addresses instances and reasons for which a
retrial may be ordered.Chapter 21 examines enquiries in cases of sudden deaths.
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DEDICATION
Dedicated to my uncles M. T. Onono and Dr. W. E. Onyango whose generosity
in adversity set me on the path of knowledge.
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TABLE OF STATUTES
1. Constitution of Kenya Text of Revised Edition (1998) 1992
s 14 ......................................................................................... 261
s 26 ......................................................................................... 3,4
s 26(3) ...................................................................................... 12
s 26(3) (b) ................................................................................ 4
s 27 ......................................................................................... 144
s 60(1) ...................................................................................... 37
s 65(1) ...................................................................................... 1Q5
(2) ...................................................................................... 105
s 67 .......................................................................................... 105
s 72 ......................................................................................... 32,33
s 72(1) ...................................................................................... 213
s 72(3)(b) ................................................................................. 33
s 72(5) ...................................................................................... 36,37
s 77(1)....................................................................................... 8,188s 81(1) ...................................................................................... 10,36
s 123 ........................................................................................ 36
2. Criminal Procedure Code. (Cap. 75)
s 21& 24 ................................................................................ 16
s 22 ........................................................................................ - 27
s 26 .......................................................................................... 27s 29 .......................................................................................... 18
s 34(1) ..................................................................................... 20
s 36 .......................................................................................... 56,63
s 38 .......................................................................................... 19
s 42 .......................................................................................... 19
s 78........................................................................................... 1H
s 78, 79, 80 & 81 .................................................................... H3
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s 82 .......................................................................................... 8
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s 83 .........................................................................................; 14
s 87 .......................................................................................... 143
s 88 .......................................................................................... 7
s 88(1) ...................................................................................... 37
s 88(1.3) ................................................................................... 134
s 88&89 ................................................................................... H
s 89 .......................................................................................... 34
89(1)..70
s 99 ............................................................................................. 148
s 102 .......................................................................................... 21
s 105 ........................................................................................... 21
s 120 ........................................................................................... 24
s 123 ........................................................................................... 54,64
s 123(1) ....................................................................................... 34,36
s 125 ...................................................................................... . 56
s 130(1) .................................................................................. 65s 131(1) .................................................................................. 65
s 135(1) .................................................................................. 82,133
s 135(2) .................................................................................. 91
s 136 ...................................................................................... 84
s 137 ...................................................................................... 79
s 162 ...................................................................................... 193s 162-167 ............................................................................. 188
s 162 & 280 .......................................................................... 190
s 166 ...................................................................................... 190
s 167 ...................................................................................... 146
s 168 ...................................................................................... 215,222
s 169 ...................................................................................... 218,311
s 170 ....................................................................................... 218,222
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s 171(2) .................................................................................. 244
s 175 ....................................................................................... 235
s 177 ....................................................................................... 243
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s 179 ............................................................... 219,221
s 181 ............................................................... 221,222
s 193 .............................................................. 149
s 201 .............................................................. 161
s 207 ............................................................. 108
s 207(1) .......................................................... 188
s 211 ................................................................ 111
s 214 ............................................................... 137
s 219 ............................................................... 8
s 220 .............................................................. 124,131
s 221 .............................................................. 254
s 230 .............................................................. 131
s 231 .............................................................. 136
s 230(b) .......................................................... 131
s 233 .............................................................. 132
s 234 .............................................................. 131s 230-249 ..................................................... 119
s 235 .............................................................. 153
s 253 .............................................................. 134
s 261 .............................................;................ 181
s 262 .............................................................. 170
s 263 .............................................................. 173s 263 & 297 .................................................. 176
s 274 .............................................................. 136
s 276 .............................................................. 96
s 279(2) .......................................................... 220
s 279(a) .......................................................... 143
(b) ........................................................ 143
s 280 .............................................................. 144,189
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s 283 .............................................................. 149
s 298(1) .......................................................... 165
s 300 .............................................................. 149
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s 305(1) .......................................................... 298
s 322 .............................................................. 160,171
s 322(1) .......................................................... 159
s 330 .............................................................. 165
s 335 .............................................................. 234
s 336 ............................................................... 235
s 343-345 ....................................................... 237
s 345 .............................................................. 238
s 346 .............................................................. 89
s 347 .............................................................. 74
s 348 .........................................;.................... 48
s 348(a) .......................................................... 4,267
s 349 .............................................................. 268
s 352 .............................................................. 269
s 352(2) .......................................................... 270
s 352(a) .......................................................... 272s 354(3) .......................................................... 252
s 354,357 & 358 ........................................... 288
s 357 .............................................................. 48,51,275
s 358 .............................................................. 277
s 359 .............................................................. 277
s 360 or 378 ................................................... 286s 361(1) .......................................................... 7
(1)&(7) ................................................ 7
s 362 ............................................................... 288,295
s 364 ............................................................... 288,295,300
s 364(1) .......................................................... 295,296
s 364(2) .......................................................... 289
s 364(5) .......................................................... 289,299
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s 364(1) (b) ..................................................... 302
s 379 .............................................................. 147
s 382 .............................................................. 73,75,134,160,216,219
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s 385-388 ............................................................................ 3L3
s 389 ................................................................................... 282
s 389(1) ............................................................................... 284,286
(2) .............................................................................. 287
3. Police Act (Cap. 84)
s 23 ..................................................................................... 56
4. Prisons Act (Cap. 90)
s ............................................................................................. 237
5. Traffic Act (Cap. 403)
s ............................................................................................. 244,310
6. Vagrancy Act (Cap. 58)
s ............................................................................................. 18
7. Penal Code (Cap. 63)
s 12 ...................................................................................... 141, 212
s 14(1) ................................................................................. 142
s 15 ...................................................................................... 142s 21 ...................................................................................... 250
s 24 ...................................................................................... 229
s 27(3) ................................................................................. 245
s 31 ...................................................................................... 234
s 35 ..................................................................................... 295
s 58 ...................................................................................... 141s 121 .................................................................................... 257
s 121(1) ............................................................................... 257
s 129(a) ............................................................................... 80
s 228 .................................................................................. 191
s 243(b) ............................................................................... 221
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s 246 ...................................................................................109
s 251 .................................................................................... 239
s 275 ...................................................................................93
s 279 ......................................................................................... 255
s 279(c) ..................................................................................... 52
s 280,281,282 or 283.............................................................. 80
s 296 ......................................................................................... 247
s 304 .........................................;............................................... 96
s 306(a) .................................................................................. 91, 256
s 322......................................................................................... 93
s 323 ......................................................................................... 27,29
s 367(e) ..................................................................................... 75
s 367(e)&(a) ........................................................................... 75
s 352 & 356 ............................................................................. 294
s 389 ......................................................................................... 76
8. Magistrates Courts Act (Uganda)s 7 ............................................................................................. 142
s 11 ........................................................................................... 276
s 197,198 & 199 ...................................................................... 161
9. Public Order Act (Cap. 56)
s 9(1) ......................................................................................... 71
10. Traffic Ordinance 1951 (Uganda)
s 9(a) ......................................................................................... 73
s9(b) .......................................................................................... 73,74
11. Mental Treatment Act (Cap. 248)
s 30 ........................................................................................... 214
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12. Children and Young Persons Act (Cap. 141)
s 16(3) ...........................................................246
s 17 ............................................................... 240, 245
13. Borstal Institutions Act (Cap. 72) 246
14. Administration Police Act (Cap 85) 18
15. Game (Preservation and Control) Act (Cap. 266) (Uganda) 76
16. Privileges and Immunities Act. Cap 179 22, 141
17. The Constitution of Kenya (Amendment) Act, No. 9 of 1997. 35
18. The Statute Law (Repeals and Miscellaneous Amendments) Act, No. 10 of
1997 s ......................................................................................... 141
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ACRONYMS
Kenya Evidence Act.
