coral reef - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

12/21/2014 CoralreefWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

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CoralreefFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Coralreefsarediverseunderwaterecosystemsheldtogetherbycalciumcarbonatestructuressecretedbycorals.Coralreefsarebuiltbycoloniesoftinyanimalsfoundinmarinewatersthatcontainfewnutrients.Mostcoralreefsarebuiltfromstonycorals,whichinturnconsistofpolypsthatclusteringroups.ThepolypsbelongtoagroupofanimalsknownasCnidaria,whichalsoincludesseaanemonesandjellyfish.Unlikeseaanemones,coralssecretehardcarbonateexoskeletonswhichsupportandprotectthecoralpolyps.Reefsgrowbestinwarm,shallow,clear,sunnyandagitatedwaters.

Oftencalled"rainforestsofthesea",coralreefsformsomeofthemostdiverseecosystemsonEarth.Theyoccupylessthan0.1%oftheworld'soceansurface,abouthalftheareaofFrance,yettheyprovideahomefor25%ofallmarinespecies,[1][2][3]includingfish,mollusks,worms,crustaceans,echinoderms,sponges,tunicatesandothercnidarians.[4]Paradoxically,coralreefsflourisheventhoughtheyaresurroundedbyoceanwatersthatprovidefewnutrients.Theyaremostcommonlyfoundatshallowdepthsintropicalwaters,butdeepwaterandcoldwatercoralsalsoexistonsmallerscalesinotherareas.

Coralreefsdeliverecosystemservicestotourism,fisheriesandshorelineprotection.TheannualglobaleconomicvalueofcoralreefsisestimatedbetweenUS$29.8375billion.However,coralreefsarefragileecosystems,partlybecausetheyareverysensitivetowatertemperature.Theyareunderthreatfromclimatechange,oceanicacidification,blastfishing,cyanidefishingforaquariumfish,sunscreenuse,[5]overuseofreefresources,andharmfullandusepractices,includingurbanandagriculturalrunoffandwaterpollution,whichcanharmreefsbyencouragingexcessalgalgrowth.[6][7][8]

Contents

1Formation1.1Materials

2Types3Zones4Locations5Biology6Darwin'sparadox

6.1Explanations7Biodiversity

7.1Algae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molluskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustaceanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stony_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_water_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidarianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spongehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish



7.2Sponges7.3Fish7.4Invertebrates7.5Seabirds7.6Other

8Importance9Threats10Protection11Restoration12Reefsinthepast13Seealso14References15Furtherreferences16Externallinks

Formation

Mostofthecoralreefswecanseetodaywereformedafterthelastglacialperiodwhenmeltingicecausedthesealeveltoriseandfloodthecontinentalshelves.Thismeansthatmostmoderncoralreefsarelessthan10,000yearsold.Ascommunitiesestablishedthemselvesontheshelves,thereefsgrewupwards,pacingrisingsealevels.Reefsthatrosetooslowlycouldbecomedrownedreefs.Theyarecoveredbysomuchwaterthattherewasinsufficientlight.[9]Coralreefsarefoundinthedeepseaawayfromcontinentalshelves,aroundoceanicislandsandasatolls.Thevastmajorityoftheseislandsarevolcanicinorigin.Thefewexceptionshavetectonicoriginswhereplatemovementshaveliftedthedeepoceanflooronthesurface.

In1842inhisfirstmonograph,TheStructureandDistributionofCoralReefs[10]CharlesDarwinsetouthistheoryoftheformationofatollreefs,anideaheconceivedduringthevoyageoftheBeagle.HetheorizedupliftandsubsidenceoftheEarth'scrustundertheoceansformedtheatolls.[11]Darwinstheorysetsoutasequenceofthreestagesinatollformation.Itstartswithafringingreefformingaroundanextinctvolcanicislandastheislandandoceanfloorsubsides.Asthesubsidencecontinues,thefringingreefbecomesabarrierreef,andultimatelyanatollreef.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beaglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonic_uplifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_glacial_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoll_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringing_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_shelfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crust



Afringingreefcantaketenthousandyearstoform,andanatollcantakeupto30millionyears.[12]

Darwinstheorystartswithavolcanicislandwhichbecomesextinct

Astheislandandoceanfloorsubside,coralgrowthbuildsafringingreef,oftenincludingashallowlagoonbetweenthelandandthemainreef.

Asthesubsidencecontinues,thefringingreefbecomesalargerbarrierreeffurtherfromtheshorewithabiggeranddeeperlagooninside.

Ultimately,theislandsinksbelowthesea,andthebarrierreefbecomesanatollenclosinganopenlagoon.

Darwinpredictedthatunderneatheachlagoonwouldbeabedrockbase,theremainsoftheoriginalvolcano.Subsequentdrillingprovedthiscorrect.Darwin'stheoryfollowedfromhisunderstandingthatcoralpolypsthriveinthecleanseasofthetropicswherethewaterisagitated,butcanonlylivewithinalimiteddepthrange,startingjustbelowlowtide.Wheretheleveloftheunderlyingearthallows,thecoralsgrowaroundthecoasttoformwhathecalledfringingreefs,andcaneventuallygrowoutfromtheshoretobecomeabarrierreef.

Wherethebottomisrising,fringingreefscangrowaroundthecoast,butcoralraisedabovesealeveldiesandbecomeswhitelimestone.Ifthelandsubsidesslowly,thefringingreefskeeppacebygrowingupwardsonabaseofolder,deadcoral,formingabarrierreefenclosingalagoonbetweenthereefandtheland.Abarrierreefcanencircleanisland,andoncetheislandsinksbelowsealevelaroughlycircularatollofgrowingcoralcontinuestokeepupwiththesealevel,formingacentrallagoon.Barrierreefsandatollsdonotusuallyformcompletecircles,butarebrokeninplacesbystorms.Likesealevelrise,arapidlysubsidingbottomcanoverwhelmcoralgrowth,killingthecoralpolypsandthereef,duetowhatiscalledcoraldrowning.[13]Coralsthatrelyonzooxanthellaecandrownwhenthewaterbecomestoodeepfortheirsymbiontstoadequatelyphotosynthesize,duetodecreasedlightexposure.[14]

Thetwomainvariablesdeterminingthegeomorphology,orshape,ofcoralreefsarethenatureoftheunderlyingsubstrateonwhichtheyrest,andthehistoryofthechangeinsealevelrelativetothatsubstrate.

