MEANING OF COST ‘COST’ represents a sacrifice of values, a foregoing or a release of something of value. It is the price of economic resources used as a result of producing or doing the thing costed. It is the amount of expenditure incurred on a given thing. Cost has been defined as the amount measured in money or cash expended or other party transferred, capital stock issued, services performed or a liability incurred in consideration of goods and serviced received or to be received. By cost, we mean the actual cost i.e. historical cost. ICWA (UK) defines cost as the amount of expenditure (actual or notional) incurred on, or attributable to a specified thing or activity.

CLASSIFICATION OF COST

Cost classification is the process of grouping costs according to their common features. Costs are to be classified in such a manner that they are identified with cost center or cost unit.

ON THE BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR OF COST

Behavior means change in cost due to change in output. On the basis of behavior cost is classified into the following categories:

FIXED COST

It is that portion of the total cost which remains constant irrespective of the output upto capacity limit. It is called as a period cost as it is concerned with period. It depends upon the passage of time. It is also referred to as non-variable cost or stand by cost, capacity cost or “period” cost. It tends to be unaffected by variations in output. These costs provide conditions for production rather than costs of production. They are created by contractual obligations and managerial

decisions. Rent of premises, taxes and insurance, staff salaries constitute fixed cost.

VARIABLE COST

This cost varies according to the output. In other words, it is a cost which changes according to the changes in output. It tends to vary in direct proportion to output. If the output is decreased, variable cost also will decrease. It is concerned with output or product. Therefore, it is called as a “product” cost. If the output is doubled, variable cost will also be doubled. For example, direct material, direct labour, direct expenses and variable overheads. It is shown in the diagram below.

SEMI-VARIABLE COST

This is also referred to as semi-fixed or partly variable cost. It remains constant up to a certain level and registers change afterwards. These costs vary in some degree with volume but not in direct or same proportion. Such costs are fixed only in relation to specified constant conditions. For example, repairs and maintenance of machinery, telephone

charges, supervision professional tax, etc.

ON THE BASIS OF ELEMENTS OF COST

Elements means nature of items. A cost is composed of three elements, material, labour and expenses. Each of these elements can be direct and indirect.

DIRECT COST

It is the cost which is directly chargeable to the product manufactured. It is easily identifiable. Direct cost consists of three elements which are as follows:

DIRECT MATERIAL

It is the cost of basic raw material used for manufacturing a product. It becomes a part of the product. No finished product can be manufactured without basic raw materials. It is easily identifiable and chargeable to the product. For example, leather in leatherwares, pulp in paper, steel in steel furniture, sugarcane for sugarcane etc. what is raw material for

one manufacturer might be finished product for another. Direct material includes the following:

1. All materials specially purchased for production or the process.

2. All components purchased for production or the process.

3. Material transferred from one cost center to another or one process to another.

4. Primary packing materials, wrappings, cardboard boxes etc, necessary for preservation or protection of product.

Some of the items like nails or thread in the store are a part of finished product. They are not treated as direct materials in view of negligible cost.

DIRECT LABOUR OR DIRECT WAGES

It is the amount paid to those workers who are engaged in the manufacturing line for conversion of raw materials into finished goods. The amount of wages can be easily identified and directly charged to the product. These workers directly handle raw materials, work in progress and finished goods on the production line. Wages paid to the workers operating lathes, drilling, cutting machines etc are direct wages. Direct wages are also as productive labour, process labour or prime cost labour.Direct wages include the payment made to the following group of workers:

1. Labour engaged on the capital production of the product.

2. Labour engaged in aiding the operations viz. Supervisor, Foreman, Shop clerks and Worker on internal transport.

3. Inspectors, Analysts needed for such production.

DIRECT EXPENSES OR CHARGEABLE EXPENSES

It is the amount of expenses which is directly chargeable to the product manufactured or which may be allocated to product directly. It can be easily identified with the product. For example, hire charges of a special machine used for manufacturing a product, cost of designing the product, cost of patterns, architects fees/surveyors fees, or job cost of experimental work carried out especially for a job etc. Cost of special drawings, cost of special layout designs, patents, patterns, cost of models, surveyors fees, Excise duty, royalty on production, cost of rectifying defective work. Utility of such expenses is exhausted on completion of job.