Criminal Procedure Code.
All England Reports.
Israel Law Reports.
East African Law Reports.
Kenya Law Reports.
Miscellaneous Application
Kenya High Court Decisions.
Court of Appeal Reports.
Uganda Law Reports.
India Law Reports.
Australia Law Reports.
West African Court of Appeal.
Tanzania Law Reports.
Ireland Reports.Criminal Law Review
Criminal Application
Queen's Bench Division
Legal Notice
Master of the Rolls
Chief JusticePenal Code
Chapter
Modern Law Review
Criminal Application
High Court of Tanzania
Attorney-General
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TABLE OF CASES
A.G-vs-Marakaru(1960)EA 484 ....................................................... 265
A.G -vs- Kelly (1938)I.R .................................................................. 306
Abdallah Change -vs- R (1964)EA ................................................... 94
Abdalla Omer -vs- R (1958)EA 725 ................................................. 179
Abdullah -vs- R (1963) EA .............................................................. 50
Abdullahi Ali-vs- R (1958)EA .......................................................... 181
Adan -vs- R [1970] EA ..................................................................... 101
Adam Mwambalafu -vs- R (1966) EA 45.......................................... 89
Aganyi -vs- R (1960)EA ................................................................... 254
Ahmed Hirsi Mohamad -vs- R (1958)EA ......................................... 233
Ahmed Mohamed -vs- R (1959)EA.1087 ......................................... 235
Ahmedali Ali Dhalamasi Sumar -vs- R (1964)EA 481 .................... 308
Alexus Afumu & Another -vs-R (1953)26 K.L.R ............. 108,148
Ali Mohammed Hassani Mpanda -vs- R (1963)EA ......................... 221
Aloys Awori -vs- Uganda (1972)EA 469.................................... 309Amand -vs- Home Secretary & Another (1943) A.C ................... 286
Andiazi -vs- R (1967)EA 813 ........................................................ 175
Andrea s/o Kulinga -vs- R (1958)EA 684 .......................... 159,178
An Application for Directions in the Nature of Habeas
Corpus by Keshavlal Punja, (1955)22 EACA 381 ............... 282,287
Arnold Pudo s/o Aranda -vs- R (1960)EA 380 ..................... 269,271Attorney-General -vs- Times Newspapers Ltd(1973)l All ER ......... 23
Augustine Chebon A. Cherutich -vs- R Cr. App. No.16 of 1982 ..... 162
Avone -vs- R (1969) EA ............................................................ 71,132
Baland Singh-vs-R (1954) EACA .............................................. 182
Baland Singh -vs- R (1954)21 EACA ........................................... 179
Benjamin Sauzier -vs- R (1962)EA ....................................... 94
Bracegirdle -vs- Oxiey (1947)1 All E.R .......................................... 265
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Bratty -vs- Attorney-General for Northern Ireland (1961)3
WLR 965 ................................................................................ 199
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Byarutu Gata -vs- R [1950] 17 EACA ......................................... 101
Chander Kanta Sethi -vs- R (1962)EA 523 .................................... 231
Cherere Gukuli -vs- R (1955)22 EACA 478 ................................. 91
Christopher Omufira Akwabi -vs- R Cr. App. No. 131 of 1989 ...... 80,97
Consolidated Exploration and Finance Co. Ltd -vs- Musgrave
(1900) 64 J.P ......................................................................... 53
Desai -vs- R (1971) EA ................................................................. 99
Desiderio Kawunya -vs- R (1953)20 EACA ................................... 312
Dhalamini -vs- King (1942) A.C 583 ..................................... 166
Durham -vs- US 214 R 2d 862, ................................................ 203,208
Edwards (Inspector or Taxes) -vs-Bairston & Another
(1953)3 All E.R ...................................................................... 266
Elgood -vs- R (1968)EA ...................................................... 273
Ekai Paul -vs- R Crim. App. No. 15 of 1981 .......................... 184
Ellis -vs- State (1930) ALR 783 .............................................. 215
Eliud Mwaura -vs-R Crim. App. No. 446-of 1986 ..................... 38,39Eneriko Lutalo -vs- R (1966)EA 328 ..................................... 216
Ex-parte Malley 50 Nev.248 (1927)53 A.L.R 395 ........................ 45
Fatehali Manji -vs- R (1966) EA 343 .............................................. 3Q6
Fazal & Tryabali and Another -vs- R (1959) EA 29 ................ 277
Fernandes-vs-R (1957) EA ......................................................... 304
Francis Juma Musungu-vs-R (1958) EA ................................... lg2Francis Muzungu (Francis) -vs-R (1958)EA ........................... 179
Galos & Another -vs- R (1944) A.C ......................................... 308
Grace Ibingira -vs- A.G. of Uganda (1966)EA p ............................. 285
Gouriet-vs-Union of Post Office Workers (1978) A.C 435 ......... 5,135
Govindji -vs- Regina (1954) 21 EACA ..................................... 52
Habib Kara Vesta -vs-R (1943)1 EACA ..................................... 181
Haining & Others -vs- R (1971)EA 421 ................................... 269
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Hando -vs- R (1951)18 EACA ................................................. 138
Hasham -vs- R Crim. Appeal No. 582 of 1967 (Un-rep) ................ 50
Islam Ali-Abdullah -vs- R Crim. Application No. NAI.2 of 1989 .... 52
Jaffer s- R (1973) EA ................................................................ 64
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James -vs- R (1950)18 EACA ................................................... 253
John Brown Shilenje -vs- R Cr. Appl. 180 of 1980 .............. 113 116
Jones -vs- National Coal Board (1957)2 All E.R. ..................... 152
Jopley Constantine Oyieng' -vs- R - Criminal Appeal No. 45
of 1988 ................................................................................ 3
Joseph Odhengo s/o Ogongo -vs- R (1954)21 EACA ..................... 258
Kabeni -vs- R (1970) EA 503 ................................................... 236
Kaisa-vs- R (1975)EA ...................................................................... 245
Kamau s/o Muga-vs- (1963)EA ........................................................ 84
Kamau -vs- R (1975)EA ................................................................... 272
Kamlesh M. Pattni -vs- R Cri. App. No. 31 of 1995 ........................ 56
Kamlesh M. Pattni -vs- R Cri. App. No. 88 of 1995 ................ 56
Kamundi -vs- R [1973] EA 540 ................................................ 103