Theapproximately20,000yearoldGreatBarrierReefoffersanexampleofhowcoralreefsformedoncontinentalshelves.Sealevelwasthen120m(390ft)lowerthaninthe21stcentury.[15][16]Assealevelrose,thewaterandthecoralsencroachedonwhathadbeenhillsoftheAustraliancoastalplain.By13,000yearsago,sealevelhadrisento60m(200ft)lowerthanatpresent,andmanyhillsofthecoastalplainshad

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiontshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringing_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooxanthellaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed_rockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atoll_forming-Atoll.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atoll_forming-volcano.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_island



AsmallatollintheMaldives

becomecontinentalislands.Asthesealevelrisecontinued,watertoppedmostofthecontinentalislands.Thecoralscouldthenovergrowthehills,formingthepresentcaysandreefs.SealevelontheGreatBarrierReefhasnotchangedsignificantlyinthelast6,000years,[16]andtheageofthemodernlivingreefstructureisestimatedtobebetween6,000and8,000years.[17]AlthoughtheGreatBarrierReefformedalongacontinentalshelf,andnotaroundavolcanicisland,Darwin'sprinciplesapply.Developmentstoppedatthebarrierreefstage,sinceAustraliaisnotabouttosubmerge.Itformedtheworld'slargestbarrierreef,3001,000m(9803,300ft)fromshore,stretchingfor2,000km(1,200mi).[18]

Healthytropicalcoralreefsgrowhorizontallyfrom1to3cm(0.39to1.2in)peryear,andgrowverticallyanywherefrom1to25cm(0.39to9.8in)peryearhowever,theygrowonlyatdepthsshallowerthan150m(490ft)becauseoftheirneedforsunlight,andcannotgrowabovesealevel.[19]

Materials

Asthenameimplies,thebulkofcoralreefsismadeupofcoralskeletonsfrommostlyintactcoralcolonies.Asotherchemicalelementspresentincoralsbecomeincorporatedintothecalciumcarbonatedeposits,aragoniteisformed.However,shellfragmentsandtheremainsofcalcareousalgaesuchasthegreensegmentedgenusHalimedacanaddtothereef'sabilitytowithstanddamagefromstormsandotherthreats.SuchmixturesarevisibleinstructuressuchasEniwetokAtoll.[20]

Types

Thethreeprincipalreeftypesare:

Fringingreefdirectlyattachedtoashore,orbordersitwithaninterveningshallowchannelorlagoonBarrierreefreefseparatedfromamainlandorislandshorebyadeepchannelorlagoonAtollreefmoreorlesscircularorcontinuousbarrierreefextendsallthewayaroundalagoonwithoutacentralisland

Otherreeftypesorvariantsare:

Patchreefcommon,isolated,comparativelysmallreefoutcrop,usuallywithinalagoonorembayment,oftencircularandsurroundedbysandorseagrassApronreefshortreefresemblingafringingreef,butmoreslopedextendingoutanddownwardfromapointorpeninsularshoreBankreeflinearorsemicircularshapedoutline,largerthanapatchreefRibbonreeflong,narrow,possiblywindingreef,usuallyassociatedwithanatolllagoonTablereefisolatedreef,approachinganatolltype,butwithoutalagoonHabilireefspecifictotheRedSeadoesnotreachthesurfacenearenoughtocausevisiblesurfmaybeahazardtoships(fromthe

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaking_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringing_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maldives_small_island.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoll_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eniwetok_Atollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halimedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embaymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonite



InhabitedcayintheMaldives

Thethreemajorzonesofacoralreef:theforereef,reefcrest,andthebackreef

Arabicfor"unborn")Microatollcommunityofspeciesofcoralsverticalgrowthlimitedbyaveragetidalheightgrowthmorphologiesofferalowresolutionrecordofpatternsofsealevelchangefossilizedremainscanbedatedusingradioactivecarbondatingandhavebeenusedtoreconstruct

Holocenesealevels[21]

Cayssmall,lowelevation,sandyislandsformedonthesurfaceofcoralreefsfromerodedmaterialthatpilesup,forminganareaabovesealevelcanbestabilizedbyplantstobecomehabitableoccurintropicalenvironmentsthroughoutthePacific,AtlanticandIndianOceans(includingtheCaribbeanandontheGreatBarrierReefandBelizeBarrierReef),wheretheyprovidehabitableandagriculturallandSeamountorguyotformedwhenacoralreefonavolcanicislandsubsidestopsofseamountsareroundedandguyotsareflatflattopsofguyots,ortablemounts,areduetoerosionbywaves,winds,andatmosphericprocesses

Zones

Coralreefecosystemscontaindistinctzonesthatrepresentdifferentkindsofhabitats.Usually,threemajorzonesarerecognized:theforereef,reefcrest,andthebackreef(frequentlyreferredtoasthereeflagoon).

Allthreezonesarephysicallyandecologicallyinterconnected.Reeflifeandoceanicprocessescreateopportunitiesforexchangeofseawater,sediments,nutrients,andmarinelifeamongoneanother.

Thus,theyareintegratedcomponentsofthecoralreefecosystem,eachplayingaroleinthesupportofthereefs'abundantanddiversefishassemblages.

Mostcoralreefsexistinshallowwaterslessthan50mdeep.Someinhabittropicalcontinentalshelveswherecool,nutrientrichupwellingdoesnotoccur,suchasGreatBarrierReef.Othersarefoundinthedeepoceansurroundingislandsorasatolls,suchasintheMaldives.Thereefssurroundingislandsformwhenislandssubsideintotheocean,andatollsformwhenanislandsubsidesbelowthesurfaceofthesea.

Alternatively,MoyleandCechdistinguishsixzones,thoughmostreefspossessonlysomeofthezones.[22]

Thereefsurfaceistheshallowestpartofthereef.Itissubjecttothesurgeandtheriseandfalloftides.Whenwavespassovershallowareas,theyshoal,asshowninthediagramattheright.Thismeansthewaterisoftenagitated.Thesearethepreciseconditionunderwhichcoralsflourish.Shallownessmeansthereisplentyoflightforphotosynthesisbythesymbioticzooxanthellae,andagitatedwaterpromotestheabilityofcoraltofeedonplankton.However,otherorganismsmustbeabletowithstandtherobustconditionstoflourishinthiszone.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooxanthellaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_reef_diagram.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_datinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microatollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seamounthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belize_Barrier_Reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upwellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_shoalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_surge



Waterinthereefsurfacezoneisoftenagitated.Thisdiagramrepresentsareefonacontinentalshelf.Thewaterwavesatthelefttravelovertheoffreefflooruntiltheyencounterthereefslopeorforereef.Thenthewavespassovertheshallowreefcrest.Whenawaveentersshallowwateritshoals,thatis,itslowsdownandthewaveheightincreases.

Locationsofcoralreefs

Theoffreefflooristheshallowseafloorsurroundingareef.Thiszoneoccursbyreefsoncontinentalshelves.Reefsaroundtropicalislandsandatollsdropabruptlytogreatdepths,anddonothaveafloor.Usuallysandy,theflooroftensupportsseagrassmeadowswhichareimportantforagingareasforreeffish.

Thereefdropoffis,foritsfirst50m,habitatformanyreeffishwhofindshelterontheclifffaceandplanktoninthewaternearby.Thedropoffzoneappliesmainlytothereefssurroundingoceanicislandsandatolls.

