copyright © 2010 pearson education, inc. overview of anatomy and physiology anatomy: the study of...
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy: The study of structure
• Subdivisions:
• Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface, and systemic anatomy)
• Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)
• Developmental (e.g., embryology)
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Essential tools for the study of anatomy:
• Mastery of anatomical terminology
• Observation
• Manipulation
• Palpation
• Auscultation
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Physiology: The study of function at many levels
• Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Essential tools for the study of physiology:
• Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular)
• Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement)
• Basic chemical principles
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Principle of Complementarity
• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.
• Function always reflects structure
• What a structure can do depends on its specific form
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___________ is the study of the body’s structure.
• Histology
• Anatomy
• Embryology
• Physiology
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__________ is the study of the body’s function.
• Histology
• Anatomy
• Embryology
• Physiology
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When the anatomy of a body part is intimately tied to its specific function, scientists call this the principle of ___________.
• hierarchical organization
• complementary nature of structure and function
• homeostasis
• negative feedback
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Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical: atoms and molecules
• Cellular: cells and their organelles
• Tissue: groups of similar cells
• Organ: contains two or more types of tissues
• Organ system: organs that work closely together
• Organismal: all organ systems
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Cardiovascularsystem
OrganelleMoleculeAtoms
Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.
Tissue levelTissues consist of similartypes of cells.
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.
Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of differentorgans that work together closely.
Organismal levelThe human organism is made upof many organ systems.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Blood vessel (organ)
HeartBloodvessels
Epithelialtissue
Smooth muscle tissue
12
3
4
56
Figure 1.1
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MoleculeAtoms
Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.1
Figure 1.1, step 1
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OrganelleMoleculeAtoms
Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.
Smooth muscle cell
12
Figure 1.1, step 2
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OrganelleMoleculeAtoms
Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.
Tissue levelTissues consist of similartypes of cells.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
12
3
Figure 1.1, step 3
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OrganelleMoleculeAtoms
Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.
Tissue levelTissues consist of similartypes of cells.
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Blood vessel (organ)
Epithelialtissue
Smooth muscle tissue
12
3
4
Figure 1.1, step 4
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Cardiovascularsystem
OrganelleMoleculeAtoms
Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.
Tissue levelTissues consist of similartypes of cells.
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.
Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of differentorgans that work together closely.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Blood vessel (organ)
HeartBloodvessels
Epithelialtissue
Smooth muscle tissue
12
3
4
5
Figure 1.1, step 5
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Cardiovascularsystem
OrganelleMoleculeAtoms
Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.
Tissue levelTissues consist of similartypes of cells.
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.
Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of differentorgans that work together closely.
Organismal levelThe human organism is made upof many organ systems.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Blood vessel (organ)
HeartBloodvessels
Epithelialtissue
Smooth muscle tissue
12
3
4
56
Figure 1.1, step 6
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Which of the following is a logical organization?
• Atoms, cells, molecules, tissues
• Molecules, atoms, cells, tissues
• Atoms, tissues, molecules, cells
• Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues
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Overview of Organ Systems
• Note major organs and functions of the 11 organ systems
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3a
NailsSkin
Hair
(a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3b
Bones
Joint
(b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3c
Skeletalmuscles
(c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Main- tains posture, and produces heat.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3d
Brain
NervesSpinalcord
(d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3e
Pineal gland
PituitaryglandThyroid
glandThymus
AdrenalglandPancreas
Testis
Ovary
(e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3f
(f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.
Heart
Bloodvessels
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3g
Lymphaticvessels
Red bonemarrow
Thoracicduct
Thymus
Spleen
Lymphnodes
(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3h
Nasalcavity
Bronchus
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Lung
(h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3i
Liver
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Largeintestine
StomachSmallintestine
RectumAnus
(i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3j
Kidney
Ureter
UrinarybladderUrethra
(j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3k-l
Prostategland
Ductusdeferens
Penis
Testis
Scrotum
Ovary
Uterinetube
Mammaryglands (inbreasts)
Uterus
Vagina
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sexhormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the femalereproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remainingfemale structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus.Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System
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The __________ level of organization is the main theme presented in this book.