Kamwana s/o Muria -vs- R (1958) EA 471 .............................. 82
Kanja Muguku -vs- R Cr. App. No. 397 of 1983 ........................ 255
Kaplotwa s/o Tarino -vs- R (1957) EA 553 ...................................... 192Karioko s/oGichohi.vs-R(1950)17 EACA ...................................... 270
Katungo Mbuki -vs- R (1962)EA 682 ....................................... 255
Kenera Opidi-vs-R (1965) EA 614 .................................................. 132
Keshallila -vs- R (1963)EA ...................................................... 298
Keteta -vs- R (1972)EA 532 ...................................................... 246
Khalif-vs- R (1973)EA 364 .....................;................................ 251Kimanzia -vs-R (1972) EA 495 ................................................... 237
Kimani & Maina -vs- Nathan Kahara H.C.C (Misc) App. No. 11
of 1988 ................................................................................ 135
King Emperor -vs- Tramal Reddi (1901) ILR 24 Madras 523 ........163 167
Kinyori s/o Kiraditu -vs- R (1956) EACA 480 ....................... 151
Kirby vs- King (1714)93 E.R. 338 ......................................... 40
Kityo -vs- Uganda (1967)EA ..................................................... 27 84
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Kionywaki-vs-R (1968) EA 195 ...................................................... 19
Kiwala -vs- Uganda (1967)EA 758 ...................................... 290 292
Kuyate -vs- R (1967)EA 815 ............................................................ 272
Koech -vs- Republic .................................................................... 28
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Laban Koti -vs-R (1962)EA 439 ...................................................... 134
Lall Khan -vs- R 17 EACA ............................................................. 286
Lamabutu Mokalya -vs- R (1958)EA 706 ...................................... 180
Lambert Houareau -vs- R (1957) EA 575 ........................................ 161
Laurenti Busolo s/o Mukumba -vs- R (1957)EA ................. 165,179
Lebiningin -vs- R (1974) EA .................................................... 78
Letoyiania Another -vs- R (1972)EA .............................................. 246
Lighten alias Magere -vs- R (1951)18 EACA ................................. 270
Loibon -vs- R (1949)16 EACA ........................................................ 132
Lujo -vs- R (1946)EA 13 EACA ............................................. 132
Mahlikilili Dhalamini & Others -vs- R (1942) A.C 589
....... 163,182
Mahmood vs- R (1974)EA .............................................................. 57
Maina vs- R (1970)EA 370 ...............;................................... 247, 269
Margaret Magiri Ngui -vs- R Crim. App. No. 59 of 1985 ............... 36
Masran -vs- R (1960) EA 321 ........................................................... 47Maumba -vs- R [1966] EA ............................................................... 103
Mbebi vs- R (1957) EA 426 ........................................................... 112
M'Kanake -vs- R (1973)EA ............................................................. 309
Meek -vs- Powell (1952)1 K.B ......................................................... 297
Merali & Others -vs- R (1971) EA .................................................. 310
Merali -vs- R (1972) E.A 47 ............................................................. 48, 51Mehar Singh Bensel -vs- R (1959)EA 813 ..................................... 160
Mehar Singh vs- R (1951) U.L.R .................................................... 243
M'bui -vs-Dyer (1967) EA .............................................................. 20, 33
M'Mwenda -vs- R [1957] E.A 429 .................................................. 101
Michael Otieno Ademba -vs- R (1983)1 C.A.R 187,
(Court of Appeal Reports) ....................................................... 51
Michael Meshaka -vs- R (1962)EA ...................................... .. 292, 293
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Misana -vs- R (1967)EA 334 ........................................... 279
Mka -vs- R (1969)EA 598 .................................................... 232
Motichand -vs- R (1972) EA 399 ............................................. 47
Mohamedi & Another -vs- R (1973)EA 1907 ................................ 164
Mohamed vs- R (1969)EA .............................................. 233
Mohamed Juma -vs- R.I.T.L.R ......................................... 232
Mohammed Hussein -vs- Price Controller (1943)10 EACA ........... 275
Mohanlal Trivedi -vs- R............................................................ 26
Mongella-vs-R (1934)1 EACA ................:............................... 133
Mukindia -vs- R (1966)EA 425 ................................................. 242
Mulakh -vs- R (1954)21 EACA 383 ........................................... 270
Mulaba Mugeni -vs- R (1964)EA 518 ........................................ 132
Mutemba s/o Rutehenda -vs- R (1953)20 EACA ...................... 271
Murimi -vs- R (1967)EA 542................................................... 280
Musa s/o Bakari -vs- R (1968) H.C.D (Tanzania) No. 239 ............. 251
Musoke -vs- Uganda .................................................................. 34Mutwalumbi Bukuli -vs- Busoga (1964)EA 713 .......................... 185
Muyimbo -vs- R (1969) EA 433 ............................................... 307
Mwasya -vs- R (1967) EA - 345 ................................................... 75
Mwangi -vs- R (1974) EA .......................................................... 90
Mwangi s/o Njoroge -vs- R (1954)21 EACA 377 ........................ 16
Nathani -vs. R (1965)EA .................................................. 85Nathan Godfrey Odhiambo Obiro -vs- R (1962)EA 650 ............... 294
Narrotthandas Vithlam -vs- R (1957) EA 343 ........................ 109
Narothanda Vithlani -vs- R (1957)EA 343 ................................ 149
Nahashon Marenya -vs- R Cr. App. No. 786 of 1982. .................. 71
Ndirangu -vs- R (1959) EA 875 .................................................. 174
Ndirangu Juma-vs-R (1953)20 EACA 190 ................................. 255
Ngige s/o Gatonye -vs- R (1963) EA 663 .................................... 78
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Nilsson -vs- R (1970)EA 599 ....................................................... 249,253
Nsubuga -vs- R (1968) EA ....................................................... 65
Ogalo s/o Owuora-vs-R( 1954)21 EACA ................................. 253
Oman -vs- R (1956)23 EACA 580 .......................................... 153
O'Neal -vs- State 35 Ga. App. 665 (1926) ................................ 215