Thereeffaceisthezoneabovethereeffloororthereefdropoff.Thiszoneisoftenthemostdiverseareaofthereef.Coralandcalcareousalgaegrowthsprovidecomplexhabitatsandareaswhichofferprotection,suchascracksandcrevices.Invertebratesandepiphyticalgaeprovidemuchofthefoodforotherorganisms.[22]

Thereefflatisthesandybottomedflat,whichcanbebehindthemainreef,containingchunksofcoral.Thiszonemayborderalagoonandserveasaprotectivearea,oritmayliebetweenthereefandtheshore,andinthiscaseisaflat,rockyarea.Fishestendtopreferlivinginthatflat,rockyarea,comparedtoanyotherzone,whenitispresent.[22]

Thereeflagoonisanentirelyenclosedregion,whichcreatesanarealessaffectedbywaveactionthatoftencontainssmallreefpatches.[22]

However,the"topographyofcoralreefsisconstantlychanging.Eachreefismadeupofirregularpatchesofalgae,sessileinvertebrates,andbarerockandsand.Thesize,shapeandrelativeabundanceofthesepatcheschangesfromyeartoyearinresponsetothevariousfactorsthatfavoronetypeofpatchoveranother.Growingcoral,forexample,producesconstantchangeinthefinestructureofreefs.Onalargerscale,tropicalstormsmayknockoutlargesectionsofreefandcausebouldersonsandyareastomove."[23]

Locations

Coralreefsareestimatedtocover284,300km2(109,800sqmi),[24]justunder0.1%oftheoceans'surfacearea.TheIndoPacificregion(includingtheRedSea,IndianOcean,SoutheastAsiaandthePacific)accountfor91.9%ofthistotal.SoutheastAsiaaccountsfor32.3%ofthatfigure,whilethePacificincludingAustraliaaccountsfor40.8%.AtlanticandCaribbeancoralreefsaccountfor7.6%.[2]

Althoughcoralsexistbothintemperateandtropicalwaters,shallowwaterreefsformonlyinazoneextendingfrom30Nto30Softheequator.Tropicalcoralsdonotgrowatdepthsofover50meters(160ft).Theoptimumtemperatureformostcoralreefsis2627C(7981F),andfewreefsexistinwatersbelow18C(64F).[25]However,reefsinthePersianGulfhaveadaptedtotemperaturesof13C(55F)inwinterand38C(100F)insummer.[26]Thereare37speciesofscleractiniancoralsidentifiedinsuchharshenvironmentaroundLarakIsland.[27]

Deepwatercoralcanexistatgreaterdepthsandcoldertemperaturesatmuchhigherlatitudes,asfarnorthasNorway.[28]Althoughdeepwatercoralscanformreefs,verylittleisknownaboutthem.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagrass_meadowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_shoalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_reef_locations.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_shelfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphytichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pacifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-water_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcareous



Boundaryfor20Cisotherms.Mostcoralslivewithinthisboundary.NotethecoolerwaterscausedbyupwellingonthesouthwestcoastofAfricaandoffthecoastofPeru.

Thismapshowsareasofupwellinginred.Coralreefsarenotfoundincoastalareaswherecolderandnutrientrichupwellingsoccur.

CoralreefsarerarealongthewestcoastsoftheAmericasandAfrica,dueprimarilytoupwellingandstrongcoldcoastalcurrentsthatreducewatertemperaturesintheseareas(respectivelythePeru,BenguelaandCanarystreams).[29]CoralsareseldomfoundalongthecoastlineofSouthAsiafromtheeasterntipofIndia(Chennai)totheBangladeshandMyanmarborders[2]aswellasalongthecoastsofnortheasternSouthAmericaandBangladesh,duetothefreshwaterreleasefromtheAmazonandGangesRiversrespectively.

TheGreatBarrierReeflargest,comprisingover2,900individualreefsand900islandsstretchingforover2,600kilometers(1,600mi)offQueensland,AustraliaTheMesoamericanBarrierReefSystemsecondlargest,stretching1,000kilometers(620mi)fromIslaContoyatthetipoftheYucatnPeninsuladowntotheBayIslandsofHondurasTheNewCaledoniaBarrierReefsecondlongestdoublebarrierreef,covering1,500kilometers(930mi)TheAndros,BahamasBarrierReefthirdlargest,followingtheeastcoastofAndrosIsland,Bahamas,betweenAndrosandNassauTheRedSeaincludes6000yearoldfringingreefslocatedarounda2,000km(1,240mi)coastlineTheFloridaReefTractlargestcontinentalUSreef,extendsfromSoldierKey,locatedinBiscayneBay,totheDryTortugas

intheGulfofMexico[30]

PulleyRidgedeepestphotosyntheticcoralreef,FloridaNumerousreefsscatteredovertheMaldivesThePhilippinescoralreefarea,thesecondlargestinSoutheastAsia,isestimatedat26,000squarekilometersandholdsanextraordinarydiversityofspecies.Scientistshaveidentified915reeffishspeciesandmorethan400scleractiniancoralspecies,12ofwhichareendemic.

TheRajaAmpatIslandsinIndonesia'sWestPapuaprovinceofferthehighestknownmarinediversity.[31]

Biology

Livecoralarecoloniesofsmallanimalsembeddedincalciumcarbonateshells.Itisamistaketothinkofcoralasplantsorrocks.Coralheadsconsistofaccumulationsofindividualanimalscalledpolyps,arrangedindiverseshapes.[32]Polypsareusuallytiny,buttheycanrangeinsizefromapinheadto12inches(30cm)across.

Reefbuildingorhermatypiccoralsliveonlyinthephoticzone(above50m),thedepthtowhichsufficientsunlightpenetratesthewater,allowingphotosynthesistooccur.Coralpolypsdonotphotosynthesize,buthaveasymbioticrelationshipwithmicroscopicalgaeofthegenusSymbiodinium,commonlyreferredtoaszooxanthellae.Theseorganismslivewithinthetissuesofpolypsandprovideorganicnutrientsthatnourishthepolyp.Becauseofthisrelationship,coralreefsgrowmuchfasterin

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AnatomyofacoralpolypTablecoral

clearwater,whichadmitsmoresunlight.Withouttheirsymbionts,coralgrowthwouldbetooslowtoformsignificantreefstructures.Coralsgetupto90%oftheirnutrientsfromtheirsymbionts.[33]

Reefsgrowaspolypsandotherorganismsdepositcalciumcarbonate,[34][35]thebasisofcoral,asaskeletalstructurebeneathandaroundthemselves,pushingthecoralhead'stopupwardsandoutwards.[36]Waves,grazingfish(suchasparrotfish),seaurchins,sponges,andotherforcesandorganismsactasbioeroders,breakingdowncoralskeletonsintofragmentsthatsettleintospacesinthereefstructureorformsandybottomsinassociatedreeflagoons.Manyotherorganismslivinginthereefcommunitycontributeskeletalcalciumcarbonateinthesamemanner.[37]Corallinealgaeareimportantcontributorstoreefstructureinthosepartsofthereefsubjectedtothegreatestforcesbywaves(suchasthereeffrontfacingtheopenocean).Thesealgaestrengthenthereefstructurebydepositinglimestoneinsheetsoverthereefsurface.

Typicalshapesforcoralspeciesarewrinkledbrains,cabbages,tabletops,antlers,wirestrandsandpillars.Theseshapescandependonthelifehistoryofthecoral,likelightexposureandwaveaction,[38]andeventssuchasbreakages.[39]

Coralsreproducebothsexuallyandasexually.Anindividualpolypusesbothreproductivemodeswithinitslifetime.Coralsreproducesexuallybyeitherinternalorexternalfertilization.Thereproductivecellsarefoundonthemesenterymembranesthatradiateinwardfromthelayeroftissuethatlinesthestomachcavity.Somematureadultcoralsarehermaphroditicothersareexclusivelymaleorfemale.Afewspecieschangesexastheygrow.

