creating a new country

People and Government Government is the way societies organize themselves to make decisions and getthings done. Suppose that someday you share a house with three or four otherstudents. How would you make decisions? Most people would talk to one anotherand then decide what to do.

How do we make decisions in a community where thousands of people live?Or in a country where millions of people live? Some kind of organization isneeded. That organization is called government.

7 Creating a New Country

KeyCONCEPT

▲

146

To what extent was Confederation an attempt to solveexisting problems and lay a foundation for a country?

ChapterINQUIRY

Canada’s Government Today, Canada is a democracy. That means that the people hold the power. It isalso a representative democracy. That means that citizens elect people tomake decisions for them. These representatives must make laws in the bestinterest of the people.

In Canada, the prime minister chooses a small group of theserepresentatives to work with him or her. This group is the Cabinet. It runs thegovernment. Canada has responsible government because the Cabinet mustanswer to the elected representatives.

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Chapter 7Chapter 7Creating a New Country

The diagram on the previous page shows thestructure of government created in 1867. Westill use it today. In Canada, you hear andread about government every day. It’smentioned in school, in the newspapers, ontelevision, and on the Internet. Governmentaffects your daily life, too. As a class,brainstorm what you know about government

in Canada. Use the RAIN formula to help youbring out as many ideas as you can. R Recognize all ideas.A Aim for understanding.I Innovate by building on the ideas of others.N Numerous ideas are best.

Source: Sharon Sterling, Global Citizens 6 Teacher‘sResource (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2001).

ThinkAHEAD

▲

Did you ever find outthat research

information you usedwas wrong? The SkillCheck feature in this

chapter shows youhow to Identify

Reliable Sources of Information. This

skill is important to your studies

because it will helpyou research

effectively. Theproject at the end ofthe chapter will askyou to use this skill

to researchConfederation.

Honing Your Skills

How did we get the system of government that we have? It all began over 150 years ago. As you saw in Chapter 6, the colonies of British NorthAmerica had achieved responsible government. In the mid-nineteenth century,they began to think about joining together. The new government would have togive a say to all the different regions. It would have to meet the needs of manypeople. What form of government would work in the new country?

This chapter invites you to discover how and why the colonies created anew country in 1867. This process was called Confederation. You will see theform of government the founders of Confederation chose for Canada.

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A Story of CanadaVOICES AND VISIONSVOICES AND VISIONS

As you investigate which problems Confederation might solve, you will research the topic. How do you find reliable information? The following tips can help

guide you. If you’re still not sure, ask a librarian or your teacher.

SKILL CHECK: Identify ReliableSources of Information

1. Use books and other print sourceswith good reputations.• Check the facts in encyclopedias

and atlases. These sources giveaccurate and reliable information.

• The facts in news stories areusually accurate. The publishersemploy people called fact checkers.They check the facts in articles.

2. Be careful using the Internet.• Look for websites posted by

universities, governments, andmuseums.

• Avoid websites without an author, adate, or contact information.

• Be careful with sites hosted byinterest groups. Their purpose is topresent one point of view.

• Never trust what you read in chatrooms or blogs (online journals).

3. Use current sources.• Unless you’re using primary

sources, use current information.• In books, check the copyright date.

• In newspapers andmagazines, checkthe date ofpublication.

• On websites, checkwhen the page waslast updated.

4. Use sources that tell you where theygot their information. • Check to see if a source has a

bibliography. If so, the author istrying to be accountable.

• Use sources that provide footnotesfor quotes and other informationtaken from other sources.

5. Conduct first-hand interviews.• Do you want information about

a specific topic? Then talk tosomeone who has knowledge ofthat topic.

6. Assess the information.• Think about whether the source is

presenting facts or opinions. Watchout for opinions that pretend to befacts. (See Skill Check: IdentifyFacts, Opinions, and Bias on page100.)

• Look for bias. • Avoid sources that present

stereotypes or use bad language. • Avoid sources with sexist or racist

ideas.• Avoid sources that contain errors in

spelling and grammar.

7. Have an inquiring mind!• Ask questions as you read. If

something doesn’t make sense,double-check it.

Which of the following wouldbe reliable sources? Why?• a government document

• a documentary film • an advertisement

• a televised session of the House of Commons

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By 1858, there were seven colonies in British North America. (See the map

below.) Each colony had its own history.Each had a unique identity. The colonies

still had many things in common.They were all part of the BritishEmpire. They had parliaments likethe one in Britain. First Nationspeoples lived in every colony.Except in Canada East, the peoplewere largely of British origin.

In the 1850s, many colonists began tothink about what they had in common.They began to wonder if they could bestronger by uniting as a single country.

In this section, you’ll investigate thethree main factors that led these colonies tothink about union:• political deadlock in the Province of

Canada• shifting trade relations• defending British North America

What factors inBritish North

America led toConfederation?

Focus

Conditions for Confederation

Figure 7.1 The colonies of British North America in 1860. Rupert’s Land was not a colony. The Hudson’s Bay Company controlled it. Early on, talk of unity focused on the five colonies in the East. Speculate on the reason.