Osman & Another -vs- R (1972)EA 429 .................................... 237
People Ex-parte Summons -vs- Snow 340 iu 469 (1688-93) I.N.P .. 46
People -vs- Tinder 19, Cal.539 .................................................. 44
Pita vs- R EACA Cr. App. No. 66 of 1972 (Unreported) .............. 92
Popat -vs- R (1950)17 EACA .............................................. 153
R -vs- Abdulla Mali (1920-29)3 ULR ....................................164,177
R -vs- Assa Singh (1937)4 EACA ................................................. 164
R -vs- Barronet and Allain (1852) 17 Y.P .................................... 42
R-vs- Bazilio Sentamu (1936-51)6 ULR .................................... 159
R-vs- Badger (1843)7 ].P ........................................................ 53
R-vs- Bennett and Newton, 9 Cr. App. R. ....................................... 278R -vs- Grays Justices, Ex parte Graham (1982) 3 All E.R 635 ........ 9
R -vs- Rose (1885 - 99) All E.R 851 ............................................. 41
R -vs- Phillips (1974) A.C 111 ...................................................... 41
R -vs- Peter Kariuki (1976) ............................................................. 43
R -vs- Muturi Kigano 1975 .......................................................... 44
R -vs-Vallet (1951)1 All E.R ..................................................... 44R -vs- London Sessions Appeal Committee Ex-Parte Beautmont
(1951)1 All E.R ........................................................ ...................... 45
R -vs- Porter (1908-10) All E.R. .................................................... 54
R -vs- Gabhai jessa, High Court Bulletin No. 54/1963 at .............. 54
R -vs-Gajjan Singh & Others (1947)14 EACA 111 (P.42) ............ 55
R -vs- Wood Green Crown Court, Ex-parte Jemima Home
Reported in Criminal Law Review (1964) Vol.39 641 .... 69
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R-vs- Nottingham Justices Ex-parte Davies (1980)2 All E.R775..... 58
R -vs- Dalip Singh (1943)1 EACA ............................................. 82
R -vs- Muir (1938)2 All E.R 516 ................................................. 83
R -vs- McBride (1961) 3 W.L.R 549 ............................................ 84
R -vs- Scaramanga (1963)2 All E.R 582 ...................................... 86
R -vs- Molley (1921)2 KB 364 ........................................................ 87
R-vs-Devett 8, C&P 639 ................................................................. 87
R -vs- Thompson (1914)2 KB .................................................... 87, 33
R -vs- Benfield 2, Burr.980, 983 ................................................ 88
R-vs- Fuller 1 B & P ..................................................................... 88
R -vs- Boyle (1954)2 All ER 721 ................................................. 91
R -vs- Guest (1964)3 All E.R 385 ............................................. 95,103
R -vs- Tucker 4 Burr. 2046 .......................................................... 95
R -vs- Phillips 2 Str. 921.......................................... 95
R -vs Yates (1920)15Cr. App. Rep ................................................. 96
R -vs- Malakwen Arap Mutei (1949)23 KLR ............................... 111,158R -vs- Garden (1879)5 QBI ....................................................... 128
R -vs- Gee (1939)2 KB 442 ....................................................... 136
R -vs- Ndolo (1926)10 KLR 11 ................................................. 123
R-vs- Jonah Orao Anguka, H.C.Crirninal Case No.41 of 1992 ........ 135
R -vs- Mushraf Akhtar (1964) EA ................................................ 137
R -vs-Main (1954)21 EACA ......................................................... 137R -vs- Akatendasama (1956)23 EACA 487 ................................ 137
R -vs- Home Secretary ex parte Soblen (1963)2 QB ........................ 283
R -vs- Gusambizi Wasonga (1948)15 EACA ................................ 163
R -vs- Tomasi Mufumu (1959)EA 625 ....................................... 148
R -vs- Chacha (1953)20 EACA 339 ............................................... 176
R -vs- Yonasani Egalu (1942) EACA .....:....................................... 140 143
R -vs- Waithaka (1963)EA ...............................................................140
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R -vs- Mungu Atosha (1938)5 EACA ............................................. 130
R -vs- Deputy Chairman of Inner London Quarter Sessions
(1970)2 WLR ............................................................... ............. 142
R -vs- Obau 15 KLR 107 ............................................................ 149,164
R -vs-Leiawan Leseroi (1964) EA III, Supreme Court of Kenya .... 144
R-vs-Daudji (1948)15 EACA ........................................................ 143
R -vs- Salim Bin Karama (1951)18 EACA ..................................... 143
R -vs- Loizeau (1956)23 EACA 566 .......................................... 143
R -vs- Livingstone Anyanga, Crim. Appeal No. 125 of 1989 ........ 147
R -vs- Grimsby Recorder (1951)2 All ER 889 ................................ 148
R -vs- W. Y. Wilken (1965)EA ........................................................ 176
R -vs- Anyelwisye Undule (1965) EA 451 ...................................... 193
R -vs- Beynon (1957)2 WLR 956 .................................................... 193
R -vs- Roberts (1954) Crim. L. R. ................................................. 194
R-vs-Mwita (1948)15 EACA ........................................................ 132
R -vs- Ndambere (1947)14 EACA ................................................. 133R -vs- Mutwiwa (1935)2 EACA ..................................................... 183
R -vs- Podola (1959)3 All E.R 418 ................................................. 194
R -vs- Juston (1945)6 Cos 385 ....................................................... 195
R-vs- Pritchard (1836)7 C & P ...................................................... 195
R -vs- Barnett (1956) Cr. Law Rev. 560 ......................................... 195
R -vs- Bastian (1958)1 WLR 413 .................................................. 197498R -vs- Bishom s/o Mwango 2 TLR, ............................................... 232
R -vs- Price (1962)3 WLR 1308 .................................................... {97
R -vs- Oliver Smith (1910) Cr. App. Rep. ..................................... 197
R -vs- Casey (1947)32 Cr. App. Rep. ............................................ 197
R -vs- Cain 25 Cr. App. Rep.2, ..................................................... 152
R -vs- Noormohamed Kanji (1937)4 EACA ............................ 12
R -vs- Jack Jezelani (1947)14 EACA ..........................................^Q