Internallyfertilizedeggsdevelopinthepolypforaperiodrangingfromdaystoweeks.Subsequentdevelopmentproducesatinylarva,knownasaplanula.Externallyfertilizedeggsdevelopduringsynchronizedspawning.Polypsreleaseeggsandspermintothewaterenmasse,simultaneously.Eggsdisperseoveralargearea.Thetimingofspawningdependsontimeofyear,watertemperature,andtidalandlunarcycles.Spawningismostsuccessfulwhenthereislittlevariationbetweenhighandlowtide.Thelesswatermovement,thebetterthechanceforfertilization.Idealtimingoccurs

inthespring.Releaseofeggsorplanulausuallyoccursatnight,andissometimesinphasewiththelunarcycle(threetosixdaysafterafullmoon).Theperiodfromreleasetosettlementlastsonlyafewdays,butsomeplanulaecansurviveafloatforseveralweeks.Theyarevulnerabletopredationandenvironmentalconditions.Theluckyfewplanulaewhichsuccessfullyattachtosubstratenextconfrontcompetitionforfoodandspace.

ThereareeightcladesofSymbiodiniumphylotypes.MostresearchhasbeencompletedontheSymbiodiniumcladesAD.Eachoneoftheeightcontributestheirownbenefitsaswellaslesscompatibleattributestothesurvivaloftheircoralhosts.Eachphotosyntheticorganismhasaspecificlevelofsensitivitytophotodamageofcompoundsneededforsurvival,suchasproteins.Ratesofregenerationandreplicationdeterminetheorganism'sabilitytosurvive.PhylotypeAisfoundmoreintheshallowregionsofmarinewaters.ItisabletoproducemycosporinelikeaminoacidsthatareUVresistant,usingaderivativeofglycerintoabsorbtheUVradiationandallowingthemtobecomemorereceptivetowarmerwatertemperatures.IntheeventofUVorthermaldamage,ifandwhenrepairoccurs,itwillincreasethelikelihoodofsurvivalofthehostandsymbiont.Thisleadstotheideathat,evolutionarily,cladeAismoreUVresistantandthermallyresistantthantheotherclades.[40]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_polyp.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staghorn_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acroporahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parrotfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillar_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralline_algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acroporahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_urchinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FFS_Table_bottom.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioerosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_spongehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesentery



Closeupofpolypsarearrayedonacoral,wavingtheirtentacles.Therecanbethousandsofpolypsonasinglecoralbranch.

CladesBandCarefoundmorefrequentlyinthedeeperwaterregions,whichmayexplainthehighersusceptibilitytoincreasedtemperatures.TerrestrialplantsthatreceivelesssunlightbecausetheyarefoundintheundergrowthcanbeanalogizedtocladesB,C,andD.SincecladesBthroughDarefoundatdeeperdepths,theyrequireanelevatedlightabsorptionratetobeabletosynthesizeasmuchenergy.WithelevatedabsorptionratesatUVwavelengths,thedeeperoccurringphylotypesaremorepronetocoralbleachingversusthemoreshallowclades.CladeDhasbeenobservedtobehightemperaturetolerant,andasaresultithasahigherrateofsurvivalthancladesBandC.[40]

Braincoral

Staghorncoral

Spiralwirecoral

Pillarcoral

Mushroomcoral

Mazecoral

Blackcoral

Fluorescentcoral[41]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cirripathes_sp_(Spiral_Wire_Coral).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brain_coral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PillarCoral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillar_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maze_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muchroom_coral.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meandrina_meandrites_(Maze_Coral).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Staghorn-coral-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black_coral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fluorescent_coral_-_MBA_-_DSC07089.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staghorn_coral



Darwin'sparadox

InTheStructureandDistributionofCoralReefs,publishedin1842,Darwindescribedhowcoralreefswerefoundinsomeareasofthetropicalseasbutnotothers,withnoobviouscause.Thelargestandstrongestcoralsgrewinpartsofthereefexposedtothemostviolentsurfandcoralswereweakenedorabsentwhereloosesedimentaccumulated.[43]

Tropicalwaterscontainfewnutrients[44]yetacoralreefcanflourishlikean"oasisinthedesert".[45]Thishasgivenrisetotheecosystemconundrum,sometimescalled"Darwin'sparadox":"Howcansuchhighproductionflourishinsuchnutrientpoorconditions?"[46][47][48]

Coralreefscoverlessthan0.1%ofthesurfaceoftheworldsocean,abouthalfthelandareaofFrance,yettheysupportoveronequarterofallmarinespecies.Thisdiversityresultsincomplexfoodwebs,withlargepredatorfisheatingsmallerforagefishthateatyetsmallerzooplanktonandsoon.However,allfoodwebseventuallydependonplants,whicharetheprimaryproducers.Coralreefs'primaryproductivityisveryhigh,typicallyproducing510gramsofCarbonpersquaremeterperday(gCm2day1biomass.[49][50]

Onereasonfortheunusualclarityoftropicalwatersistheyaredeficientinnutrientsanddriftingplankton.Further,thesunshinesyearroundinthetropics,warmingthesurfacelayer,makingitlessdensethansubsurfacelayers.Thewarmerwaterisseparatedfromdeeper,coolerwaterbyastablethermocline,wherethetemperaturemakesarapidchange.Thiskeepsthewarmsurfacewatersfloatingabovethecoolerdeeperwaters.Inmostpartsoftheocean,thereislittleexchangebetweentheselayers.Organismsthatdieinaquaticenvironmentsgenerallysinktothebottom,wheretheydecompose,whichreleasesnutrientsintheformofnitrogen(N),phosphorus(P)andpotassium(K).Thesenutrientsarenecessaryforplantgrowth,butinthetropics,theydonotdirectlyreturntothesurface.

Plantsformthebaseofthefoodchain,andneedsunlightandnutrientstogrow.Intheocean,theseplantsaremainlymicroscopicphytoplanktonwhichdriftinthewatercolumn.Theyneedsunlightforphotosynthesis,whichpowerscarbonfixation,sotheyarefoundonlyrelativelynearthesurface.Buttheyalsoneednutrients.Phytoplanktonrapidlyusenutrientsinthesurfacewaters,andinthetropics,thesenutrientsarenotusuallyreplacedbecauseofthethermocline.

Explanations

Aroundcoralreefs,lagoonsfillinwithmaterialerodedfromthereefandtheisland.Theybecomehavensformarinelife,providingprotectionfromwavesandstorms.

Mostimportantly,reefsrecyclenutrients,whichhappensmuchlessintheopenocean.Incoralreefsandlagoons,producersincludephytoplankton,aswellasseaweedandcorallinealgae,especiallysmalltypescalledturfalgae,whichpassnutrientstocorals.[51]Thephytoplanktonareeatenbyfishandcrustaceans,whoalsopassnutrientsalongthefoodweb.Recyclingensuresfewernutrientsareneededoveralltosupportthecommunity.

Darwin'sparadox"Coral...seemstoproliferatewhenoceanwatersarewarm,poor,clearandagitated,afactwhichDarwinhadalreadynotedwhenhepassedthroughTahitiin1842.Thisconstitutesafundamentalparadox,shownquantitativelybytheapparentimpossibilityofbalancinginputandoutputofthenutritiveelementswhichcontrolthecoralpolypmetabolism.