• cellular
• tissue
• organ
• organ system
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Organ Systems Interrelationships
• All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs
• Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2
Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces)
Respiratory systemTakes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide
Food O2 CO2
Cardiovascular systemVia the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs
Interstitial fluid
Nutrients
Urinary systemEliminates nitrogenouswastes andexcess ions
Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid
Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment
Blood
Heart
Feces Urine
CO2
O2
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Necessary Life Functions
1. Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments
• Plasma membranes
• Skin
2. Movement (contractility)
• Of body parts (skeletal muscle)
• Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
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Necessary Life Functions
3. Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli
• Withdrawal reflex
• Control of breathing rate
4. Digestion
• Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
• Absorption of simple molecules into blood
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Necessary Life Functions
5. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
• Catabolism and anabolism
6. Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
• Urea, carbon dioxide, feces
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Necessary Life Functions
7. Reproduction
• Cellular division for growth or repair
• Production of offspring
8. Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism
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Survival Needs
1. Nutrients
• Chemicals for energy and cell building
• Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins
2. Oxygen
• Essential for energy release (ATP production)
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Survival Needs
3. Water
• Most abundant chemical in the body
• Site of chemical reactions
4. Normal body temperature
• Affects rate of chemical reactions
5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure
• For adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
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Of the eight necessary life functions, which of the following is not required for an individual’s survival?
• Maintaining boundaries
• Metabolism
• Reproduction (organismal)
• Excretion
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One survival need of humans is appropriate atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes where atmospheric pressure is lower, you might expect that oxygen acquisition would ____________.
• decrease
• increase twofold
• increase threefold
• remain unchanged
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Homeostasis
• Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes
• A dynamic state of equilibrium
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables)
• Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
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Components of a Control Mechanism
1. Receptor (sensor)
• Monitors the environment
• Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)
2. Control center
• Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
• Receives input from receptor
• Determines appropriate response
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Components of a Control Mechanism
3. Effector
• Receives output from control center
• Provides the means to respond
• Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)
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Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
Receptordetectschange.
Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.
Output:Information sent alongefferent pathway toeffector.
Responseof effectorfeeds backto reducethe effect ofstimulusand returnsvariable tohomeostaticlevel.
Receptor Effector
ControlCenter
BALANCE
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
34
5
Figure 1.4
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Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
Figure 1.4, step 1
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Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
Receptordetectschange.
Receptor
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
Figure 1.4, step 2
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Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
Receptordetectschange.
Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.
Receptor
ControlCenter
BALANCE
Afferentpathway
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
3
Figure 1.4, step 3
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Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
Receptordetectschange.
Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.
Output:Information sent alongefferent pathway toeffector.
Receptor Effector
ControlCenter
BALANCE
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
34
Figure 1.4, step 4
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Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
Receptordetectschange.
Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.
Output:Information sent alongefferent pathway toeffector.
Responseof effectorfeeds backto reducethe effect ofstimulusand returnsvariable tohomeostaticlevel.
Receptor Effector
ControlCenter
BALANCE
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
34
5
Figure 1.4, step 5
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Negative Feedback
• The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
• Examples:
• Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)
• Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.5
Sweat glands activated
Shiveringbegins
StimulusBody temperaturerises BALANCE
Information sentalong the afferentpathway to controlcenter
Information sentalong the afferentpathway to controlcenter
Afferentpathway
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
Efferentpathway
Information sentalong the efferentpathway toeffectors
Information sentalong the efferentpathway to effectors
StimulusBody temperature falls
ReceptorsTemperature-sensitivecells in skin and brain
ReceptorsTemperature-sensitivecells in skin and brain
EffectorsSweat glands
EffectorsSkeletal muscles
Control Center(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Control Center(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
ResponseEvaporation of sweatBody temperature falls;stimulus ends
ResponseBody temperature rises;stimulus ends
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Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH
• Receptors sense decreased blood volume
• Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood
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Which of the following is an example of a negative feedback mechanism?
