Cows, Critters, and Kiwis: Cows, Critters, and Kiwis: Building a research Building a research

agenda that won't bore agenda that won't bore you to tears or drive you you to tears or drive you

crazycrazyNancy Gard McGehee, Ph.D.

Associate ProfessorHospitality and Tourism Management

Virginia Tech

Who Am I?Who Am I?

Grew up on a farm along the Ohio RiverBS in Sports Management, Marshall

UniversityHealth Club Mgt., Sports Medicine Clinic, and

Pro Baseball, West Palm Beach, FLMS in PRTM, North Carolina State UniversityATRDC, Athens, WVMS and PhD in Sociology, Virginia TechPRTM NCSU faculty 1999-2001HTM VT faculty since 2001

Who Am I?Who Am I?

I am a Rural Sociologist, interested in many forms of Sustainable Tourism, particularly through the eyes of the Resident/Host.

I believe that truly Sustainable Tourism must include a Socio-Cultural component.

My ontological perspective: I am a Critical Theorist, but love applying a variety of sociological theories to tourism.

My methodological bent: mixed-methods, but my belongs to Qualitative Methods.

Currently, I am particularly interested in Social Capital as it pertains to Sustainability in a variety of forms of tourism.

Forms of tourism that are currently capturing my interest: Volunteer Tourism and Locally-Driven Rural Tourism.

Socio-Cultural Impacts of TourismSocio-Cultural Impacts of Tourism

Sustainable Rural Tourism Development

Volunteer Tourism

Craft Marketing Cooperatives

Agri-tourism motivation & cooperation

Rural resident attitudesDMO’s & social capitalParkway Sustainable

Tourism ProjectRural tourism in the

tropics & social capital

VT & social movement participation

VT and resident attitudes

VT expectationsCritical Theory & VTVT & social capital

Virginia Agri-tourism (Cows)Virginia Agri-tourism (Cows)

McGehee, N.G. and K. Kim (2004). “Motivation for Agri-tourism Entrepreneurship.” Journal of Travel Research, 43:2 161-170.

N.G. McGehee K. Kim and G. Jennings (2007). “Gender and Motivation for Agri-tourism Entrepreneurship.” Tourism Management, 28:1 (280-289).

N.G. McGehee (2007). “An Agri-Tourism Systems Model: A Weberian Perspective.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 15:2, 111-124.

Agri-tourism EntrepreneurshipAgri-tourism Entrepreneurship

VA farm families (survey, 412 of 987, 42%)Weber’s formal and substantive rationality as

framework for motivation◦ Formal (primarily economic)◦ Substantive (primarily socio-cultural)

Most were motivated by a formal-substantive mix of motivations◦ Additional income◦ Fully utilize our resources◦ Educate consumers◦ A family-oriented hobby

Motivations were most influenced by acres owned, dependence on farming, and household income

Gender, Motivation, and Agri-Gender, Motivation, and Agri-tourism Entrepreneurshiptourism Entrepreneurship

Again, VA farm familiesChiappe and Flora’s alternative agricultural

paradigm◦ Past research in A. A. focused on men and then was

generalized for all; Chiappe and Flora focused on women.◦ A.A. Paradigm includes: harmony with nature,

independence, contribution to community, diversity of product. Could this perspective of A.A. also apply to agri-tourism?

Paradigm based differences were not found, BUT women in this study reported to be more highly motivated to develop agri-tourism as a source of entrepreneurial enterprise than their male counter-parts.

Agri-tourism Systems ModelAgri-tourism Systems Model

Back to Weber’s rationality!Research unearthed problems, the big

picture◦Lack of communication between agri-tourism

providers, DMO’s, and agri-tourists◦Lack of understanding across the three groups

creates obstacles to strong relationships◦Weber’s formal-substantive rationality could

contextualize the relationships

Figure 1 An Agri-Tourism Systems Model

Stakeholder Groups

Agri-tourismproviders

NeedsMotivations

Agri-touristsNeeds

MotivationsCharacteristics

DMOsNeeds

Best Practices

Successful Agri-tourism System:

Stakeholders communicatingand engaging in mutually

beneficial relationships

Agri-tourists

Agri-tourismproviders

DMOs

Communicationobstacles

Communicationobstacles

Communicationobstacles

Research question 1:

What are the needs and motivations of each agri-tourism stakeholder group? How is their rationality formal, substantive, or both?

Research question 2:

What obstacles does each stakeholder group face in fulfilling its role in the successful agri-tourism system? How can these obstacles be reduced or eliminated?

Research question 3:What obstacles weaken communication among agri-tourism stakeholder groups? How can these obstacles be reduced or eliminated?How might the recognition of the rationality of each relationship (formal, substantive, or a mix of both) improve communication amongst the groups?