INDIRECT COST

It is that portion of the total cost which cannot be identified and charged directly to the product. It has to be allocated and apportioned and absorbed over the units manufactured on a suitable basis. It consists of the following three elements:

INDIRECT MATERIAL

It is the cost of the material other than direct material which cannot be charged to the product directly. It cannot be treated as a part of the product. It is also known as expenses materials. It is the material which cannot be allocated to the product but which can be apportioned to the cost units. Examples are as follows:

1. Lubricants, cotton waste, oil, grease, stationery etc

2. Small tools for general use3. Some minor items such as thread in dress

making, cost of nails in shoemaking etc

INDIRECT LABOUR

It is the amount of wages paid to those workers who are not engaged on the manufacturing line, for example, wages of workers in administration department, watch n ward department, sales department, general supervision.

INDIRECT EXPENSES

It is the amount of expenses which is not chargeable to the product directly. It is the cost of giving service to the production department. It includes factory expenses, administrative expenses, selling and distribution expenses etc.

OVERHEADS OR ON COST OR BURDEN OR SUPPLEMNTARY COST

Aggregate of indirect cost is referred to as overheads. It arises as a result of overall operation of a business. According to Weldon overheads mean, ”the cost of indirect material, indirect labour and such other expenses, including services as cannot conveniently be charged direct to specific cost units”. It includes all manufacturing and non-manufacturing supplies and services. These costs cannot be associated with a particular product. The principal feature of overheads is the lack of direct traceability to individual product. It remains relatively constant from period to period. The amount of overheads is not directly chargeable i.e. it has to be properly allocated, apportioned and absorbed on some equitable basis.

CLASSIFICATION OF OVERHEADS

ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTIONS

FACTORY OVERHEADS

It is the aggregate of all the factory expenses incurred in connection with manufacture of a product. These are incurred in connection with running of factory. It includes the items of expenses viz, factory salary, work managers salary, factory repairs, rent of factory premises, factory lighting, lubricants, factory power, drawing office salary, haulage (cost of internal transport) depreciation of plant and machinery unproductive wages, estimation expenses, royalties, loose tools w/ off, material handling charges, time office salaries, counting house salaries etc.

ADMINISTRATIVE OR OFFICE OVERHEADS

It is the aggregate of all the expenses as regards administration. It is the cost of office service or decision-making. It consists of the following expenses: Staff salaries, printing and stationery, postage and telegram, telephone charges, rent of office premises, office conveyance, printing and stationery and repairs and depreciation of office premises and furniture etc.

SELLING & DISTRIBUTION OVERHEADS

It is the aggregate of all the expenses incurred in connection with sales and distribution of finished product and services. It is the cost of sales and distribution services. Selling expenses are such expenses which are incurred acquiring and retaining customers. It includes the following expenses: (a) Advertisement (b) Show room expenses (c) Traveling expenses (d) Commission to agents (e) Salaries

of Sales office (f) Cost of catalogues (g) Discount allowed (h) Bad debts written off (i) Commission on sales (j) Rent of Sales Room (k) Sample and Free gifts (L) After sales service expenses (m) Expenses on demonstration and technical advice to prospective customers (n) Free repairs and servicing expenses (o) Expenses on market research (p) Fancy packing and demonstration. Distribution expenses include all those expense which are incurred in connection with making the goods available to customers these expense includes the following (a) Packing charges (b) Loading charges (c) Carriages on sales (d) Rent on warehouse (e) Insurance and lighting of warehouse (f) Insurance of delivery van (g) Expense on delivery van (h) Salaries of Godownkeeper, drivers and packing staff.

COST SHEET

For determination of total cost of production a statement showing the various elements of cost is prepared. This statement is called as a statement of cost or cost sheet. Cost sheet is a statement which provides assembly of the detailed cost of a cost center or a cost unit. It is a statement showing the details of a) total cost of job b) Cost of an operation or order. It brings out the composition of total cost in a logical order under proper classifications & sub-divisions. The period is covered by the cost sheet may be by a week a month or so. Separate columns are provided to show total cost, cost per-unit etc. In case of different products there are different cost sheets for different products. A cost sheet is prepared under output or unit costing method.