• During labor, as uterine contractions begin, levels of the hormone, oxytocin, continuously rise to further stimulate more contractions.
• The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormone under the influence of the hormone TSH. TSH release decreases when thyroid hormone levels reach their set point.
• An individual who is incapable of synthesizing thyroid hormone will often develop an enlarged thyroid gland due to continuous TSH stimulation.
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Positive Feedback
• The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
• Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:
• Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
• Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
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Feedback cycle endswhen plug is formed.
Positive feedbackcycle is initiated.
Positivefeedbackloop
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
Plateletsadhere to siteand releasechemicals.
Releasedchemicalsattract moreplatelets.
Platelet plugforms.
1
23
4
Figure 1.6
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Positive feedbackcycle is initiated.
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
1
Figure 1.6, step 1
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Positive feedbackcycle is initiated.
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
Plateletsadhere to siteand releasechemicals.
1
2
Figure 1.6, step 2
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Positive feedbackcycle is initiated.
Positivefeedbackloop
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
Plateletsadhere to siteand releasechemicals.
Releasedchemicalsattract moreplatelets.
1
23
Figure 1.6, step 3
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Feedback cycle endswhen plug is formed.
Positive feedbackcycle is initiated.
Positivefeedbackloop
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
Plateletsadhere to siteand releasechemicals.
Releasedchemicalsattract moreplatelets.
Platelet plugforms.
1
23
4
Figure 1.6, step 4
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Homeostatic Imbalance
• Disturbance of homeostasis
• Increases risk of disease
• Contributes to changes associated with aging
• May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)
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Anatomical Position
• Standard anatomical body position:
• Body erect
• Feet slightly apart
• Palms facing forward
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7a
Cervical
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Pubic(genital)
CephalicFrontalOrbitalNasalOralMental
ThoracicAxillaryMammarySternalAbdominalUmbilicalPelvicInguinal(groin)
Upper limbAcromialBrachial (arm)AntecubitalAntebrachial (forearm)Carpal (wrist)Manus (hand)PalmarPollexDigital
Lower limbCoxal (hip)Femoral (thigh)PatellarCrural (leg)Fibular or peronealPedal (foot)Tarsal (ankle)MetatarsalDigitalHallux
ThoraxAbdomenBack (Dorsum)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
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Regional Terms
• Two major divisions of body:
• Axial
• Head, neck, and trunk
• Appendicular
• Limbs
• Regional terms designate specific areas
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7a
Cervical
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Pubic(genital)
CephalicFrontalOrbitalNasalOralMental
ThoracicAxillaryMammarySternalAbdominalUmbilicalPelvicInguinal(groin)
Upper limbAcromialBrachial (arm)AntecubitalAntebrachial (forearm)Carpal (wrist)Manus (hand)PalmarPollexDigital
Lower limbCoxal (hip)Femoral (thigh)PatellarCrural (leg)Fibular or peronealPedal (foot)Tarsal (ankle)MetatarsalDigitalHallux
ThoraxAbdomenBack (Dorsum)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7b
Cervical Back (dorsal)
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Scapular Vertebral Lumbar Sacral Gluteal Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)
Upper limb AcromialBrachial (arm) Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm)Manus (hand) Metacarpal DigitalLower limb Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular or peronealPedal (foot) Calcaneal Plantar
Cephalic Otic Occipital (back of head)
ThoraxAbdomenBack (Dorsum)
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Body Planes
• Plane: Flat surface along which body or structure is cut for anatomical study
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Body Planes
• Sagittal plane
• Divides body vertically into right and left parts
• Produces a sagittal section
• Midsagittal (median) plane
• Lies on midline
• Parasagittal plane
• Not on midline
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Body Planes
• Frontal (coronal) plane
• Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts
• Transverse (horizontal) plane
• Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts
• Produces a cross section