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Formally-Rational Relationship

Formal-Substantive MixRelationship

SubstantiveRelationship

Rocky Knob BRP NPS Project Rocky Knob BRP NPS Project

Development of a sustainable tourism centerpiece project and regional sustainable tourism plan for the Rocky Knob region of the Blue Ridge Parkway

Research framework that included◦Community asset and resource inventory◦Community and stakeholder input◦Survey of current visitors◦Land use suitability and tourism scenario

development◦Survey of potential visitors◦Economic impact analysis of recommended

scenarios

Slingin’ concreteSlingin’ concrete McGehee, N.G. (2002). “Alternative Tourism and

Social Movement Participation.” Annals of Tourism Research, 29:1, 124-143.

McGehee, N.G. and W.C. Norman (2002). “Alternative Tourism as Impetus for Consciousness-Raising.” Tourism Analysis, 6:3/4, 239-251.

 McGehee, N.G. and C. Santos (2005). “Social Change, Discourse, and Volunteer Tourism.” Annals of Tourism Research, 32:3, 760-779.

McGehee, N.G. and Andereck, K. (2008) “’Pettin’ the Critters’: Exploring the complex relationship between volunteers and the voluntoured in McDowell County, WV, USA and Tijuana, Mexico” in S. Wearing and K. Lyons (eds) Journeys of Discovery in Volunteer Tourism: International Case Study Perspectives. CABI, Oxfordshire, UK.

 McGehee, N.G. and Andereck, K. (2009). Volunteer Tourism and the “Voluntoured”: The case of Tijuana, Mexico.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17:1 (39-54).

Andereck, K., McGehee, N.G., Lee, S. and Clemmons D. (in press). “Experience expectations of prospective volunteer tourists.” Journal of Travel Research.

McGehee, N.G. (accepted with revisions). “Oppression, emancipation, and volunteer tourism,” Annals of Tourism Research.

Resident Attitudes and Resident Attitudes and Voluntourism (Critters)Voluntourism (Critters)

Pettin’ the CrittersPettin’ the Critters

Comparative case study of the relationship between voluntourists and the voluntoured in Tijuana, Mexico and McDowell Co., WV

Mixed methods◦Interviews (formal and informal)◦Questionnaires◦Web site content analysis◦Participant observation

Two major themes emerged◦Dependency◦The role of organized religion

And one great story emerged◦Pettin’ the critters

Oppression, emancipation, and Oppression, emancipation, and volunteer tourismvolunteer tourism

Application of critical theory and social movement theory to volunteer tourism

Recognizing the contradictions of volunteer tourism through research propositions ◦ oppressor-emancipator?◦ dependency perpetuator or self-efficacy empowerer?◦ resource abuser or resource mobilizer?◦ network creator or agitator? ◦ stereotype perpetuator or consciousness-raiser?

The ultimate question: how can we find ways to use volunteer tourism to further social change?

The Voluntourism The Voluntourism Critical Theory ModelCritical Theory Model

Level of human emancipation

included as part of a volunteer

tourism organization’s

goals

Level of volunteer tourism

organization’s actions working to equalize power inequalities between hosts and guests (economic,

social, environmental) and therefore facilitate

emancipation of the “voluntoured”

Actual degree of equality

between the local community and volunteers(economic ,soci

al, environmental) environmental)

Opportunities for Human

emancipation of the voluntourist

(working and middle class, the

proletariat)

Level of Human

emancipation

Volunteer tourism discourse

Dominant Hegemony

(current systems of power and status quo)

The Social Construction of

Volunteer Tourism

The Voluntourism Social Movement Theory The Voluntourism Social Movement Theory ModelModel

Resource

Mobilization

SocialChange

Volunteer Tourism

Participation

Volunteer Tourism

Participation

Self-Efficacy

Social Change

Consciousness-raising

experience

Personal as Political

NetworkFacilitation between

volunteers and the

voluntoured

NetworkFacilitation amongst

volunteers

Social Movement

Participation

NZ Project (Kiwis)NZ Project (Kiwis)

A slightly different direction, but the same purpose◦ Cultivating community capital through volunteer tourism

Project with Anne Zahra, Waikato Mgt. School, Hamilton, NZ, targeting volunteer tourism in the Philippines ◦ Examining the potential for volunteer tourism to form a

framework for the introduction of bridging social capital as well as create opportunities for internal bonding social capital within the volunteer tourism host community and subsequently exploring how these bridging and bonding social capital networks exert an influence on other forms of capital: financial, natural, political, cultural, built, and human, within the host community.

◦ Exploring the use of appreciative inquiry as a method

Some projects don’t always fit…or Some projects don’t always fit…or do they?do they?

Virginia and North Carolina Legislature’s Opinions of Tourism

“The Quiet Good” (CSR and the Lodging Industry)

Creation of a Statewide Tourism Development Plan for Virginia

A great research agenda A great research agenda needs to…needs to…

Inspire both you and othersBe something you feel passionate about but

still pays the billsPass the “elevator speech” testBe flexibleBe trackable and tangible (think key words)Find its way into your teaching and service

activitiesBe the foundation for a career that you can

be proud ofNOT be stagnant…consistent doesn’t mean

boring!Encourage you to become a “bricoleur”

Other Strategies and Other Strategies and Suggestions?Suggestions?