Recentoceanographicresearchhasbroughttolighttherealityofthisparadoxbyconfirmingthattheoligotrophyoftheoceaneuphoticzonepersistsrightuptotheswellbatteredreefcrest.Whenyouapproachthereefedgesandatollsfromthequasidesertoftheopensea,thenearabsenceoflivingmattersuddenlybecomesaplethoraoflife,withouttransition.Sowhyistheresomethingratherthannothing,andmoreprecisely,wheredothenecessarynutrientsforthefunctioningofthisextraordinarycoralreefmachinecomefrom?"FrancisRougerie[42]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predator_fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligotrophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_producershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoclinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_columnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoclinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forage_fish



Coralpolyps

Thecolorofcoralsdependsonthecombinationofbrownshadesprovidedbytheirzooxanthellaeandpigmentedproteins(reds,blues,greens,etc.)producedbythecoralsthemselves.

Coralreefssupportmanysymbioticrelationships.Inparticular,zooxanthellaeprovideenergytocoralintheformofglucose,glycerol,andaminoacids.[52]Zooxanthellaecanprovideupto90%ofacoralsenergyrequirements.[33]Inreturn,asanexampleofmutualism,thecoralsshelterthezooxanthellae,averagingonemillionforeverycubiccentimeterofcoral,andprovideaconstantsupplyofthecarbondioxidetheyneedforphotosynthesis.

Coralsalsoabsorbnutrients,includinginorganicnitrogenandphosphorus,directlyfromwater.Manycoralsextendtheirtentaclesatnighttocatchzooplanktonthatbrushthemwhenthewaterisagitated.Zooplanktonprovidethepolypwithnitrogen,andthepolypsharessomeofthenitrogenwiththezooxanthellae,whichalsorequirethiselement.[51]Thevaryingpigmentsindifferentspeciesofzooxanthellaegivethemanoverallbrownorgoldenbrownappearance,andgivebrowncoralstheircolors.Otherpigmentssuchasreds,blues,greens,etc.comefromcoloredproteinsmadebythecoralanimals.Coralwhichlosesalargefractionofitszooxanthellaebecomeswhite(orsometimespastelshadesincoralsthatarerichlypigmentedwiththeirowncolorfulproteins)andissaidtobebleached,aconditionwhich,unlesscorrected,cankillthecoral.

Spongesareanotherkey:theyliveincrevicesinthecoralreefs.Theyareefficientfilterfeeders,andintheRedSeatheyconsumeabout60%ofthephytoplanktonthatdriftsby.Thespongeseventuallyexcretenutrientsinaformthecoralscanuse.[53]

Theroughnessofcoralsurfacesisthekeytocoralsurvivalinagitatedwaters.Normally,aboundarylayerofstillwatersurroundsasubmergedobject,whichactsasabarrier.Wavesbreakingontheextremelyroughedgesofcoralsdisrupttheboundarylayer,allowingthecoralsaccesstopassingnutrients.Turbulentwatertherebypromotesreefgrowthandbranching.Withoutthenutritionalgainsbroughtbyroughcoralsurfaces,eventhemosteffectiverecyclingwouldleavecoralswantinginnutrients.[54]

Studieshaveshownthatdeepnutrientrichwaterenteringcoralreefsthroughisolatedeventsmayhavesignificanteffectsontemperatureandnutrientsystems.[55][56]Thiswatermovementdisruptstherelativelystablethermoclinethatusuallyexistsbetweenwarmshallowwatertodeepercolderwater.Leichteretal.

(2006)[57]foundthattemperatureregimesoncoralreefsintheBahamasandFloridawerehighlyvariablewithtemporalscalesofminutestoseasonsandspatialscalesacrossdepths.

Watercanbemovedthroughcoralreefsinvariousways,includingcurrentrings,surfacewaves,internalwavesandtidalchanges.[55][58][59][60]Movementisgenerallycreatedbytidesandwind.Astidesinteractwithvaryingbathymetryandwindmixeswithsurfacewater,internalwavesarecreated.Aninternalwaveisagravitywavethatmovesalongdensitystratificationwithintheocean.Whenawaterparcelencountersadifferentdensityitwilloscillateandcreateinternalwaves.[61]Whileinternalwavesgenerallyhavealowerfrequencythansurfacewaves,theyoftenformasasinglewavethatbreaksintomultiplewavesasithitsaslopeandmovesupward.[62]Thisverticalbreakupofinternalwavescausessignificantdiapycnalmixingandturbulence.[63][64]Internalwavescanactasnutrientpumps,bringingplanktonandcoolnutrientrichwateruptothesurface.[55][60][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multy_color_corals.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polyps_(PSF).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_feederhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooxanthellaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooxanthellaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea



Mostcoralpolypsarenocturnalfeeders.Here,inthedark,polypshaveextendedtheirtentaclestofeedonzooplankton.

Tubespongesattractingcardinalfishes,glassfishesandwrasses

Theirregularstructurecharacteristicofcoralreefbathymetrymayenhancemixingandproducepocketsofcoolerwaterandvariablenutrientcontent.[74]Arrivalofcool,nutrientrichwaterfromdepthsduetointernalwavesandtidalboreshasbeenlinkedtogrowthratesofsuspensionfeedersandbenthicalgae[60][73][75]aswellasplanktonandlarvalorganisms.[60][76]Leichteretal.[73]proposedthatCodiumisthmocladumreacttodeepwaternutrientsourcesduetotheirtissueshavingdifferentconcentrationsofnutrientsdependentupondepth.WolanskiandHamner[67]notedaggregationsofeggs,larvalorganismsandplanktononreefsinresponsetodeepwaterintrusions.Similarly,asinternalwavesandboresmovevertically,surfacedwellinglarvalorganismsarecarriedtowardtheshore.[76]Thishassignificantbiologicalimportancetocascadingeffectsoffoodchainsincoralreefecosystemsandmayprovideyetanotherkeytounlocking"Darwin'sParadox".

Cyanobacteriaprovidesolublenitratesforthereefvianitrogenfixation.[77]

Coralreefsalsooftendependonsurroundinghabitats,suchasseagrassmeadowsandmangroveforests,fornutrients.Seagrassandmangrovessupplydeadplantsandanimalswhicharerichinnitrogenandalsoservetofeedfishandanimalsfromthereefbysupplyingwoodandvegetation.Reefs,inturn,protectmangrovesandseagrassfromwavesandproducesedimentinwhichthemangrovesandseagrasscanroot.[26]

Biodiversity

Coralreefsformsomeoftheworld'smostproductiveecosystems,providingcomplexandvariedmarinehabitatsthatsupportawiderangeofotherorganisms.[78]Fringingreefsjustbelowlowtidelevelhaveamutuallybeneficialrelationshipwithmangroveforestsathightidelevelandseagrassmeadowsinbetween:thereefsprotectthemangrovesandseagrassfromstrongcurrentsandwavesthatwoulddamagethemorerodethesedimentsinwhichtheyarerooted,whilethemangrovesandseagrassprotectthecoralfromlargeinfluxesofsilt,freshwaterandpollutants.Thislevelofvarietyintheenvironmentbenefitsmanycoralreefanimals,which,forexample,mayfeedintheseagrassandusethereefsforprotectionorbreeding.[79]