PURPOSE OF COST SHEET

1. It gives the break up of total cost under different elements.

2. It shows total cost as well as cost per unit.3. It helps in comparison with previous years.4. It facilities preparation of tenders or quotations. 5. It enables the management to fix up selling price.6. It controls cost.

DIVISIONS OF COST

PRIME COST

It comprises of all direct materials, direct labour and direct expenses. It is also known as flat cost

Prime cost = Direct Materials + Direct Labour + Direct Expenses

WORKS COST

It is also known as a factory cost or cost of manufacture. It is the cost of manufacturing an article. It includes prime cost and factory expenses.

Works Cost = Prime Cost + Factory Overheads

COST OF PRODUCTION

It represents factory cost plus administrative expenses.

Cost of Production = Factory Cost + Administrative Expenses

TOTAL COST

It represents cost of production plus selling and distribution expenses.

Total Cost= Cost of Production + Selling & Distribution Expenses

SELLING PRICE

It is the price which includes total cost plus margin of profit or minus loss, if any.

Selling Price = Total Cost + Profit (-Loss)

NON COST ITEMS

Non-cost items are those items which do not form part of cost of a product. Such items should not be considered while ascertaining the cost of a product. These are items included in the Profit & Loss A/c. These will not come in the cost sheet

a) Income taxb) Interest on capitalc) Interest on loan d) Profit on Sale of fixed assetse) All the assets f) Donations g) Capital Expenditure

h) Discount on shares & Debenturesi) Commission to Partners, Managers etcj) Brokeragek) Preliminary Expenses Written off.l) Wealth tax etcm) Bonus to directors and employees if it is based on

profit, expenses of raising capital, penalties & fines.

UTILITY OF COST SHEET

DETERMINE THE TOTAL COST

A total cost sheet (statement) helps in determining aggregate cost of manufacturing a product or providing a service.

DETERMINING PRODUCT PRICE

A cost sheet helps in identifying the total cost for a product or service which in turn helps in properly pricing of products & services.

COST REDUCTION OR COST CONTROL

Cost sheets helps in identifying the total cost stage wise & any unwanted cost can be curtailed.

PREPARE BUDGETS

A cost statement helps in preparing budget for each department

PROFIT PLANNING

It helps to minimize cost & increase profits.

1. STAGE WISE COST IDENTIFICATION

Costs such as prime cost, factory cost, cost of production, cost of goods sold, total cost of sale etc.

2. DETERMINE THE COST PER UNIT

This helps in determining cost per unit on which u can predict further cost.

DETERMINATION OF TOTAL COST

Cost of product is determined as per cost attach concept. Total cost of a product consists of various elements of cost which have the quality of coherence. All the elements of cost can be grouped and regrouped. Grouping and regrouping of various elements of cost leads to significant divisions of cost. The logical process of determination of cost by grouping and regrouping various elements is illustrated as follows:

COST SHEETPROFORMA OF COST SHEET

PARTICULARS

Opening Stock Raw Materials Add: Purchase Add: Carriage Inward Add: Octroi and Customs Duty Less: Closing Stock of Raw MaterialsCost of Direct Material ConsumedDirect WagesDirect or Chargeable Wages

PRIME COST

Add: Works of Factory Overheads: Indirect Materials Indirect Wages Leave Wages Bonus to Workers Overtime Wages Fuel and Power Rent and Taxes Insurance Factory Lightings Supervision Works Stationary Canteen and Welfare Expenses Repairs Works Salaries Depreciation of Plant and Machinery Works Expenses Gas and Water Technical Director’s Fees Laboratory Expenses Works Transport Expenses Works Telephone Expenses

TOTAL COST Rs.

XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX

XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX

Add: Opening Stock of Work-in-ProgressLess: Closing Stock of Work-in-ProgressLess: Sale of Waste

WORKS COST

Add: Office and Administration Overheads: Office Salaries Directors Fees Office Rents And Rates Office Stationary and Printing Sundry Office Expenses Depreciation on Office Furniture Subscription to Trade Journals Office Lightings Establishment Charges Directors Traveling Expenses Consultants Fees Contribution to Provident Fund Postage Legal Charges Audit Fees Bank Charges Depreciation And Repairs of Office Equipments Bonus to Staff

COST OF PRODUCTIONAdd :Opening Stock of Finished GoodsLess: Closing Stock of Finished Goods