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R -vs- Wachira (1975)EA ......................................................... 267
R -vs- Kidasa (1973)EA 368 ..................................................... 268
R -vs- Mallo (1958) EA II .......................................................... 268
R -vs-Kemp (1957)1 399 .................................................................. 193
R -vs- Nott (1959) Crim. L.R 365 ..................................................... 199
R -vs- Dickie (1984)3 All E.R ................................................ 204
R -vs- Magata s/o K-achehakana (1957)EA 330 .............................. 205
R -vs- Smith 8 Cr. App. Rep. ..................................................... 200
R -vs- Dixon (1961)3 All E.R 460 ............................................. 200
R -vs- Duke (1961)3 All E.R 737 ................................................. 200
R -vs- Indo Parsad Dave (1963)EA .............................................. 296 297
R -vs- Tuttle (1929)A11 E.R .................................................... 297
R -vs- Ajit Singh s/o Vir Singh (1957)EA 822 ................................ 299
R -vs-Telenga (1967)EA 407 ..................................................... 98,295
R -vs- Morris (1961)2 WLR 986 .................................................. \QQ
R -vs- Mandi s/o Ngoda (1963) EA ................................................. 202R -vs- Malakwen Arap Mute (1949)22 KLR ..................................... m 153
R -vs- Sironga & Mindo (1918)7 KLR ............................................. 291
R -vs- Orunyo (1970)EA ............................................................. 251
R -vs-Wamasuya s/o Bola (1944)11 EACA ................................ 154
R -vs- Sherrif 20 cox Cr. C. 334 ................................................ 155
R-vs-Makali& 3 Others Crim. App. No. 4&- 5 of 1994 ....... 750 757R -vs- Pinckrey (1904)2 KB ....................................................... 284
R -vs- Gray (1900)2 QB ................................................................ 261
R-vs- Zablon Ogalo ObonyoCr. Case No. 24 of 1991 .................. 22
R-vs-Heifer (1951)1 KB .................................................................. 49
R-vs-Guest ex p. Anthony [11964]3 All ER 385 .............................. 103
R -vs- Lokidilio s/o Laitogon, Confirmation case No.344 of
1958 (1958)EA ......................................................................... 234
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R -vs- Saidi Kabila Kiunga (1963)EA I ....................................... 191
R .vs Sowedi Mukasa (1946)13 EACA C.A ................................... 249
R -vs- Parks (1961)3 All E.R 633 .................................................. 274
R-vs-Nathani (1965)EA 777 .......................................................... 250
R -vs- Paulo Lwevola (1943)10 EACA ............................... 178,181
R -vs-Cosma (1955)22 EACA 450 ................................................ 134
R -vs- Mathenge s/o Muriemo (1938)5 EACA ............................ 150
R (Through J. K. Mbugua & 2 others) -vs- William R. Ole
Ntimama. Private Prosecution case No. 13 of 1995 ...................... 6
R (Through Afro Travels Ltd) -vs- A. K. Holdings, Trust Bank
Holding, Ajay Shah Cr. Revision Case No. 56 of 1995 .................. 6
R-vs-Eric Kotut & 5 Others Private Prosecution case No. 1 of 1994 ...6
R-vs-The Chairman of London Sessions Ex-parteDownes(1954)lQBI ... 96
R -vs- Abdaka Mali (1921) 3 ULR ................................................. 171
R -vs- Odera (1973)EA 392 ..................................................... 238
R-vs-Yowasi (1939)6 EACA ......................................................... 170R-vs-Wilkin (1964) unreported ..............:...................................... 175
Raghbin Singh Lamba -vs- R (1958) EA 337 ................................... 47,4.9
Rajabu Jalum -vs- R (1965)EA 365 ................................................. 181
Rarilal Shah -vs- R (1958) EA .............................................. 222,311
Raila Odinga -vs- George Saitoti & Others Misc. App. No. 31 of 1995 .6
Re Castings (1958)42 Cr. App. Rep. ............................................. 217Republic (Through James Orengo & 7 Others) vs Rashid
Sajjad & 3 Others Misc. Appl. No. 37/1997 .............................. 42
Republic (Through James Orengo) vs Rashid Sajjad & 13
others. Misc. Appl. No. 41 of 1997 .......................................... 42
Richard Kimani & S. M. Maina -vs- Nathan Kihara - High
Court Criminal (Revision) Case No.ll of 1983 .......................... 41
King -vs- Thomas 2, East P.C 934 ................................................. 37
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Robert Ndecho & Ogonyo Luora-vs-R( 1951) 18 EACA ................ 219
Robbert Martins-vs-R Criminal Case No. 1321 of 1975 ................. 43
Ross -vs- R (195DA11 E.R 451 ..................................................... 3Q6
S (An Infant) By Parsons (His next Friend) -vs- Recorder of
Manchester (1970)2 WLR ................................................ 103,301
Sabur -vs- R (1958) EA ..........................................................72,104
Samwiri^vs- R (1953)20 EACA ................................................. 312
Saina vs-R (1974) EA ............................................................... 91
Shah -vs- R (1976) C.A unreported ............................................... 47
Selemani s/o Ussi-vs- R (1963)EA 44 2 ...................................... 180
Semi Longa -vs- R (1964)ea 512 ................................................... 132
Semuyaga -vs- Uganda (1975)EA ...................................... 296,302
Seidi -vs- R (1969) EA ................................................................ 82
Seifu s/o Bakari -vs- R (1960)EA 338 ........................................... 250
Sey -vs- King (1950)13 WACA ....................................................... 13
Shiani -vs- R [1972]EA 557 .......................................................... 104Shire -vs- R (1967)EA ................................................................ 280
Sirasi- vs- R (1936)3 EACA .......................................................... 275
Somo -vs- R (1972) 476 at 480 ...................................................... 47
Sowedi Kauta-vs-R (1933)13 K.L.R ............................................ 134
Stanley Munga Githunguri-vs-R Misc. Application No. 271 of 198510
Suleman Ahmed -vs- R (1922)9 EALR ........................................... 292Surat Singh -vs- R (1946)13 EACA ............................................ 251
Tamano -vs- R (1969) EA ............................................................ 310
TheRepublic,ThroughDevjiKanji-vs-DavendraValjiHalai(1978)KLR ........