Figure 7.2 The populationof the British colonies,1861. Think about howmany people were in eachcolony. What big concerndo you think people in thefour eastern colonies hadabout union?

Colony Population Province of Canada

Canada West 1 396 000 Canada East 1 112 000

Nova Scotia 331 000 New Brunswick 252 000 Newfoundland 122 000 Prince Edward Island 80 000 British ColumbiaVancouver Island

51 524

City Population Montréal 107 225 Québec 59 700 Toronto 56 000 St. John’s 30 475 Saint John 28 805 Hamilton 26 700

Figure 7.3 Thelargest cities inthe colonies bypopulation, 1861.Do an Internetsearch or checkyour atlas to findthe currentpopulation of eachof these cities.How have therankings changed?What factors mightexplain thesechanges?

“French Canadian” versus“Québécois” After Confederation, the term FrenchCanadian was used to identify Franco-phone citizens of Canada. Since the 1960s,however, most Francophone Québeckersprefer Québécois. Today, Québécois refersto Francophones of Québec origin orresidents of Québec. Canada also hasFranco-Albertans, Franco-Manitobans,and so on.

Political Deadlock inthe Province of Canada ]By the 1850s, people were unhappy withthe political system. You learned in Chapter6 that Upper and Lower Canada were unitedas a single colony in 1841. It was called theProvince of Canada. The English membersin Canada West and the Canadien membersin Canada East had just one Assemblybetween them. The English made up amajority. The Canadiens were oftenoutvoted on matters that were veryimportant to them.

Some Canadiens then began to talkabout dividing the province of Canada. Amoderate Reformer, Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine, disagreed. He thought he couldmake the system work for the Canadiens. LaFontaine was a big supporter of Frenchlanguage rights. He often spoke French inthe Assembly. He did this even though hewas supposed to speak English.

La Fontaine knew that the English werenot as united as they seemed. In fact, theywere divided into two groups, the Reformers

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Baldwin and La Fontaine were partners in aGreat Ministry from 1848 to 1851. They mademany changes that benefit us today. Theybegan Canada’s first public school system.They fought for responsible government. Theyeven made French one of Canada’s two officiallanguages. These leaders also started the firstmunicipal government. Municipal, or local,governments provide many services that weuse every day. For example, they provide thefresh water that pours out of our taps. Whatare some of the services that your localgovernment provides?

Figure 7.4 Parties in the Canadian Assemblyduring the 1850s. The Assembly was ineffectivebecause rival parties could not agree. Which of theparties might have formed alliances? Why?

Who were the parties in the Assembly, and whatdid they want?• The Clear Grit Party was a group of radical

Reformers. They wanted a more democraticgovernment. They were impatient with thedemands of the Canadiens. Their leader wasGeorge Brown.

• Les Rouges (the Reds) were a group of Canadien radicals. They wanted independencefor Québec. Their leader was Antoine-AiméDorion.

• Les Bleus (the Blues) were a group ofconservative, business-oriented Canadiens. They were in favour of co-operating with theEnglish. Their leader was George-Étienne Cartier.

• The Liberal-Conservatives were conservative,business-oriented English Canadians. They werein favour of co-operating with the Canadiens.Their leader was John A. Macdonald.

• The Independents were individuals who had notjoined any party. They voted as they wished.

and the Tories (also called the Conservatives).He joined forces with his good friend, theEnglish Reform leader Robert Baldwin.Together, they formed a “Great Ministry” anddeveloped laws to improve life in Canada.

Responsible government gave morepower to the elected assemblies. It did notmean that the government ran smoothly,though. Things got worse after the GreatMinistry ended. During the 1850s, theAssembly was deadlocked by rivalriesbetween groups. It seemed that no onecould agree on anything.

One of the issues that divided theAssembly was representation bypopulation—or “rep by pop.” Under thissystem, elected members all represent thesame number of people. The larger thepopulation, the more representatives. Thiswas not the system in Canada. People werefrustrated.

The Act of Union had given CanadaEast and Canada West the same number ofseats in the Assembly. Earlier, in the 1840s,Canada West had had a smaller populationthan its neighbour to the east. As a result,people in Canada West were happy to havethe same number of seats. Then, in the1850s, the population of Canada West beganto outgrow that of Canada East. Politicians in

Canada West began to demand more seats.They wanted rep by pop. The Canadienpoliticians in Canada East objected. TheCanadiens would be outnumbered if CanadaWest got more seats. The fight over rep bypop led to deadlocks in the Assembly. It wastime for a change.

Shifting TradePartners[]Political deadlock was not the only reasonfor change. There were economic reasons,too. Under the mercantile system, theBritish colonies had helped make Britainrich. For a long time, the furs, timber,wheat, and fish from the colonies boostedBritain’s economy. The system helped thecolonies do well, too. Britain taxed importsfrom all countries except its colonies. Thismade the colonial goods inexpensive andpopular in Britain. The colonies coulddepend on the British to buy their goods.

Then the situation changed.

