Chapter 1

Chapter 1Introduction to PsychologyCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights ReservedThis multimedia product and its content are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network.Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images.Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

1Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology OverviewIntroductionPsychology Then and NowThinking about Theories and ResearchDescriptive Research MethodsThe Experimental MethodResearch Participants

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved2Studying Psychology: Tricks of the TradeMaximize learning with the 5 steps of the SQ3R method.SurveyQuestionReadReciteReview I/Review IICopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved3Learning Objective: 1.1 How will the SQ3R methodhelp you master psychology?More Tips for Effective StudyingEstablish a quiet place, free of distractions, where you do nothing but study.Schedule your study time.Set specific goals each week.Take an active role in the learning process.Sleeping immediately after you study will help you retain more of what you have learned.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights ReservedLearning Objective: 1.1 How will the SQ3R methodhelp you master psychology?

4Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights ReservedPsychology

Is Psychology A Science?Psychology is a science.the scientific study of behavior and mental processesuses the scientific method to acquire knowledgescientific method: orderly, systematic procedures researchers followCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific method?6Steps of the Scientific MethodObserve and theorize.Formulate a hypothesis.specific prediction that can be tested empirically with dataDesign the study.Collect data.Apply results to the hypothesis.Replication of the study is important.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientificmethod?7Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientificmethod?8Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

1.3 What are the goals of psychology?9The Goals of Psychology: Types of ResearchBasic Research seeks new knowledge advances general scientific understandingApplied Researchsolves practical problems improves the quality of lifeCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved101.3 What are the goals of psychology?Exploring Psychologys RootsPsychologys roots can be traced to the beginning of recorded history.Psychology began as a formal academic discipline in the 1800s.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved111.4 What did the earlypsychologists contribute tothe field?Exploring Psychologys Roots:Wilhelm WundtConsidered the father of psychologyStudied cultural and social influences on human thoughtEstablished the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany, 1879Developed introspection analysis of basic elements of conscious mental experience Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved121.4 What did the earlypsychologists contribute tothe field?Exploring Psychologys Roots:Titchener and StructuralismEdward Bradford Titchener (18671927)Studied under Wundt Established a psychological laboratory at Cornell UniversityNamed his school of thought structuralismStructuralismAimed at analyzing the basic elements, or structure, of conscious mental experienceCriticized for its primary method, introspectionconsidered not objectiveEstablished psychology as a science

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.4 What did the earlypsychologists contribute tothe field?13Exploring Psychologys Roots:FunctionalismFunctionalismhow humans and animals use mental processes to adapt to their environmentWilliam James (18421910) main advocate of functionalism clarified definition of mental processes fluid have continuitynot the rigid, fixed structures suggested by the StructuralistsCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.4 What did the early psychologists contributeto the field?14Exploring Psychologys Roots:Functionalisms Impact On PsychologyBroadened the scope of psychology study of behavior as well as mental processesAllowed for the study of children, animals, and the mentally impairedFocused on more practical uses of psychologyencouraged study of educational practices, individual differences, and adaptation in the workplaceCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.4 What did the earlypsychologists contribute tothe field?15The Changing Face of PsychologyCurrent TrendsMore women than men obtain degrees in psychology.Minority representation is growing.A gap between the proportion of minorities in the US population and the proportion represented in professional psychology persists.The APA has established a program encouraging minority enrollment in graduate programs in psychology.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.4 What did the earlypsychologists contribute tothe field?16The Changing Face of Psychology: Breaking Barriers / Making Contributions

Christine Ladd-Franklin completed her PhD in the mid-1880s at Johns Hopkins did not receive her degree until 1926formulated a theory of color visionMary Whiton Calkins completed the requirements for a doctorate at Harvard denied degree due to being femaleestablished psychology laboratory at Wellesley Collegedeveloped paired associates testCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved171.4 What did the earlypsychologists contribute tothe field?The Changing Face of Psychology: Breaking Barriers / Making Contributions Margaret Floy Washburn received PhD from Cornell Universitywrote influential booksThe Animal Mind (1908) Movement and Mental Imagery (1916)Francis Cecil Sumner first African American to earn a PhD in psychology, 1920chaired psychology department at Howard UniversityCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved181.4 What did the earlypsychologists contribute tothe field?The Changing Face of Psychology: Breaking Barriers / Making Contributions Albert Sidney Beckham established the first psychological laboratory at a black institution of higher learning, Howard Universityconducted important studies on intelligence and how it related to occupational fieldsKenneth Clarkreceived national recognition for writings on the harmful effects of racial segregationHis writing impacted the Supreme Court rulings that declared national segregation unconstitutional.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved191.4 What did the earlypsychologists contribute tothe field?The Changing Face of Psychology: Breaking Barriers / Making Contributions Jorge SanchezHispanic-American psychologiststudied bias in intelligence testing during the 1930sCultural and language differences affect the performance of Hispanic students taking American IQ tests.