......... 45
Torroha Mohammed Torroha -vs- R Criminal Appeal
No. NAI.5 of 1988 (Unrep) ..................................................... 53
Uganda -vs- Keneri Opidi (1965)EA 614 ................................ 73
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Uganda -vs- Zubairi and Another (1973)EA 470 .......................... 77
Uganda -vs- Polasi (1970)EA 638 ..................................... 300,302
Valezi Kashiza -vs-R (1954)21 EACA 389 ................................... 133
Wachira s/o Njenga -vs- R (1954)21 EACA 398 ................ 220,221
Wafula s/o Waniamira -vs- R (1957)EA 498 ' ...............................
Wafula -vs- R (1954)EA 498 .......................................................
Wandera Reuben Kubanisi -vs- R (1965) EA 572 .......................... 75
Wanjema -vs-R [19711 EA 493 .................................................... 14
Ward -vs- James (1965)1 All E.R 563 ............................................ 159
Washington s/o Odingo -vs- R (1954) EACA 392 ....................... 59
Washington s/o Odindo -vs- (1954) EACA 392 ............................
Washington s/o Odindo-vs-R (1954)21 EACA 392 .....................
Wenlock-vs-River Dee Co; 19 Q.B.D ....................................... 17
Wheatley -vs- Lodge (1971)1 All ER ............................................. 5
Witherley -vs- Witherley (1608)2 Rolle's Abridg ............... 83 284
Yakobo -vs- R (1945)12 EACA ..................................................... 775Yokobo Uma and Another -vs- R (1963)EA 542 ..........................
Yosefu Muwonge and Two Others -vs-Uganda Cr. App. No. 86
of 1965 (unreported) ............................................................... 779
Yowana Sebuzikira -vs- R (1965) EA 684 ..................................... 133
Yozefu & Another-vs-R (1969) E.A ............................................ 75
Yusuf Maumb -vs- R (1966)EA ..................................................... 95Zaver -vs- R (1952)19 EACA ..................................................... 779
Zaverchand Hemraj Shah -vs- R (1960) EA 562 ............................. 73
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CHAPTER ONE
THE NATURE OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTIONS
A. INTRODUCTION
Criminal procedure is the process through which substantive penal laws
are applied to achieve their general purpose. It is the means and mode of
bringing to trial those suspected of criminal activities.
The procedure of trying a suspect is an elaborate one and runs from the
time of arrest, through interrogation and charge, to the time of taking the
suspect to court for the plea, trial, judgment, sentence, appeal and revision of a
case if necessary.
Criminal proceedings are instituted in the name of the State as the
complainant. Thus in any one criminal case the complaint will appear as
Republic-vs- Wachir a,Wachira being the name of the accused person. Thismeans that in law every crime is against the State1and, therefore, the state takes
the responsibility to seek redress on behalf of the victim by punishing the
offender.
There has nevertheless been the argument among criminologists as to
who actually is the complainant in criminal prosecutions: the State or the victim
of the crime? The answer is that the State is as much a complainant in any onecriminal prosecution as the victim of the crime. Being under the duty to protect
the society, the State takes the responsibility to prosecute those who commit
crimes. But there is almost always a background complainant in crimes
involving private property and crimes against the person. Such complainants
usually appear only as prosecution witnesses. In most cases they appear as the
1 See Rufus Riddlesbarger v. Brian John Robson (1959) E.A. 841.
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victims of the crime. The State, on the other hand, is usually the complainant
and the prosecutor. Since it is the state which through its legislative arm enacts
laws, breach of such laws by any criminal activity is in direct conflict with the
interests of the state. Thus, as the custodian of the legal and administrative
order, the state becomes a complainant when her laws are breached.
B. THE ATTORNEY GENERAL'S CONSTITUTIONAL POSITION
The Constitutional basis of criminal prosecution is founded on section 26(3) of
the constitution which provides:
"The Attorney-General shall have power in any case in which he
considers it desirable so to do:-
(a) to institute and undertake criminal proceedings against any person
before any court (other than a court martial) in respect of anyoffence alleged to have been committed by that person;
(b) to take over and continue any such criminal proceedings that have
been instituted or undertaken by himself or another person or
authority and
(c) to discontinue at any stage before judgment is delivered any
criminal proceedings instituted or undertaken by himself or anyother person or authority".