Britain Lets Go By 1846, the mercantile system was nolonger working. Britain’s newmanufacturing industries were gettingbigger. Britain needed to find more places tosell its goods. It decided to reduce orremove taxes on goods imported from allcountries. In turn, Britain could sell itsgoods to more countries. In other words,Britain began free trade, or tax-free trade,with all countries. The colonies no longerhad an assured market for their goods.

At the same time, the British began towonder why they were keeping the colonies.Britain no longer needed them for trade. Itwanted the colonies to pay for their owngovernments and defence. In return, Britainwould give the colonies greater control overtheir own affairs.

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Figure 7.5 Calico printing in a British cotton mill, 1834. In the nineteenth century, Britain began to make manyproducts in vast quantities. Why do you think it neededmore places to sell goods?

Trade with the United States Britain urged its colonies to look for othermarkets. The colonies in British NorthAmerica turned to the United States. In1854, they signed a trade agreement. Itcreated reciprocity between the coloniesand the United States. Fish, timber, andgrain could flow both ways across theborder free of any import taxes.

Reciprocity was good for the colonies.Their businesses did well. However, theAmericans decided they weren’t gettingenough out of the trade deal. After just 10years, the United States cancelled the deal.

The colonies faced an economic crisis.Now they had lost their special traderelationships with both Britain and theUnited States. What were they to do? Formany people, the answer was union. If thecolonies were united, they would trademore among themselves.

Good Business Sense Business leaders had their own reasons forwanting a union of the colonies. Theythought it made good business sense. Itwould give businesses in Canada East andCanada West access to the Maritime ports.They could use these ports to transporttheir goods overseas. In turn, the Maritimeports would gain more customers. In aunited market, the colonies could exchangegoods without paying taxes. Building astronger market at home was one way tomake up for the reduction of trade withBritain and the United States.

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Global ConnectionsGlobal TradeToday, many businesses in Canada rely on global trade. We export goods and servicesto people in many other countries. This brings money into Canada. It creates jobs. Thisgraph shows Canada’s most important export markets in 2003.

Figure 7.6 The Great Western Railway station inLondon, Canada West, in 1858. The large buildingin the background is the Tecumseh House Hotel.Imagine a small London button manufacturer.Would the workers in the factory welcome thecoming of the railway? Would the hotel owner?Why or why not?

Global Connections

Defending British North America []The end of the reciprocity trade dealbrought change. It soured relations betweenthe colonies and their southern neighbour.Colonists worried that the United Statesmight send its mighty armies north.

In 1861, civil war broke out in theUnited States. It was the northern statesversus the southern states. The two mainissues were slavery and the power of thestates to make their own laws. Most of thecolonists in British North America opposedslavery. They supported the North. Britain’stextile industry, however, depended oncotton from the southern plantations thatenslaved African Americans. It seemed thatBritain was supporting the South. As aresult, the North looked on Britain and itscolonies with suspicion. This concerned thecolonists in Canada. If the North won thewar, would the United States turn its mighty

army north? When the North did win thewar in 1865, some Americans wanted to dojust that. They wanted to punish Britain forsupporting the South. Other Americanswanted to take over the colonies for anotherreason. They believed in Manifest Destiny.They thought it was the natural right of theUnited States to control all of NorthAmerica.

The colonists feared the United States.In union, though, perhaps the coloniescould protect themselves better. It was onemore good reason to think about union.

The colonists had to think aboutanother defence issue, too. The Fenianswere a group of Irish Americans. Theywanted Ireland to be freed from British rule.In 1866, Fenians attacked some bordertowns in the British colonies. They thoughtthis would force Britain to free Ireland. Itdidn’t work. However, these events madethe colonists even more nervous about thesecurity of their borders.

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CASESTUDY

The Railway Revolution

Better transportation systems make good business sense. Could a desire forbetter transport also help create a country?

In the mid-nineteenth century, a railway boom was taking place inBritish North America. “The days of stagecoaches have come to anend,” boasted one newspaper, “and everywhere is to be heard thesnorting of the iron horse, and the shrill blast of the steam whistle.”By 1861, more than 3000 kilometres of railway track stretchedacross the colonies.

Before railways, geography had kept the colonies isolated. Thenthe railway came. Farmers could get their crops to market. Tracksconnected towns and cities from east to west. Businesses couldmove their goods quickly and easily.

Businesses wanted even more railway track. People began to talkabout building a railway linking Canada West with Halifax. Theproject would cost a lot of money. It could only go ahead if thecolonies were united. Then all the colonies could share the cost.

Other forms oftravel at the time

were the canoe,steamboat,

stagecoach, wagonand team, saddle

horse, and sleigh.What are thebenefits and

drawbacks of therailway compared

with those of these forms of

transportation?

Respond

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Figure 7.7 A grand review of the armies after the Civil War,Washington, DC, 1865. When thewar ended, the United Statessuddenly had a large and powerfularmy with nothing to do. Did thecolonists have good reason toworry about an American invasion?Why or why not?

CASESTUDY

Choosing a Capital

Have you ever wondered why Canada’s capital isn’t one of our big cities?Every country has a capital city. It is the centre of government. In the 1850s,

no one could agree where the capital should be. They even thought of switchingthe capital! It would be Toronto for two years, and then Québec City for the next two.