• Oblique section
• Cuts made diagonally
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.8
Transverse plane
Median (midsagittal) plane
Frontal plane
Liver
Spleen
Pancreas
Aorta
Vertebralcolumn
Spinal cord
Subcutaneous fat layerBody wall
Rectum IntestinesLeft andright lungs
Liver HeartStomach
SpleenArm
(a) Frontal section (through torso)
(b) Transverse section (through torso, inferior view)
(c) Median section (midsagittal)
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Anatomical Variability
• Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but:
• Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place
• Small muscles may be missing
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Body Cavities
• Dorsal cavity
• Protects nervous system
• Two subdivisions:
• Cranial cavity
• Encases brain
• Vertebral cavity
• Encases spinal cord
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Body Cavities
• Ventral cavity
• Houses internal organs (viscera)
• Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.9a-b
Cranialcavity(contains brain)
Dorsalbodycavity
Vertebralcavity(contains spinal cord)
Cranialcavity
Superiormediastinum
Pericardialcavity withinthe mediastinum
Pleuralcavity
Vertebralcavity
Abdomino-pelviccavity
Ventral bodycavity(thoracic andabdominopelviccavities)
Abdominal cavity(contains digestiveviscera)
Diaphragm
Pelvic cavity(contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)
Thoraciccavity(containsheart andlungs)
(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view
Dorsal body cavityVentral body cavity
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Ventral Body Cavities
• Thoracic cavity subdivisions:
• Two pleural cavities
• Each houses a lung
• Mediastinum
• Contains pericardial cavity
• Surrounds thoracic organs
• Pericardial cavity
• Encloses heart
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Ventral Body Cavities
• Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:
• Abdominal cavity
• Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
• Pelvic cavity
• Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.9a-b
Cranialcavity(contains brain)
Dorsalbodycavity
Vertebralcavity(contains spinal cord)
Cranialcavity
Superiormediastinum
Pericardialcavity withinthe mediastinum
Pleuralcavity
Vertebralcavity
Abdomino-pelviccavity
Ventral bodycavity(thoracic andabdominopelviccavities)
Abdominal cavity(contains digestiveviscera)
Diaphragm
Pelvic cavity(contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)
Thoraciccavity(containsheart andlungs)
(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view
Dorsal body cavityVentral body cavity
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Serous Membrane (Serosa)
• Thin, double-layered membrane separated by serous fluid
• Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
• Visceral serosa covers the internal organs
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.10a-b
Outer balloon wall(comparable to parietal serosa)Air (comparable to serous cavity)
Inner balloon wall(comparable to visceral serosa)
Heart
Parietalpericardium
Pericardialspace withserous fluidVisceralpericardium
(b) The serosae associated with the heart.
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Abdominopelvic Regions
• Nine divisions used primarily by anatomists
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.11
Right upperquadrant(RUQ)
Right lowerquadrant(RLQ)
Left upperquadrant(LUQ)
Left lowerquadrant(LLQ)
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Abdominopelvic Quadrants
• Divisions used primarily by medical personnel
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.12
Epigastricregion
Umbilicalregion
Rightlumbarregion
Leftlumbarregion
Righthypochondriac
region
Lefthypochondriac
region
Hypogastric(pubic)region
Right iliac(inguinal)
region
Left iliac(inguinal)
region
Liver
Gallbladder
Ascending colon oflarge intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Cecum
Diaphragm
Stomach
Descending colonof large intestine
Transverse colonof large intestine
Initial part ofsigmoid colon
Urinary bladder
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs
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Other Body Cavities
• Oral and digestive cavities
• Nasal cavity
• Orbital cavities
• Middle ear cavities
• Synovial cavities
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If someone has broken a leg, he or she has damaged the ________ division of the body.
• dorsal
• appendicular
• superficial
• axial
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The __________ division of the body is necessary for supporting life.
• axial
• superficial
• appendicular
• appendage
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The term ___________ refers to internal organs, while the term _________ refers to body cavity walls.
• serosa; pleural
• visceral; ventral
• serosa; parietal
• visceral; parietal