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Schools of Thought in PsychologyBehaviorismPsychoanalytic PsychologyHumanistic PsychologyCognitive PsychologyEvolutionary PsychologyBiological PsychologyThe Sociocultural Approach

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?22Schools of Thought in Psychology:BehaviorismNamed by John WatsonRedefined psychology as the science of behaviorObservable, measurable behavior is the only appropriate subject matter.Environment is the key determinant of behavior.Most influential school of thought until the 1960sCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved231.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?Schools of Thought in PsychologyBehaviorism: Skinners ContributionSkinners Key PointsMind, consciousness, and feelings are neither objective nor measurable. not appropriate subject matter for psychologyoperant conditioning emphasizes the importance of reinforcement in learning, shaping, and maintaining behaviorBehavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?24Schools of Thought in Psychology:PsychoanalysisPersonality theory developed by Sigmund FreudPsychoanalysistreatment method for psychological disordersPsychoanalytic Theoryindividuals thoughts, feelings, and behavior as determined primarily by the unconsciousCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved251.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?Schools of Thought in Psychology:PsychoanalysisFreuds FollowersJung, Adler, and Horney disagreed with Freuds emphasis on sexual and aggressive impulsesreferred to as neoanalysts

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights ReservedSchools of Thought in Psychology:Humanistic PsychologyHumans have the capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health.Positive View of Human NaturePeople are innately good.Humans possess free will. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved271.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?Schools of Thought in Psychology:Humanistic PsychologyKey Contributors:Abraham Maslowtheory of motivationemphasizes hierarchy of needsCarl Rogers client-centered therapy Client directs a discussion on his or her own view of the problem.The therapists analysis is less the focus of therapy.

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights ReservedSchools of Thought in Psychology:Cognitive PsychologyGrew in response to strict behaviorismSaw humans as: Not passive recipients pushed and pulled by environmental forces Active participants who seek out experiences, who alter and shape their experiencesUsing mental processes to transform information in the course of their own cognitive developmentCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?29Schools of Thought in Psychology:Cognitive PsychologyIdeas grew from gestalt psychology and information-processing theory.Gestalt Psychology The mind interprets events rather than simply reacting to them.Information-Processing Theory The brain processes information in sequential steps. similar to a computers serial processingCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?30Schools of Thought in Psychology:Evolutionary PsychologyInvestigates: Human behaviors necessary for survivalHow behaviors adapted in the face of environmental pressures over the course of evolutionDraws heavily on Darwins theoryCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved311.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?Schools of Thought in Psychology:Biological PsychologyOften confused with evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology focuses on universal traits.Biological psychology focuses on individual differences.Studies structures of the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, effects of heredityBiological psychologists often work in neuroscience.Neuroscience includes biology, biochemistry, and medicine in understanding functions of the nervous system.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved321.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?Schools of Thought in Psychology:Sociocultural ApproachHow background and cultural experiences affect behavior and mental processesImportant to understand these factors when interpreting the behavior of othersOften studied within the broader context of a systems perspectiveCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved331.5 What are the major schoolsof thought in psychology?Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

1.6 What are the sevencontemporary psychologicalperspectives?34Contemporary Perspectives in PsychologyMany psychologists take an eclectic position.combination of approaches to explain a particular behaviorAdopting multiple perspectives allows psychologists to:Devise more complex theories and studiesImprove treatment strategies

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved351.6 What are the sevencontemporary psychologicalperspectives?Specialties in PsychologyClinical Psychologists diagnose and treat mental and behavioral disorders School Psychologistsdiagnose and treat learning and behavioral problems interfering with learningForensic Psychologistswork with issues involving psychology and lawCounseling Psychologistswork with adjustment problem that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical psychologists