In 1857, the Assembly asked Queen Victoria to choose the capital.To everyone’s surprise, she chose a small logging town called Bytown. (Itwas later renamed Ottawa.) Bytown was on the border between CanadaEast and Canada West.

Why would thequeen choose such an out-of-the-way place?Location! Ottawa waslocated where three riversmet. This meant peoplecould get there easily bywater. It was right betweenCanada East and CanadaWest, too. This made it agood choice for both

French and English Canadians. Mostimportant, though, was Ottawa’slocation relative to the US border.This location made it less vulnerableto attack. On 31 December 1857,Ottawa became the capital of Canada.

Figure 7.8 The Parliament Buildings underconstruction in Ottawa, 1863. Most of these weredestroyed by fire in 1916. The Parliament Buildingsyou see in Ottawa replaced the originals. What arethe advantages of being the capital city of a country?

Look at an atlasmap of Canada.

Why was Ottawamore secure than

Québec City,Montréal, or

Toronto? If youcould choose today,

where would youput the capital city

of Canada? Givereasons for your

choice.

Respond

155


The Maritime colonies had little incommon with the Province of Canada.

Geography kept them far from the large,inland population. The Maritimecolonists made a living from thesea. Many fished for a living.Others traded with other coun-tries. The goods leaving Maritimeports were bound for Britain, theUnited States, and the Caribbean.

In this section, you’ll learn about theGolden Age of the Maritimes. You’ll alsolearn some Maritime colonists’ opinionsabout union.

The Golden Age of the Maritimes []The years between 1840 and 1870 were a“Golden Age” for the Maritime colonies. Itwas the age of wind, wood, and sail.Maritime shipbuilders were respected forthe wooden sailing ships they made. BritishNorth America had the fourth-largestshipping fleet in the world. Only Britain, theUnited States, and Norway had bigger fleets.Of these ships, 70 per cent were built in theMaritimes. It’s no wonder that shipbuildingcame to symbolize the Maritimes.

To what extent was Confederation

an attempt tostrengthen the

Maritime colonies?

Focus

Confederation and the Maritime Colonies

1. Choose any two facts from this section andfind reliable sources to confirm that they aretrue. List the two sources you used.

2. a) Make a chart to record information aboutthe factors that led colonists to thinkabout union. Here is one way you couldorganize your ideas. Was any one factormore important than the others?

b) Imagine you are a colonist in favour ofunion. Write a letter to the editor of theNovascotian newspaper. Explain yourreasons for supporting union.

Alternatively, imagine you are a colonialartist in favour of union. Create a series ofcolour sketches. They should show yourreasons for supporting union.

Think ItThrough

▲

Factor How It Encouraged Confederation

• economy: forestry and fishing• most important city: Saint John • famous for its wooden sailing ships • Acadians in the north• largest group of colonists: the Irish

• economy: fishing and farming (fertile soil)• most important city: Charlottetown• no bridges to the mainland• the smallest colony in both area and

population

New Brunswick Prince Edward Island

• economy: fishing• most important city: Halifax (naval centre)• land good for farming: 10 per cent• trade with colonies in the Caribbean• largest group of colonists: the Scots• about 1500 Mi’kmaq [MIG-mah]

• economy: fishing (exported to Britain) andseal hunting

• most important city: St. John’s• land good for farming: none• isolated from the other colonies • very close ties to Britain

Nova Scotia Newfoundland

Facts about the Maritime Colonies

Fish, lumber, and grain were majorexports. Coal mining was about to makeNova Scotia one of the largest coalproducers in the world. The economy of theMaritimes was growing.

Benefits Not for All The eastern colonies were growing. Therewere the first peoples, the Mi’kmaq and the Maliseet [MAL-ih-seet] who livedthroughout the region. There were Scottishimmigrants in Cape Breton. There were theAcadians, Loyalists, and Irish immigrants inNew Brunswick. There were Black Loyalistsand German immigrants in Nova Scotia.

The mid-nineteenth century was not agolden age for all these people. The Mi’kmaqand Maliseet peoples did not share in theeconomic benefits. Many First Nationssigned treaties and were assigned limitedreserve lands. Much of this land was notgood for farming. The natural resources onwhich the First Nations made a living weredisappearing. It was not a good time for BlackLoyalists, either. They experienced racism anddiscrimination. And while exports in timberwere strong, the workers on the lumber gangsendured many hardships in the backwoods.How would those not enjoying the prosperityfeel about the “Golden Age”?

Most people in the Maritimes, though,did well. For them, the mid-nineteenthcentury was truly a Golden Age. Wouldunion make the Maritimes stronger—orweaker?

Would Union Help or Hinder? []Many people opposed union because theythought it would end the good times. Theywanted to expand their trade with Britainand the United States, not Canada.

People who supported union saw thatthe world was changing. New technologiesbased on coal, iron, and steel threatened toend the age of wood, wind, and sail. Unionwould give them access to the biggereconomies of the Canadian provinces. Intime, supporters thought, trade within theunion would grow.