THE NATURE OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTIONS
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The foregoing provision underscores that under Kenyan law it is the State,
through the Attorney-General, which is bestowed with the power of controlling
criminal prosecutions. This was the position of the court of Appeal of Kenya in
the case of Jopley Constantine Oyieng' -v- Republic2 wherein the court
observed:-
"... in the instant case, the appellant was pursuing a right to file
a private prosecution. Only the Attorney-General has the right
under section 26 of the Constitution to institute criminal
proceeding's. No similar right is extended to a private
individual and it is obvious that section 88(1) of the Criminal
Procedure Code does not override section 26 of the
constitution...3
The state is therefore the prosecutor in all criminal prosecutions4. That
power of the state to control all criminal proceedings subsists whether theproceedings have been initiated by a complaint and the prosecution conducted
by a private individual under the provisions of section 895 of the Criminal
Procedure Code.
The problem of who has the right to prosecute is even more pronounced
in respect of appeals. On the one hand section 348(a) provides that;
"when an accused person has been acquitted on a trial held by a
subordinate court, or where an order refusing to admit a
complaint or formal, charge, or an order dismissing a charge,
2 Criminal Appeal No. 45 of 1988.
3 Ibid
4 Sec Riddlesbarger, Supra, note.
5 The section allows a private individual to prosecute a crime subject to
permission being granted by a magistrate with Jurisdiction,
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has been made by a subordinate court, the Attorney-General
may appeal to the High Court from the acquittal or order on a
matter of law".
This provision seems to oust from the scope, of a private prosecutor
conduct of criminal appeal, and to rest on the Attorney-General monopoly right
of prosecuting criminal appeals a position which was upheld in Riddlesbarger v
Robson6.On the other hand, the Court of Appeal in RepublicThro' Devji Kanji
v Davendra Valj i H alai7 held that a private prosecutor has a right of appeal
against an acquittal. Faced with those two conflicting authorities, in the case of
Charles Wainaina v H. K. Ndegwa8the High Court decided that it was bound
by the latter case being the most recent in point of time.
On the whole, the cumulative effect of section 26 of the Constitution of
Kenya and section 348(a) of the Criminal Procedure Code is that it is the
Attorney-General who has the ultimate and undisputed control over all
prosecutions.
C. PRIVATE7PROSECUTION
The State's constitutional and legal rights over criminal prosecutions are
not exclusive. A private individual other than the Attorney-General may also
institute criminal proceedings if he/she has reason and probable cause to believethat an offence has been committed. This right is recognised under section 26(3)
(b) of the Constitution which also empowers the Attorney-General to take over
and continue any such criminal proceedings that have been instituted or
undertaken by another person or authority.
6 Supra,note 1.
7 (1978) KLR 1978.8 Criminal Appeal No. 925 of 1979, High Court, Nairobi (unreported).
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Section 89 of the Criminal Procedure Code confers the right to institute criminal
proceedings on any person by means of complaint to a Magistrate, and section
88 confers the right to any person to conduct the prosecution subject to the
permission of "any Magistrate trying the case". The right to private prosecution
has been said to be "a useful constitutional safeguard against capricious, corrupt
or biased failure or refusal of police forces and the office of Director of public
prosecutions to prosecute offenders against the criminal law9".
A private individual who wishes to institute a private prosecution must
first make a complaint to the Magistrate after which the Magistrate may upon
being satisfied grant permission for private prosecution. But there are conditions
which a private prosecutor must fulfil before the Magistrate grants the
permission. Such conditions were stated, by the High Court of Kenya in the
case of Richard Kimani & M. Maina -vs- Nathan Kahara10
thus:-
"When an application is made under section 88 to conduct a prosecution,
we think that the Magistrate should question the applicant to ascertain whether
a report has been made to the Attorney-General or to the police and with whatresult. The Magistrate should also askhimselfhow is the complainant involved?
What is his LOCUSSTANDI? Has he personally suffered injury or damage or
is he motivated by malice, or political considerations?".
Thus in granting permission for a private prosecution, the discretion of the
Magistrate must be exercised judicially, sparingly and only on extremely good
grounds. This is to avoid misuse of the right to private prosecution for personalvendetta and vengeful intentions. The Court further emphasised the importance
of private prosecution by stating:-
"...the right of Private Prosecution is essential to counteract
9 Gouriet VUnion of post office workers (1978) AC 435 at 477.10
High Court Criminal (Revision) case No. 11 of 1983
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attempts by wealthy and influential people to stifle prosecutions
when offences by themare alleged in reports to the police.11
But the question has arisen as to the validity of a private prosecution
commenced and/or accomplished without prior permission of the Magistrate.12
Since there are certain conditions which the Magistrate must consider
before granting or refusing permission for private prosecution, one would
assume that without the Magistrate's permission any prosecution or purported
prosecution by a private individual is a nullity. This issue was raised in the case
of The Republi c, through Devji Kanji -v- Davendra Valj i Halai.13 In that case,
the appellant brought a private prosecution in the Senior Resident Magistrate's
Court, Nairobi, against the respondent. Both parties were represented by
counsel and, at the close of the prosecution case, counsel for the respondent
took the objection that the private prosecutor had not obtained permission from
the court to prosecute the case, as required by section 88(1) of the Criminal
Procedure Code. The Senior Resident Magistrate upheld the objection, and heldthe proceedings to be a nullity. He was upheld by the High Court (Sachdeva, J.)
exercising revisionary jurisdiction which had been invoked. The appellant
appealed against the High Court decision and it was held that where all persons
concerned are aware that a private prosecution and the parties are represented
by counsel, if no objection is raised to the absence of formal permission from
11 Ibid
12 See decisions in the unreported cases of Raila Odinga v Prof. George Saitoti & Others. Misc.
Application No. 31 of 1995; Kamlesh Mansukhlal Pattni v Republic. Criminal Appeal No. 88 of 1995;
R (Through Joseph Kairu Mbugua & 2 others) v William Rongurwa Ole Ntimama, Private Prosecution
Case No. 13 of 1995.