Reefsarehometoalargevarietyofanimals,includingfish,seabirds,sponges,cnidarians(whichincludessometypesofcoralsandjellyfish),worms,crustaceans(includingshrimp,cleanershrimp,spinylobstersandcrabs),mollusks(includingcephalopods),echinoderms(includingstarfish,seaurchinsandseacucumbers),seasquirts,seaturtlesandseasnakes.Asidefromhumans,mammalsarerareoncoralreefs,withvisitingcetaceanssuchasdolphinsbeingthemainexception.Afewofthesevariedspeciesfeeddirectlyoncorals,whileothersgrazeonalgaeonthereef.[2][51]Reefbiomassispositivelyrelatedtospeciesdiversity.[80]

Thesamehideoutsinareefmayberegularlyinhabitedbydifferentspeciesatdifferenttimesofday.Nighttimepredatorssuchascardinalfishandsquirrelfishhideduringtheday,whiledamselfish,surgeonfish,triggerfish,wrassesandparrotfishhidefromeelsandsharks.[20]:49

Algae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Callyspongia_sp._(Tube_sponge).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_grasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic_glassfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrimphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sea_Cotton.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damselfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_snakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parrotfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triggerfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_squirthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustaceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringing_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_tidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeonfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabirdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiny_lobsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squirrelfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molluskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrassehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_urchinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_spongehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holothuroideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrassehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalopodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagrass_meadowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinalfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_turtlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleaner_shrimphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove_foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetacean



Over4,000speciesoffishinhabitcoralreefs.

Organismscancovereverysquareinchofacoralreef.

Reefsarechronicallyatriskofalgalencroachment.Overfishingandexcessnutrientsupplyfromonshorecanenablealgaetooutcompeteandkillthecoral.[81][82]InsurveysdonearoundlargelyuninhabitedUSPacificislands,algaeinhabitalargepercentageofsurveyedcorallocations.[83]Thealgalpopulationconsistsofturfalgae,corallinealgae,andmacroalgae.

Sponges

Spongesareessentialforthefunctioningofthecoralreef'secosystem.Algaeandcoralsincoralreefsproduceorganicmaterial.Thisisfilteredthroughspongeswhichconvertthisorganicmaterialintosmallparticleswhichinturnareabsorbedbyalgaeandcorals.[84]

Fish

Over4,000speciesoffishinhabitcoralreefs.[2]Thereasonsforthisdiversityremainunclear.Hypothesesincludethe"lottery",inwhichthefirst(luckywinner)recruittoaterritoryistypicallyabletodefenditagainstlatecomers,"competition",inwhichadultscompeteforterritory,andlesscompetitivespeciesmustbeabletosurviveinpoorerhabitat,and"predation",inwhichpopulationsizeisafunctionofpostsettlementpiscivoremortality.[85]Healthyreefscanproduceupto35tonsoffishpersquarekilometereachyear,butdamagedreefsproducemuchless.[86]

Invertebrates

Seaurchins,Dotidaeandseaslugseatseaweed.Somespeciesofseaurchins,suchasDiademaantillarum,canplayapivotalpartinpreventingalgaefromoverrunningreefs.[87]Nudibranchiaandseaanemoneseatsponges.

Anumberofinvertebrates,collectivelycalledcryptofauna,inhabitthecoralskeletalsubstrateitself,eitherboringintotheskeletons(throughtheprocessofbioerosion)orlivinginpreexistingvoidsandcrevices.Thoseanimalsboringintotherockincludesponges,bivalvemollusks,andsipunculans.Thosesettlingonthereefincludemanyotherspecies,particularlycrustaceansandpolychaeteworms.[29]

Seabirds

Coralreefsystemsprovideimportanthabitatsforseabirdspecies,someendangered.Forexample,MidwayAtollinHawaiisupportsnearlythreemillionseabirds,includingtwothirds(1.5million)oftheglobalpopulationofLaysanalbatross,andonethirdoftheglobalpopulationofblackfootedalbatross.[88]Eachseabirdspecieshasspecificsitesontheatollwheretheynest.Altogether,17speciesofseabirdsliveonMidway.Theshorttailedalbatrossistherarest,withfewerthan2,200survivingafterexcessivefeatherhuntinginthelate19thcentury.[89]

Other

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-tailed_albatrosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudibranchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_anemonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabirdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dotidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turf_algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadema_antillarumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralline_algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychaetehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudibranchiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_reef_PloS.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioerosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroalgaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-footed_albatrosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laysan_albatrosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Underwater_World.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipunculahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midway_Atollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii



Seasnakesfeedexclusivelyonfishandtheireggs.[90][91][92]Marinebirds,suchasherons,gannets,pelicansandboobies,feedonreeffish.Somelandbasedreptilesintermittentlyassociatewithreefs,suchasmonitorlizards,themarinecrocodileandsemiaquaticsnakes,suchasLaticaudacolubrina.Seaturtles,particularlyHawksbillseaturtles,feedonsponges.[93][94][95]

Schoolingreeffish

Caribbeanreefsquid

Bandedcoralshrimp

Whitetipreefshark

Greenturtle

Giantclam

Softcoral,cupcoral,spongesandascidians

Bandedseakrait

TheshellofLatiaxiswormaldi,acoralsnail

Importance

Coralreefsdeliverecosystemservicestotourism,fisheriesandcoastlineprotection.TheglobaleconomicvalueofcoralreefshasbeenestimatedtobebetweenUS$29.8billion[96]and$375billionperyear.[97]Coralreefsprotectshorelinesbyabsorbingwaveenergy,andmanysmallislandswouldnotexistwithouttheirreefstoprotectthem.AccordingtotheenvironmentalgroupWorldWideFundforNature,theeconomiccostovera25yearperiodofdestroyingonekilometerofcoralreefissomewherebetween$137,000and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_clamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laticauda_colubrina_(Wakatobi).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Latiaxis_wormaldi_002.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitetip_reef_sharkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoaling_and_schoolinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banded_coral_shrimphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_sea-reef_3627.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boobieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laticauda_colubrinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_turtlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelicanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_snakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawksbill_sea_turtlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nephtheidae_komodo.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_reef_squidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prionurus_laticlavius.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caribbean_reef_squid.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monitor_lizardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodylus_porosushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Naturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gannethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banded_sea_kraithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latiaxis_wormaldihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_turtlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stenopus_hispidus_(high_res).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reef_fish



IslandwithfringingreefoffYap,Micronesia[101]

$1,200,000.[98]Aboutsixmilliontonsoffisharetakeneachyearfromcoralreefs.Wellmanagedcoralreefshaveanannualyieldof15tonsofseafoodonaveragepersquarekilometer.SoutheastAsia'scoralreeffisheriesaloneyieldabout$2.4billionannuallyfromseafood.[98]

Toimprovethemanagementofcoastalcoralreefs,anotherenvironmentalgroup,theWorldResourcesInstitute(WRI)developedandpublishedtoolsforcalculatingthevalueofcoralreefrelatedtourism,shorelineprotectionandfisheries,partneringwithfiveCaribbeancountries.AsofApril2011,publishedworkingpaperscoveredSt.Lucia,Tobago,Belize,andtheDominicanRepublic,withapaperforJamaicainpreparation.TheWRIwasalso"makingsurethatthestudyresultssupportimprovedcoastalpoliciesandmanagementplanning".[99]