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.7 What specialty areas existin psychology?36Specialties in PsychologyPhysiological Psychologistsstudy the relationship between physiological processes and behaviorExperimental Psychologistsconduct research in memory, sensation, perception, motivation, and emotionDevelopmental Psychologistsstudy change throughout the life spanEducational Psychologistsspecialize in the study of teaching and learningCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.7 What specialty areas existin psychology?37Specialties in PsychologySocial Psychologistsinvestigate individual feelings, thoughts, and behavior in a social settingin the presence of othersIndustrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologistsstudy the relationships between people and their work environmentsCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.7 What specialty areas existin psychology?38Thinking about Theories and Research: Descriptive Research MethodsThese methods yield descriptions of behavior and include:Naturalistic and laboratory observationSurvey ResearchCase studyCorrelational methodExperimental methodCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved391.10 What are the pros andcons of observational and casestudies?Descriptive Research Methods: Naturalistic and Laboratory ObservationNaturalistic Observationobservation of behavior in its natural settingno attempt to influence behaviorLaboratory Observationstudies behavior in a laboratory settingallows more control and more precise measurement of responsesCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved401.10 What are the pros andcons of observational and casestudies?Descriptive Research Methods:SurveyInterviews and/or questionnaires gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a group of peopleStudies a representative samplemirrors the population of interestCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved411.11 How do researchers designuseful surveys?Descriptive Research Methods:Case StudyStudies a single individual or small number of persons in depthAdvantagesappropriate for studying rare psychological disorders or brain damageDisadvantagescannot identify the cause of behaviorpotential for biasresults can lack generalizability

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved421.10 What are the pros andcons of observational and casestudies?Descriptive Research Methods:CorrelationMeasures degree of a relationship between two characteristics, events, or behaviorsThree types:Negative correlationPositive correlationNo correlationCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

431.12 What are the strengths andweaknesses of the correlationalmethod?Descriptive Research Methods:CorrelationAdvantagesInformation about one variable can be used to predict the other.Disadvantagescannot be used to support the conclusion that one variable causes the other

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1.12 What are the strengths andweaknesses of the correlationalmethod?45The Experimental Method:Experiments and Hypothesis TestingCan identify cause-effect relationshipsDesigned to assess causal hypothesespredictions about a causeeffect relationship between two or more variablesCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved461.13 How do researchers useexperiments to test causalhypotheses?Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

1.13 How do researchers useexperiments to test causalhypotheses?47The Experimental Method:Independent and Dependent VariablesIndependent Variablea factor or condition deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or conditionDependent Variablea factor or condition measured to determine the impact of the experimental manipulationCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved481.13 How do researchers useexperiments to test causalhypotheses?The Experimental Method:Experimental and Control GroupsExperimental Groupexposed to the independent variableControl Groupexposed to the same experimental environment but not given the independent variable Comparing Experimental and Control GroupsResearchers judge effects of the independent variable compared to outcomes that occur naturally.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved491.13 How do researchers useexperiments to test causalhypotheses?The Experimental Method: LimitationsConfounding Variablesfactors other than the independent variable that can affect resultsSelection Biasassignment to groups such that systematic differences between groups are present at the beginning of an experimentcan be controlled by random assignment

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved501.14 What are the limitations ofthe experimental method?The Experimental Method: LimitationsPlacebo Effectresponse to a treatment caused by a persons expectations, not the treatmentExperimenter BiasA researchers expectations influence the experiments results.These effects can be controlled by using the double-blind technique.Neither the experimenter nor participants know who is in the experimental or control groups.

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1.14 What are the limitations ofthe experimental method?52Participant-Related Bias in Psychological ResearchCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights ReservedAPA requires: Researchers must ensure that participants are representative of the population that studys results will be generalized.Research must include detailed information about participant characteristics.531.15 How can participantscharacteristics influence a studysusefulness?Types of Participant-Related BiasWhites Overrepresented Subjects are often drawn from college populations more populated with whites.Failure to Include Socioeconomic Statuslacking in much of the research literature comparing white Americans and African AmericansGender BiasResearchers tend to specify the gender of the sample clearly when subjects are female, but less often when the sample is exclusively male.Ageismoften apparent in the language used in psychological research with older adultsCopyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.15 How can participants characteristicsinfluence a studys usefulness?54Protecting Human Participants and Animals Rights: Human ParticipantsLegalityResearch must conform to applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations.Institutional ApprovalResearchers must obtain approval from the institution involved in the study.Informed ConsentParticipants must be informed of the purpose of the study and its potential for harming them.DeceptionDeception is ethical when it is necessary to acquire data. DebriefingParticipants are informed about any deception when the study is complete.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.16 How do researchersprotect human participants andanimals rights?55Protecting Human Participants and Animals Rights: Human Participants Clients, Patients, Students, and Subordinates Participants under anothers authority (i.e., employees) must be assured that participation will not damage the participants. Payment for Participation Participants can be paid. must be informed about what is expected in return for paymentPublication Report findings in an appropriate forum, such as a scientific journal.Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.16 How do researchersprotect human participants andanimals rights?56Protecting Human Participants and Animals Rights: Animal ParticipantsLegalityAnimal research must follow all relevant federal, state, and local laws.Supervision by Experienced PersonnelUse of animals must be supervised by people trained in animal care. Minimization of DiscomfortResearchers are ethically bound to minimize any discomfort to research animals. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved1.16 How do researchersprotect human participants andanimals rights?57