The proposed railway was veryattractive. It would be good for business.Further, if there were an American invasion,the proposed railway could move in troopsto help fight the Americans off.

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Figure 7.9 The tall ship Marco Polo, built bySmith Shipbuilding of Saint John and launched in1851. (John Lars Johnson painted this image about1930.) The Marco Polo was described as thefastest ship in the world. Who would benefit froma strong shipbuilding industry in the Maritimes?

To remember a list of important names,try this. Make a “word” out of the firstletter of each name. For example, youcould use PNNN to help you rememberthe names of the Maritime colonies.

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Joseph Howe (1804–1873)Joseph Howe was the leading politician in NovaScotia in the Confederation period. When hewas just 23 years old, Howe bought a Halifaxnewspaper called the Novascotian. Once, hepublished a letter that said the government wasstealing from the people. He was arrested andput on trial. Howe argued that a newspaper hadto be free to criticize the government. The judgeagreed. Howe went free. He became a popularhero in the colony.

In 1836, Howe was elected to theAssembly. He was the leader of the Reform

party. He and theReformers helped bringresponsible governmentto Nova Scotia. They didso with fewer strugglesthan the Canadians did.

Howe was fiercelyloyal to Nova Scotia. Hespoke out against unionwith Canada. Hebelieved Confederation

favoured Canada at the expense of the Maritimecolonies. With his newspaper, Howe made his

views well known. Howe became a hero for hisdefence of the colony.

BiographyBiography

Figure 7.10 A photograph of Joseph Howe, taken about1871. Howe called Confederation the “BotherationScheme.” In other words, he thought it would be a lot oftrouble, with little benefit to Maritimers. Howe wasahead of his time. Think of a modern advertisement thatuses humour to get a message across. Is it effective?

A Nova Scotianwould probably say

that Howe showedthe qualities of a great citizen.

Would a colonist in Canada Westagree? Explain

your opinion.

Respond

1. a) What were the reasons that people inthe Maritime colonies began toconsider union with Canada? Make achart to record this information. Here isone way you could organize your ideas.

b) Make a similar chart titled “Reasonsthe Maritimes should not joinConfederation.”

c) Decide whether Confederation would bethe best choice or not.

2. Write a speech or create a poster aboutthe Maritime colonies joiningConfederation. To promote union, showhow it would strengthen the colonies. Tooppose union, show how it would weakenthe colonies.

Think ItThrough

▲

Not everyone in British North America liked the idea of Confederation.

Politicians had a lot of work to do. Theyhad to work out a deal thateveryone could accept. In thissection, you’ll see how deadlockwas finally broken. You’ll heardifferent points of view aboutConfederation. You’ll discover

what each colony decided and why.

Breaking the Deadlock ]As you saw earlier in this chapter, politicaldeadlock was making it hard to govern inCanada. Then, in 1864, there was abreakthrough. George Brown, leader of theClear Grits, convinced his party to join acoalition. They would vote with the Liberal-Conservatives and Les Bleus (theconservative party of the Canadiens).

In return, Brown wanted these twoparties to support a plan that he had—aplan to unite all the colonies. Brown

proposed federalism. Each colony wouldkeep its own government to run its ownaffairs. A central government would lookafter matters that affected the whole union.This arrangement would reduce concern inthe Maritimes that central Canada wouldcontrol their affairs. It was a good plan forCanada East and Canada West, too. If theyeach had their own government, it wouldbreak the long-running political deadlock.

Federalism was well suited to BritishNorth America, with its scattered colonies.The Liberal-Conservatives and Les Bleusagreed to Brown’s idea.

The Talks Heat Up []In 1864, delegates from New Brunswick,Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island weregoing to meet in Charlottetown. Theywanted to talk about a union of their threecolonies. The politicians in Canada asked tobe invited. The Maritime leaders listened totheir plan to unite all four colonies. Theyagreed to meet again.

Confederation Discussions

How wasConfederation

finally achieved?

Focus

158


Figure 7.11 A charcoal sketch of the founders of Confederation. These politicalleaders attended the conferences in 1864. In 1883, the government asked RobertHarris to portray the group as they had looked in 1864. Some had died. The restwere older. Harris worked from photographs and interviews with those who hadbeen there. How do you think the process affected the accuracy of his work?

1. John A. Macdonald, leaderof the Liberal-ConservativeParty in Canada West

2. George-Étienne Cartier,leader of Les Bleus inCanada East

3. George Brown, leader of theClear Grits in Canada West

4. Charles Tupper, premier ofNova Scotia

5. Leonard Tilley, premier ofNew Brunswick

6. J.H. Gray, premier of PrinceEdward Island

1.

2. 3.

4.

5.6.

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A month later, the founders all gatheredat Québec City. For two weeks, they argued.

They all tried to persuade theothers to see things their way.Then they found ways tocompromise—everyone gave up alittle to get an agreement theycould all live with. They finallyreached consensus. The delegateshad drafted the Seventy-TwoResolutions. These were the

foundations for a new country and a new

government. First, though, the colonialassemblies had to agree.