TheBelizestudyestimatedthevalueofreefandmangroveservicesat$395559millionannually.[100]

Threats

Coralreefsaredyingaroundtheworld.[101]Inparticular,coralmining,agriculturalandurbanrunoff,pollution(organicandinorganic),overfishing,blastfishing,disease,andthediggingofcanalsandaccessintoislandsandbaysarelocalizedthreatstocoralecosystems.Broaderthreatsareseatemperaturerise,sealevelriseandpHchangesfromoceanacidification,allassociatedwithgreenhousegasemissions.A2014studylistsfactorssuchaspopulationexplosionalongthecoastlines,overfishing,thepollutionofcoastalareas,globalwarmingandinvasivespeciesamongthemainreasonsthathaveputreefsindangerofextinction.[102]

AstudyreleasedinApril2013hasshownthatairpollutioncanalsostuntthegrowthofcoralreefsresearchersfromAustralia,PanamaandtheUKusedcoralrecords(between1880and2000)fromthewesternCaribbeantoshowthethreatoffactorssuchascoalburningcoalandvolcaniceruptions.[103]Pollutants,suchasTributyltin,abiocidereleasedintowaterfrominantifoulingpaintcanbetoxictocorals.

In2011,researcherssuggestedthat"extantmarineinvertebratesfacethesamesynergisticeffectsofmultiplestressors"thatoccurredduringtheendPermianextinction,andthatgenera"withpoorlybufferedrespiratoryphysiologyandcalcareousshells",suchascorals,wereparticularlyvulnerable.[104][105][106]

Rockcoralonseamountsacrosstheoceanareunderfirefrombottomtrawling.Reportedlyupto50%ofthecatchisrockcoral,andthepracticetransformscoralstructurestorubble.Withittakingyearstoregrow,thesecoralcommunitiesaredisappearingfasterthantheycansustainthemselves.[107]

Anothercauseforthedeathofcoralreefsisbioerosion.Variousfishesgrazecorals,deadoraliveandchangethemorphologyofcoralreefsmakingthemmoresusceptibletootherphysicalandchemicalthreats.Ithasbeengenerallyobservedthatonlythealgaegrowingondeadcoralsiseatenandtheliveonesarenot.However,thisactstilldestroysthetoplayerofcoralsubstrateandmakesitharderforthereefstosustain.[108]

InElNinoyear2010,preliminaryreportsshowglobalcoralbleachingreacheditsworstlevelsinceanotherElNinoyear,1998,when16%oftheworld'sreefsdiedasaresultofincreasedwatertemperature.InIndonesia'sAcehprovince,surveysshowedsome80%ofbleachedcoralsdied.Scientistsdonotyetunderstandthelongtermimpactsofcoralbleaching,buttheydoknowthatbleachingleavescoralsvulnerabletodisease,stuntstheirgrowth,andaffectstheirreproduction,whileseverebleachingkillsthem.[109]InJuly,Malaysiaclosed

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mvey0290.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-Permian_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-fouling_painthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acehhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioerosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Resources_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringing_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_trawlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributyltin



Adiversityofcorals

severaldivesiteswherevirtuallyallthecoralsweredamagedbybleaching.[110][111]

Tofindanswersfortheseproblems,researchersstudythevariousfactorsthatimpactreefs.Thelistincludestheocean'sroleasacarbondioxidesink,atmosphericchanges,ultravioletlight,oceanacidification,viruses,impactsofduststormscarryingagentstofarflungreefs,pollutants,algalbloomsandothers.Reefsarethreatenedwellbeyondcoastalareas.Coralreefswithonetypeofzooxanthellaearemorepronetobleachingthanarereefswithanother,morehardy,species.[112]

Generalestimatesshowapproximately10%oftheworld'scoralreefsaredead.[113][114]About60%oftheworld'sreefsareatriskduetodestructive,humanrelatedactivities.ThethreattothehealthofreefsisparticularlyhighinSoutheastAsia,where95%ofreefsareatriskfromlocalthreats.[115]Bythe2030s,90%ofreefsareexpectedtobeatriskfrombothhumanactivitiesandclimatechangeby2050,allcoralreefswillbeindanger.[116]

CurrentresearchisshowingthatecotourismintheGreatBarrierReefiscontributingtocoraldisease,[117]andthatchemicalsinsunscreensmaycontributetotheimpactofvirusesonzooxanthellae.[5]

Protection

Marineprotectedareas(MPAs)havebecomeincreasinglyprominentforreefmanagement.MPAspromoteresponsiblefisherymanagementandhabitatprotection.Muchlikenationalparksandwildliferefuges,andtovaryingdegrees,MPAsrestrictpotentiallydamagingactivities.MPAsencompassbothsocialandbiologicalobjectives,includingreefrestoration,aesthetics,biodiversity,andeconomicbenefits.HoweverthereareveryfewMPAsthathaveactuallymadeasubstantialdifference.ResearchinIndonesia,PhilippinesandPapuaNewGuineashowsthatthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenanMPAsiteandanunprotectedsite.[118][119]ConflictssurroundingMPAsinvolvelackofparticipation,clashingviewsofthegovernmentandfisheries,effectivenessofthearea,andfunding.[120]Insomesituations,asinthePhoenixIslandsProtectedArea,MPAscanalsoproviderevenue,potentiallyequaltotheincometheywouldhavegeneratedwithoutcontrols,asKiribatididforitsPhoenixIslands.[121]

Tohelpcombatoceanacidification,somelawsareinplacetoreducegreenhousegasessuchascarbondioxide.TheCleanWaterActputspressureonstategovernmentagenciestomonitorandlimitrunoffofpollutantsthatcancauseoceanacidification.Stormwatersurgepreventionsarealsoinplace,aswellascoastalbuffersbetweenagriculturallandandthecoastline.Thisactalsoensuresthatdelicatewatershedecosystems

areintact,suchaswetlands.TheCleanWaterActisfundedbythefederalgovernment,andismonitoredbyvariouswatershedgroups.ManylanduselawsaimtoreduceCO2emissionsbylimitingdeforestation.Deforestationcauseserosion,whichreleasesalargeamountofcarbonstoredinthesoil,whichthenflowsintotheocean,contributingtooceanacidification.Incentivesareusedtoreducemilestraveledbyvehicles,whichreducesthecarbonemissionsintotheatmosphere,therebyreducingtheamountofdissolvedCO2intheocean.Stateand

federalgovernmentsalsocontrolcoastalerosion,whichreleasesstoredcarboninthesoilintotheocean,increasingoceanacidification.[122]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_sinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Protected_Areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Islands_Protected_Areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_refugehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_stormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiribatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisheries_management



Coralfragmentsgrowingonnontoxicconcrete

Biospherereserve,marinepark,nationalmonumentandworldheritagestatuscanprotectreefs.Forexample,Belize'sbarrierreef,Chagosarchipelago,SianKa'an,theGalapagosislands,GreatBarrierReef,HendersonIsland,PalauandPapahnaumokukeaMarineNationalMonumentareworldheritagesites.