COST OF GOODS SOLD

Add: Selling and Distribution Overheads Advertising Show Room Expenses Salesman’s Salaries and Expenses

XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX

Packing Expenses Carriage Outward Commission of Sales Agents Cost of Catalogues Expenses of Delivery Vans Collection Charges Traveling Expenses Cost Tenders Warehouse Expenses Cost of Mailing Literature Sales Manager’s Salaries Insurance of Showroom Sales Director’s Fees Sales Office Expenses Rent of Sales Office Depreciation of Delivery Vans Expenses of Sales Branch Establishments Branch Office Expenses

TOTAL COST/TOTAL OF SALESProfit or Loss

SALES

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXX XXX XXXXXX XXXXXX XXX XXX XXXXXX XXX XXX XXX XXX

ESTIMATION OF COST

Very often, the management desires to know, ‘what will be the cost?’ even before the production starts. The purpose to know the cost before it is incurred, might be different. It may be to keep the cost within control or it may be used for profit planning. May times it is required to submit tenders, to give quotations, to prepare price lists etc. For this purpose the estimations of “probable cost” of production is essential. This requires the past cost data to be analysed, present circumstances are taken into consideration and future is projected. The technique is known as estimation of cost. This involves the study of each and every element of cost and their nature of behaviour . Keeping in view the nature of behaviour of elements of cost, it can be classified into following three categories:

FIXED COST

Fixed cost is that cost which remains unaffected even though there is change in the level of output. It remains constant at all levels of output for a given period of time. Examples of such costs are rent, rated and taxes of factory premises, salary of general manager, foreman, watchman, insurance, depreciation etc. These expenses incur according to the unit of time and not according to level of production. Hence sometimes it is called as periodic cost.For example such fixed cost is ascertained of a particular concern Rs. 12000 pm. The capacity of this concern is to produce 1000 units pm. If they produce 100 units or 500 units or 700 units or 100 units the fixed cost will remain constant at all these levels of output.This fixed cost remains fixed at all levels of output, but the cost per unit changes if there is a change in the level of output.

VARIABLE COST

It is the cost which tends to vary directly with the volume of output. If there is increase in output this cost increases and vice versa. The change in the variable cost takes place in the same direction in which the level of output changes. This cost consists of direct materials, direct wages, direct expenses and some part of indirect expenses which varied according to the level of output. Say for example if standard unit of final product requires the raw materials of Rs.20 per unit the expenses on direct materials will change if level of output changes. However variable cost per unit will remain unchanged provided the price level does not change.

SEMI-VARIABLE COST

This is the third category of nature of behavior of the expenses. These expenses are neither fixed nor variable. These expenses change in the same direction in which the level of output changes. Thus these expenses are partly fixed partly variable in nature. Examples of such expenses are depreciation of plant and machinery, maintenance of factory building etc. These expenses will increase if factory is run from single shift to double or triple shifts. Depreciation and maintenance will increase but not in the same ratio, the output increases. Thus these expenses are neither fixed nor variable cent percent. Hence they are called as semi variable expenses.

CERTIFICATE

The following project has been satisfactorily performed by Nikhil Abhyankar 01 Mangala Borkar 11 Sunil Chadda 12 Bhagyesh Gandhi 21 Avinash Dhone 17 Snehal Dolas 19 Roshan Kambli 38 Ketki Khandagale 43 Priyank Mehta 53 Abhijeet Motto 58 studying in Bhavans College, Class F.Y. BMS Div A during the academic year 2008-2009

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this project namely COST SHEET is done solely by our group, which consists of TEN people whose names are given below Nikhil Abhyankar 01 Mangala Borkar 11 Sunil Chadda 12 Bhagyesh Gandhi 21 Avinash Dhone 17 Snehal Dolas 19 Roshan Kambli 38 Ketki Khandagale 43 Priyank Mehta 53 Abhijeet Motto 58 under the expert guidance of our respected professor Mrs. Riddhi Sharma. We further declare that the content of this project is true and to the best of our knowledge.