The Great Debate ]Now the great debate began. Politicians andordinary citizens alike talked about union.Families talked about it at the kitchen table.Neighbours debated it across the farm fence.People stopped to express a point of view atthe general store. In the end, though, thedecision was in the hands of the politicians.

It is said that the Canadians have outgrowntheir Constitution. Well, if they have, what ofthat? If they are in trouble, let them get out ofit; but don’t let them involve us in distractionswith which we have nothing to do. Are not theCanadians always in trouble?

—Joseph Howe, Nova Scotia

Source: Halifax Morning Chronicle, 11 January 1865.

If union were attained, we would form a politicalnationality with which neither the nationalorigin, nor the religion of any individual, wouldinterfere.

—George-Étienne Cartier, Canada East

Source: Parliamentary Debates onthe Subject of the Confederation of

the British North AmericanProvinces (Québec, 1865)

pp. 59–61. Quoted in K.A. MacKirdyet al., Changing Perspectives in Canadian History, revised

edition (Don Mills, ON: J.M. Dent, 1971), p. 214.

We would be such a small portion of theConfederacy, our voice would not be heard in it.We would be the next thing to nothing. Are wethen going to surrender our rights and liberties?

—Cornelius Howatt, Prince Edward Island

Source: The Charlottetown Examiner, 27 August 1866. Quoted inPaul W. Bennett and Cornelius J. Jaenen, Emerging Identities,

(Scarborough: Prentice Hall, 1986), p. 252.

The dangers that have arisen from this [American]system we will avoid if we can agree uponforming a strong central government. If we canonly obtain that object—a vigorous generalgovernment—we shall not be New Brunswickers,nor Nova Scotians, nor Canadians, but BritishAmericans, under the sway of the BritishSovereign.

—John A. Macdonald, Canada West

Source: Edward Whelan, comp., The Union of the British Provinces (Toronto, 1927), pp. 29–30. Quoted in K.A.

MacKirdy et al., Changing Perspectives in Canadian History, revisededition (Don Mills, ON: J.M. Dent, 1971), p. 212.

“

”

VOICESVOICES

“”

Some politicians supported the idea of union.Others did not. Here are opinions from fiveleading politicians of the day.

“”

“

”Summarize thearguments listedhere for and againstConfederation.Which is mostconvincing? Why?Do some research tofind another opinionabout the issue.Don’t forget to judgeyour sourcescarefully.

Respond

I oppose Confederation because I foreseeinnumerable difficulties with the joint powersgiven to the local and general governments inseveral areas. These conflicts will always beresolved in favour of the general government.

—Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion, Canada East

Source: Philippe Sylvain, “Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion,” Dictionnaire biographique du Canada, Vol. IX. (Québec, Presses de l’Université Laval, 1977), p.235. Quoted on

http://www.collectionscanada.ca/confederation/h18-2322-e.html.

”

“

To see a photo of the provincial

delegates to theQuébec Conference,

open Chapter 7 onyour Voices and

Visions CD-ROM.

Tech Link

What the ColoniesDecided []The Province of Canada Most of the people in Canada West were infavour of union. This was not the case inCanada East. Many Canadiens worried thatEnglish Canadians would control the newcountry. George-Étienne Cartier disagreed.He believed that federalism would give theCanadiens control over matters that affectedthem directly. Francophones receivedpromises that their language and otherrights would be respected. Section 93 of the BNA Act gave the provinces control overeducation. The vote passed 91 in favour, 33 against.

New Brunswick Many people in New Brunswick worriedthat the larger Canadian colonies woulddominate the union. At first, the Assemblyvoted against the idea. Then Britain putpressure on New Brunswick to accept thedeal. The promise of a railway appealed tomany colonists, too. New Brunswickpoliticians changed their minds. They votedto support union.

Nova Scotia Joseph Howe worried that Nova Scotiawould have little influence in the newcountry. He argued that the people of NovaScotia would have to pay higher taxes, butthat the money would be spent elsewhere.On the other hand, union meant NovaScotia would get a railway. In the end, NovaScotia voted to join union, too.

Prince Edward Island This island colony was isolated from theother colonies. People thought that PrinceEdward Island was too small. It would beswamped by the other colonies. PrinceEdward Island did not join Confederationuntil 1873.

Newfoundland Newfoundland had little in common withthe other colonies. The people did not thinkthey would have much influence in such adistant government. They were moreinterested in their ties to Britain.Newfoundland and Labrador stayed out ofConfederation until 1949.

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Try taking turns reading paragraphs out loudwith a partner. After each partner reads, theother partner describes what he or she heard.

Figure 7.12 Canada and its first four provinces,1867. In that year, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,Canada East, and Canada West formed a union.Look at a modern political map of Canada.Compare Canada’s original size and shape with itssize and shape today.

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Working Together The man who argued, cajoled, and finallyconvinced politicians across the colonies tojoin in Confederation was John A.Macdonald. He believed that Canada had tobe a partnership between Canadiens and

English Canadians. To makethis happen, he formed analliance with George-ÉtienneCartier from Canada East.