InAustralia,theGreatBarrierReefisprotectedbytheGreatBarrierReefMarineParkAuthority,andisthesubjectofmuchlegislation,includingabiodiversityactionplan.[123]TheyhavecompiledaCoralReefResilienceActionPlan.Thisdetailedactionplanconsistsofnumerousadaptivemanagementstrategies,includingreducingourcarbonfootprint,whichwouldultimatelyreducetheamountofoceanacidificationintheoceanssurroundingtheGreatBarrierReef.Anextensivepublicawarenessplanisalsoinplacetoprovideeducationontherainforestsoftheseaandhowpeoplecanreducecarbonemissions,therebyreducingoceanacidification.[124]

InhabitantsofAhusIsland,ManusProvince,PapuaNewGuinea,havefollowedagenerationsoldpracticeofrestrictingfishinginsixareasoftheirreeflagoon.Theirculturaltraditionsallowlinefishing,butnonetorspearfishing.Theresultisboththebiomassandindividualfishsizesaresignificantlylargerthaninplaceswherefishingisunrestricted.[125][126]

Highendsatellitetechnologyiscomingtotheaidofprotectingearthslargestbiologicalstructuresthecoralreefswhichhavetakenmillionsofyearstoformandaredecliningatalarmingratesworldwide

[127]

Restoration

Coralaquaculture,alsoknownascoralfarmingorcoralgardening,isshowingpromiseasapotentiallyeffectivetoolforrestoringcoralreefs,whichhavebeendecliningaroundtheworld.[128][129][130]Theprocessbypassestheearlygrowthstagesofcoralswhentheyaremostatriskofdying.Coralseedsaregrowninnurseries,thenreplantedonthereef.[131]Coralisfarmedbycoralfarmerswholivelocallytothereefsandfarmforreefconservationorforincome.

Effortstoexpandthesizeandnumberofcoralreefsgenerallyinvolvesupplyingsubstratetoallowmorecoralstofindahome.Substratematerialsincludediscardedvehicletires,scuttledships,subwaycars,andformedconcrete,suchasreefballs.Reefsalsogrowunaidedonmarinestructuressuchasoilrigs.Inlargerestorationprojects,propagatedhermatypiccoralonsubstratecanbesecuredwithmetalpins,superglueormilliput.[132]NeedleandthreadcanalsoattachAhermatypecoraltosubstrate.[133]

AsubstrateforgrowingcoralsreferredtoasBiorockisproducedbyrunninglowvoltageelectricalcurrentsthroughseawatertocrystallizedissolvedmineralsontosteelstructures.Theresultantwhitecarbonate(aragonite)isthesamemineralthatmakesupnaturalcoralreefs.Coralsrapidlycolonizeandgrowatacceleratedratesonthesecoatedstructures.Theelectricalcurrentsalsoaccelerateformationandgrowthofbothchemicallimestonerockandtheskeletonsofcoralsandothershellbearingorganisms.ThevicinityoftheanodeandcathodeprovidesahighpHenvironmentwhichinhibitsthegrowthofcompetitivefilamentousandfleshyalgae.Theincreasedgrowthratesfullydependontheaccretionactivity.[134]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_heritagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_aquaculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reef_Ballhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milliputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagos_archipelagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galapagoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henderson_Island_(Pitcairn_Islands)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Park_Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_reservehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_platformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_monumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spear_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_planting_and_reef_restoration_may_11.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manus_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sian_Ka%27anhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermatypic_coral



Ancientcoralreefs

Duringaccretion,thesettledcoralsdisplayanincreasedgrowthrate,sizeanddensity,butaftertheprocessiscomplete,growthrateanddensityreturntolevelscomparabletonaturalgrowth,andareaboutthesamesizeorslightlysmaller.[134]

OnecasestudywithcoralreefrestorationwasconductedontheislandofOahuinHawaii.TheUniversityofHawaiihascomeupwithaCoralReefAssessmentandMonitoringProgramtohelprelocateandrestorecoralreefsinHawaii.AboatchannelontheislandofOahutotheHawaiiInstituteofMarineBiologywasovercrowdedwithcoralreefs.Also,manyareasofcoralreefpatchesinthechannelhadbeendamagedfrompastdredginginthechannel.Dredgingcoverstheexistingcoralswithsand,andtheirlarvaecannotbuildandthriveonsandtheycanonlybuildontoexistingreefs.Becauseofthis,theUniversityofHawaiidecidedtorelocatesomeofthecoralreeftoadifferenttransplantsite.TheytransplantedthemwiththehelpoftheUnitedStatesArmyDivers,toarelocationsiterelativelyclosetothechannel.Theyobservedverylittle,ifany,damageoccurredtoanyofthecolonieswhiletheywerebeingtransported,andnomortalityofcoralreefshasbeenobservedonthenewtransplantsite,buttheywillbecontinuingtomonitorthenewtransplantsitetoseehowpotentialenvironmentalimpacts(i.e.oceanacidification)willharmtheoverallreefmortalityrate.Whiletryingtoattachthecoraltothenewtransplantsite,theyfoundthecoralplacedonhardrockisgrowingconsiderablywell,andcoralwasevengrowingonthewiresthatattachedthetransplantcoralstothetransplantsite.Thisgivesnewhopetofutureresearchoncoralreeftransplantsites.Asaresultofthiscoralrestorationproject,noenvironmentaleffectswereseenfromthetransplantationprocess,norecreationalactivitiesweredecreased,andnoscenicareaswereaffectedbytheproject.Thisisagreatexamplethatcoraltransplantationandrestorationcanworkandthriveundertherightconditions,whichmeanstheremaybehopeforotherdamagedcoralreefs.[135]

Anotherpossibilityforcoralrestorationisgenetherapy.Throughinfectingcoralwithgeneticallymodifiedbacteria,itmaybepossibletogrowcoralsthataremoreresistanttoclimatechangeandotherthreats.[136]

Reefsinthepast

ThroughoutEarthhistory,fromafewthousandyearsafterhardskeletonsweredevelopedbymarineorganisms,therewerealmostalwaysreefs.ThetimesofmaximumdevelopmentwereintheMiddleCambrian(513501Ma),Devonian(416359Ma)andCarboniferous(359299Ma),owingtoorderRugosaextinctcorals,andLateCretaceous(10066Ma)andallNeogene(23Mapresent),owingtoorderScleractiniacorals.

Notallreefsinthepastwereformedbycorals:thoseintheEarlyCambrian(542513Ma)resultedfromcalcareousalgaeandarchaeocyathids(smallanimalswithconicalshape,probablyrelatedtosponges)andintheLateCretaceous(10066Ma),whentherealsoexistedreefsformedbyagroupofbivalvescalledrudistsoneofthevalvesformedthemainconicalstructureandtheother,muchsmallervalveactedasacap.

Measurementsoftheoxygenisotopiccompositionofthearagoniticskeletonofcoralreefs,suchasPorites,canindicatechangesintheseasurfacetemperatureandseasurfacesalinityconditionsoftheoceanduringthegrowthofthecoral.Thistechniqueisoftenusedbyclimate

scientiststoinferthepaleoclimateofaregion.[137]

Seealso

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spongeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeocyathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poriteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scleractiniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_coral_reefs.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Cambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Cambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth



CatlinSeaviewSurveyCensusofCoralReefsCoralreeforganizationsMarinebiologySpongereefPseudoatoll

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