R (Through Afro Travels Ltd) v A. K. Holdings Ltd, Trust Bank. Ltd, Ajay Shah , Criminal Revision
Case No. 56 of 1995. . R v Eric Arap Kotut &5 Others Private Prosecution No. 1 of 1994,
Republic (through James Orengo & 7 others) v Rashid Sajjad & 4 others. Misc. Appl. No. 37 of 1997
(28/8/1997)
Republic (through James Orengo) vs Rashid Sajjad & 13 others, Misc. Appl. No. 41 of 1997 (22/9/97)
13 [1978] KLR 178
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D. LIMITATION OF TIME
Justice delayed is justice denied is a legal maxim but there is no legal
prescription for the period constitutes "delay" in criminal cases nor is there any
provision for redress of "denial" of justice due to delay, however, the
constitution provides that such prosecution must commence within reasonable
time. Section 77(1) of the Constitution of Kenya provides that;
"If a person is charged with a criminal offence, then, unless the
charge is withdrawn, the case shall be afforded a fair bearing
within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial court
established by law".
The question has always been: What period of time constitutes "reasonable"
time? In general criminal prosecutors are never time barred except in special
circumstances such as contemplated under section 219 of the Criminal
Procedure Code which provides;-
"Except where a longer time is specifically allowed by law, no
offence the maximum punishment for which does not exceed
imprisonment for six months, or a fine of one thousand shillings,
or both, shall be triable by a surbodinate court unless the
charge or complaint relating to it is laid within twelve monthsfrom the time when the matter of the charge or complaint
arose".
The absence of time limit notwithstanding, criminal prosecution must be
initiated promptly and without undue delay. This is because, any criminal
prosecution is generally presumed to have the object of harmonizing the society
and ridding it of activities perilous to social good. It would therefore defeat the
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intention of good government, to bring in prosecution founded on a crime
whose peril has waned due to the passage of time. In the words of Lord
Shawcross, Britains Chief Prosecutor at the Nuremberg trial of Nazi war
criminals, evidence given after a long lapse of time would be "unsafe after four
weeks and hopeless after 40 years14". Such prosecution, may be construed to
pursue not the establishment of peace and tranquility, but execution of personal,
social or political vendetta and as the court observed in the case of Rv- Gray
Justices ex par te Graham15
:
"In our opinion, delay of itself, with nothing more, if sufficiently
prolonged, could in some cases be such as to render criminal
proceedings brought long after the events said to constitute the
offence both vexatious and an abuse..."
There are, however, certain instances when institution of criminal
proceedings against a suspect might be withheld for a long time whileinvestigations are carried out. Morally, this is a better alternative to arresting a
suspect and keeping him in remand under the pretext that investigations are still
being carried out. But it offers no excuse for a prosecution to be brought against
a person after a period of time when even some of the prosecution witnesses
have died, and others can hardly remember what actually took place. Such
action may prejudice an accused person to the extent that his constitutionalrights under section 77 of the Constitution are abused. In the case of Stanley
Munga Githungurivs- R16, the High Court of Kenya stated.:-
"There is no time l imit to the prosecution of serious offences
14 See The Times,May 13, 1991, P53
15 (1982)3 All ER, at 65316
Miscellaneous Application No. 2 of 1985, High Court, Nairobi, unreported.
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except where a limitation is imposed by statute....In so far as the
time limit is concerned the Attorney General is therefore free to
prosecute provided he does not offend the fundamental rights
conferred by section 77(1) as protected by section 84(1) of the
Constitution".
The underlying principle in the above case is that the prosecution must be
brought within a reasonable time. Although the issue of "reasonable" time is to
be judged by the circumstances surrounding each particular case, courts will
generally be reluctant to entertain delayed prosecutions in absence of proper
explanation for the delay. The delay itself must be reasonable.
CONCLUSION
The following points are demonstrable from the foregoing that:-
(i) The state through the Attorney-General, has an overall and residuary
control over all criminal prosecutions in Kenya. This has its basis both in the
Constitution and the Criminal Procedure Code. It is however more pronounced
in criminal appeals.
(ii) In cases in which a public prosecutor (the Attorney-General) does notwish to commence criminal proceedings, a special provision is made
under sections 88 and 89 of the Criminal Procedure Code to enable a
private individual to institute criminal proceedings by a complaint made
to the Magistrate. Before the Magistrate grants permission for private
prosecution, he must be satisfied that prima facie the commission of an
offence has been disclosed and the complaint is neither frivolous nor
vexatious.
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(iii) The right to private prosecution is a constitutional safeguard against
inertia or partiality on the part of authority and it is the best legal check
against corruptible laxity on the part of the state to initiate criminal
proceedings against suspected offenders.
(iv) Although permission of the Magistrate is a statutory requirement before a
private prosecution is commenced, such prosecution is not rendered invalid for
want of permission of the Magistrate. Provided that no objection is raised to the
absence of formal permission from the Magistrate to the institution of such
proceedings until after the close of the prosecution case, such permission may
properly be inferred from the fact that the trial has been allowed to proceed this
far.
(v) The underlying principle of private prosecution is that the Private
Prosecutor must have a locus standi such that his complaint is not onemerely founded on political or other personal considerations.
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CHAPTER TWO
METHODS OF CONTROLLING PROSECUTIONS
A. INTRODUCTION
The power of controlling prosecutions is vested in the Attorney General under
section 26(3) of the Constitution.1 The major methods of control are the
instruments of nolle prosequi and withdrawal. The former entitles the Attorney
General to take over and continue any criminal proceedings and the latter
empowers him to withdraw proceedings at any stage before judgment is
delivered.
B. NOLLE PROSEQUI
A Nolle Prosequi is a statement that the Republic intends to discontinue the
proceedings and is entered by the Attorney-General. In the case of crispus
nj ogu-vs-the attorney general2 a nolle prosequi was defined to mean :
A Nolle Prosequi is procedural device which has its origins in English
Common Law. Under English Constitutional System the monarch is theconstitutional head of the courts.
The powers to commence and terminate proceedings lies with the
1 See the Constitution of Kenya (1998) 1992. Text See also Chapter 1, Supra. The government has created the
office of the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) but this has not removed the Attorney-General from his
position as the overall in charge of prosecutions. It is arguable that the office of DPP as currently constituted is no
more than an administrative office and should not be confused with the office of the DPP in a place like England
where the DPP actually directs prosecutions2 High Court of Kenya, Criminal application No. 39 of 2000
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monarch. A nolle prosequibecomes merely a procedural device through
which the monarch can exercise her prerogative powers to end criminal