Solved example of Cost Sheet

The accounts of Z ltd for the yr ended 31st Dec 2004, shows the following:

Rs.Work office salaries Administrative office salariesCash Discounts AllowedCarriage OutwardCarriage InwardBad Debts Written OffRepairs to Plant & MachineryRents, Rates, Taxes, Insurance etcFactory OfficeSales Stock of Raw Materials1st Jan, 0431st Jan, 04Materials PurchasedTraveling ExpensesTravelers Salaries and CommissionProductive WagesDepreciation on Plant & MachineryDepreciation on Office FurnitureDirectors FeesGas & Water (Factory)Gas & Water (Office)Managers salary (1/4 office & ¾ Factory)General Expenses

65001260029004300715065004450

85002000461000

480006200018500021007700126000650030060001200400100003400

You are required to prepare a cost statement for the year ended 31st Dec 04

Solution: Z Ltd Cost Statement for the yr ended 31st Dec 2004

Particulars Rs. Rs.

Raw Materials Consumed:Stock of Raw materials as on 1st Jan 04(+) Materials Purchased(+) Carriage Inward(-) Stock of Raw Materials as on 31st Dec 04Raw Materials ConsumedProductive Wages Prime Cost

Add: Works/Factory OverheadsWork Office SalariesRepairs to P/MRents, Rates, Taxes & Insurance etc- FactoryDepreciation on P/MGas & Water (Factory)Manager’s Salary (3/4)Works or Factory Overheads Works CostAdd: Office & Administrative OverheadsAdministrative Office SalariesRents, Rates, Taxes, Insurance etc- OfficeDepreciation on Office furnitureDirector’s FeesGas & Water (office)Manager’s salary (1/4)

48,0001,85,0007,15062,800

6,5004,4508,5006,5001,2007,500

12,6002,0003006,0004002,5003,400

1,77,3501,26,0003,03,350

34,6503,38,000

General ExpensesOffice & Administrative Overheads Cost of Production/ Cost of Goods SoldAdd: Selling & Distribution OverheadsCarriage OutwardTraveling ExpensesTravelers Salary & CommissionSelling & distribution Overheads Total Cost of SalesAdd: Profit (Balancing Figure)Sales

4,3002,1007,700

27,2003,65,200

14,1003,79,30081,7004,61,000

PROFORMA OF ESTIMATED COST SHEET

Total Cost

Per Unit Total Cost

Per Unit

Direct MaterialDirect LabourDirect Wages

XXXXXXXXX

XXXXXXXXX

XXXXXXXXX

XXXXXXXXX

Prime CostFactory Overheads

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

Works CostOffice & AdministrationOverheads

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

Cost of ProductionSelling & distribution Overheads

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

XXX

Cost of SalesProfit

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

Sales XXX XXX XXX

SOLVED EXAMPLE OF ESTIMATED COST SHEETSwadeshi Electronics Ltd. furnishes you the following information for the year ended 31st March 06

Production & salesSales Direct wagesDirect materialsFactory overheadsAdministrative overheadsSales overheads

15000 unitsRs. 1275000Rs. 270000Rs. 330000Rs. 225000Rs.105000Rs. 90000

On account of intense competition following changes are estimated in the subsequent year:

1. Production and sales activity will be increased by one third2. Material rate will be lowered by 25%. However there will be increase in consumption by 20%3. Direct wages cost would be reduced by 20% due to automation

4. Out of the above factory overheads rs. 45000 are fixed in nature. The remaining factory expenses are variable in proportion to the number of units produced5. Total administrative expenses will be lowered by 40%6. Sales overhead per unit would remain the same7. Sales price per unit would be lowered by 20%

Prepare a statement of cost for both the yrs ending 31st March 06 and 31st March 07 showing maximum possible details of cost

Solution: Swadeshi Electronics Ltd Cost Sheet for the yr ended 31st Mar 06 & 31st March 07 15000 20000

Total Cost

Per Unit Total Cost

Per Unit

Direct MaterialsDirect Wages

330000270000

2218

396000288000

19.814.4

Prime CostFactory Overheads

600000

225000

40

15

684000

285000

34.2

14.25

Works CostAdministrative Overheads

825000

105000

55

07

969000

63000

48.45

3.15

Cost of ProductionSales Overheads

93000090000

6206

1032000120000

51.606

Cost of SalesProfit

1020000255000

6817

1152000208000

57.610.4

Sales 1275000

85 1360000

68