Union was George Brown’sidea. Macdonald, however,was the one who led thecampaign at every step.

He was the unofficial “architect” ofConfederation at the early discussions inCharlottetown and Québec. At the LondonConference in 1866, he headed the meetingthat drew up the British North America Act(also called the BNA Act). In fact, Macdonaldwrote much of the BNA Act himself.

George-Étienne Cartier (1814–1873)George-Étienne Cartier was the leadingQuébec politician of the Confederationera. He and John A. Macdonaldworked tirelessly to achieve theirshared vision. After Cartier’sdeath, Macdonald said, “Cartierwas bold as a lion. He was justthe man I wanted. Without him,Confederation would not havebeen carried.”

The Cartier family had beenin Lower Canada for more than200 years. As a young and fierylawyer, Cartier had fought with thePatriotes during the rebellion of1837–1838. After exile in the UnitedStates, he returned to Montréal. There he begana career as a lawyer and railway promoter.Cartier won election to the Assembly in 1848.He worked many long hours to adapt theFrench civil code to Canada East. The civil codeis still used in Québec today.

Cartier spoke passionately in the greatConfederation debates in 1865. “We must

either have a confederation of BritishNorth America or be absorbed by

the American union.” He knew,however, that union might bedisastrous for the Canadiens. He and another moderate,Étienne-Pascal Taché, fought toachieve the right compromises.Cartier and Taché worked tirelessly. They convinced the

Canadiens to give the newscheme a chance.

Cartier’s career reminds us thatcitizens of different languages and

cultures can work together to makegreat things happen.

BiographyBiography

The new country’s name, Canada,came from the Haudenosaunee [hah-duh-nuh-SAH-nee] word for village:kanata. Many people are proud thatour country’s name has roots in thelanguage of one of the First Peoples.Why might they hold that opinion?

To see a painting ofthe young John A.Macdonald, openChapter 7 on your

Voices and VisionsCD-ROM.

Tech Link

What qualities of citizenship didCartier have? Do Canadians still value

these qualities today?

Respond

Dawn of a Dominion July 1,1867, saw the creation of a newcountry: the Dominion of Canada. Citizens

celebrated together in many communitiesacross the country. At midnight, churchbells began ringing. Bonfires lit up the nightskies. Cannons boomed. Soldiers fired riflesalutes. British naval ships in HalifaxHarbour discharged their guns. Whendaylight broke, people took to the streets.People waved flags. Crowds cheered. Then,at 11 o’clock in the morning, mayors andofficials in towns and villages across thecountry read a proclamation from QueenVictoria. Canada was now a country.

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1. Imagine it is 1 July 1867. Design a poster tocelebrate the birth of Canada. Your postershould include symbols that reflect the newcountry’s identity. Consider what variousgroups would find important about the newcountry. Alternatively, write lyrics for a rapsong that tells the story of the birth of thecountry.

2. John A. Macdonald was one of the top 10nominees for the 2004 CBC contest TheGreatest Canadian. Do some research aboutCanada’s first prime minister. Why do manyCanadians admire him? Did he have faults?Discuss this statement: Politicians shouldbe perfect.

Think ItThrough

▲

The founders of Confederation mademany compromises. What decisions

did they make? In this section, we’ll look athow those decisions laid the foundation for Canada today.

Making It Official In 1867, the British Parliamentpassed the BNA Act. It was official:the Dominion of Canada was a

country. Britain still controlled defence andforeign affairs. Canada remained part of theBritish Empire. The British monarch wasCanada’s head of state. A Governor General

would represent the monarch in Canada.Since 1935, he or she has been chosen bythe prime minister.

Parliament was divided into two parts.There was an elected House of Commonsand an appointed Senate. The number ofseats a province had in the House ofCommons was based on rep by pop.Therefore, Ontario and Québec had morerepresentation. Senate seats were based onregion. The senate would give the lesspopulated provinces a larger voice ingovernment. It would also protect the rightsof minorities. It was the House of Commons,however, that held the real power.

The Structure of Canadian Government

What didConfederation

achieve for theCanadian system

of government?

Focus

Figure 7.13 Young Canadians in Vancouvercelebrate their country on Canada Day. How docitizens in your community celebrate Canada Day?

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Peace, Order, and Good GovernmentWhy did the founders of Confederation divide the powers the way they did? Theprovinces wanted to retain their unique identities. The founders, however, had justwitnessed the Civil War in the United States. In part, this war had been a fight aboutwho should have more power: the states or the central government.

The founders of Confederation did not want a civil war in Canada. They chose to have a strong central government. The BNA Act states that the federal governmenthas the power to make laws for the “peace, order, and good government” of Canada.This phrase has become part of the Canadian identity.

Look in the chart below to see what the Founders of Confederation did aboutresidual powers. These are the powers over things that no one knew about in 1867.They include things such as telephones, airplanes, and the Internet.

IdentityIdentity

Figure 7.14 The powers the federal and provincial governments weregranted by the BNA Act. In what ways could the provincial powers helpprovinces maintain their unique identities? If you were to reassign anypowers, which would you change? Why?

• defence• the post office• trade and commerce• weights and measures• currency and coinage• taxation• navigation• fisheries• copyright • banking• First Nations• criminal law• naturalization• marriage and divorce • residual powers• the power to cancel any

provincial laws that went beyond the bounds of provincial power

• property and civil rights

• education• local works• highways• hospitals• municipalities• courts • provincial and local

police

Federal Powers Provincial Powers

• agriculture• immigration

Shared Powers

Brainstorm a list of things that existtoday that did not

exist in 1867. Then,working in a small

group, decidewhich level of

government youthink should

control each one.Give reasons to

support yourdecisions.

Respond

A Federal System The BNA Act called for a federal systemof government. This created two levels ofgovernment. The central government had

power over matters affecting the wholecountry. The provincial governments hadpower over local and regional matters.

The decisions that went into the BNA Act have strongly influenced what Canada hasbecome. For example, the BNA Act madeeducation a provincial responsibility. BesidesQuébec, the provinces used this power todeny the right to instruction in French. As aresult, many Francophones did not receivetheir schooling in French until recently. How would this affect the number ofFrancophones across Canada today?

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Figure 7.15 A political cartoon about therelationship between the federal and provincialgovernments, published in a collection in 1886.John A. Macdonald is shown as a king surroundedby the provinces. What is the cartoonist sayingabout federal-provincial relations? Do you thinkthis message holds true in Canada today? Explain.

Not IncludedThe Canadiens and English Canadians faroutnumbered the First Nations peoples. Should thepoliticians have consulted the First Nations aboutConfederation? The idea probably didn’t even crosstheir minds. Even so, the results very seriouslyaffected First Nations. Section 91(24) of the BNA Actgives the federal government responsibility over“Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians.” Howhad the relationship between the new Canadiansand the First Nations changed since first contact?

A Limited Democracy In 1867, Canada was a democracy—to adegree. Who had the vote in 1867? Onlycitizens over the age of 21 who ownedproperty or rented large amounts of

property had the vote. Married womencould not vote, and very few single womenowned property. Neither did various visibleminorities, farm labourers, or unskilledworkers. Neither did First Nations, Métis, or Inuit. In all, only 11 per cent of thepopulation had the vote.

Today, all Canadian citizens aged 18 and older can vote.

1. Choose one decision that the Founders ofConfederation made. In a paragraph or briefspeech, describe how it affects yourCanada.

2. Recall the Iroquois Confederacy, which youread about on page 20. In your opinion, wasthis nation more or less democratic thanCanada in 1867? Give reasons for youranswer as jot notes or a paragraph.

3. Voting is the responsibility of all adultcitizens. What do you think the voting ageshould be? Working with a small group, listthe reasons for your choice. Give evidenceto support your answer. Then, as a class, tryto reach a consensus.

4. To what extent was Confederation anattempt to solve existing problems and laya foundation for a new country?

Think ItThrough

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Chapter 7 PROJECT Researching Confederation

Confederation was a defining moment inCanadian history. Therefore, there is a lot of

information about this subject. This chapterproject challenges you to use your researchskills. Your task is to find reliable sources ofinformation about the problems thatConfederation was meant to solve.

Focus Look for information on Confederation in thelibrary or on the Internet. Use Skill Check:Identify Reliable Sources of Information on page 148 to guide you. Find as many of thefollowing types of sources as you can.• Primary sources. Speeches, letters, newspapers,

the BNA Act, photographs, and artwork.• Secondary sources. Canadian history books,

textbooks, and political biographies.• Canadian Encyclopedias.• Atlases. Check for Confederation-era maps.

Try the National Atlas of Canada website.

Recording Your Sources []After you find your information, record yoursources so you can back up your research.

Use a record sheet like the ones shown at thebottom of the page. You can use the givenexamples to guide you.

Sharing Your Sources After you have recorded your sources, displayyour record sheets on a class bulletin board.Look over the other record sheets. Record thedetails of two sources of information youmissed. Find them in the library or on theInternet.

Drawing Conclusions ]How much information on Confederation isavailable? What problems does this create?

Making Recommendations Choose two sources of information onConfederation that you would recommend to theclass. For each one, explain why you believe it isa reliable source. Explain your recommendationsto a small group or in written form. How couldyou find more reliable sources next time?


Author Title City Publisher Year Page Nos.

Alfred DuclosDe Celles

La Fontaine etson temps

Montréal Librairie Beuchemin,limitée

1912 24-26

Author Article Title Magazine Title Volume orIssue Nos.

Date Page Nos.

Dan Palmer His Legacy Lives On Edmonton Sun – 12 Nov. 2004 A1

Web Address Date Updated orCopyright Date

Article Title

http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/top_ten/nominee/macdonald-john.html

2004Sir John A.Macdonald

Organization

CBC

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Figure 7.18 Achart to helpyou keep trackof websites.

Figure 7.17 Achart to helpyou keep trackof magazines.

Figure 7.16 Achart to helpyou keep trackof books.

creating a new country

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