© 2013 pearson education, inc. overview of anatomy and physiology anatomy –study of structure...
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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy– Study of structure
• Subdivisions:– Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional,
systemic, and surface anatomy)– Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)– Developmental (e.g., embryology)
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• To study anatomy– Mastery of anatomical terminology– Observation– Manipulation– Palpation – Auscultation
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Physiology– Study of the function of the body– Subdivisions based on organ systems
(e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)– Often focuses on cellular and molecular level
• Body's abilities depend on chemical reactions in individual cells
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• To study physiology– Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic
to cellular and molecular)– Study of basic physical principles (e.g.,
electrical currents, pressure, and movement) – Study of basic chemical principles
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Principle of Complementarity
• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable– Function always reflects structure– What a structure can do depends on its
specific form
– FORM FIT FUNCTION
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Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical– Atoms and molecules (chapter 2); and organelles (chapter 3)
• Cellular– Cells (chapter 3)
• Tissue– Groups of similar cells (chapter 4)
• Organ– Contains two or more types of tissues
• Organ System– Organs that work closely together
• Organismal– All organ systems
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 1
Atoms Molecule OrganelleSmooth muscle cell
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made upof molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Cardiovascular system
HeartBloodvessels
Tissue levelTissues consist ofsimilar types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelialtissue
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.
Organismal levelThe human organism is madeup of many organ systems.
Organ system level Organ systems consist of differentorgans that work together closely.
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 2
Atoms Molecule
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 3
Atoms Molecule OrganelleSmooth muscle cell
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made upof molecules.
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 4
Atoms Molecule OrganelleSmooth muscle cell
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made upof molecules.
Tissue levelTissues consist ofsimilar types of cells.
Smooth muscle tissue
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 5
Atoms Molecule OrganelleSmooth muscle cell
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made upof molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue levelTissues consist ofsimilar types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelialtissue
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 6
Atoms Molecule OrganelleSmooth muscle cell
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made upof molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Cardiovascular system
HeartBloodvessels
Tissue levelTissues consist ofsimilar types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.
Organ system level Organ systems consist of differentorgans that work together closely.
Epithelialtissue
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 7
Atoms Molecule OrganelleSmooth muscle cell
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made upof molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Cardiovascular system
HeartBloodvessels
Tissue levelTissues consist ofsimilar types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.
Organismal levelThe human organism is madeup of many organ systems.
Organ system level Organ systems consist of differentorgans that work together closely.
Epithelialtissue
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Necessary Life Functions
• Maintaining boundaries
• Movement
• Responsiveness
• Digestion
• Metabolism
• Dispose of wastes
• Reproduction
• Growth
Will see examples starting in Next slide of all of these
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Necessary Life Functions
• Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments– Plasma membranes – Skin
• Movement (contractility)– Of body parts (skeletal muscle)– Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
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Necessary Life Functions
• Responsiveness– Ability to sense and respond to stimuli– Withdrawal reflex – Control of breathing rate
• Digestion– Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs– Absorption of simple molecules into blood
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Necessary Life Functions
• Metabolism– All chemical reactions that occur in body cells– Catabolism and anabolism
• Excretion– Removal of wastes from metabolism and
digestion– Urea, carbon dioxide, feces
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Necessary Life Functions
• Reproduction – Cellular division for growth or repair– Production of offspring
• Growth– Increase in size of a body part or of organism
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Interdependence of Body Cells
• Humans are multicellular– To function, must keep individual cells alive– All cells depend on organ systems to meet
their survival needs
• All body functions spread among different organ systems
• Organ systems cooperate to maintain life– Note major organs and functions of the 11
organ systems (fig. 1.3)
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Figure 1.2 Examples of interrelationships among body organ systems.
Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces)
Food O2 CO2
Respiratory systemTakes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide
Cardiovascular systemVia the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs
BloodCO2
O2
Heart
Nutrients
Interstitial fluid
Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment
Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid
Feces Urine
Urinary system Eliminates nitrogenouswastes andexcess ions
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Figure 1.3a The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Hair
Skin Nails
Integumentary SystemForms the external body covering,and protects deeper tissues from injury.Synthesizes vitamin D, and housescutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)receptors and sweat and oil glands.
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Figure 1.3b The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Joint
Bones
Skeletal SystemProtects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
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Figure 1.3c The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Skeletalmuscles
(c) Muscular SystemAllows manipulation of the environment,locomotion, and facial expression.Maintains posture, and produces heat.
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Figure 1.3d The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Brain
NervesSpinalcord
Nervous SystemAs the fast-acting control system ofthe body, it responds to internal andexternal changes by activatingappropriate muscles and glands.
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Figure 1.3e The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Endocrine SystemGlands secrete hormones thatregulate processes such as growth,reproduction, and nutrient use(metabolism) by body cells.
Pineal gland
Pituitarygland
Testis
Thyroidgland
Thymus
Adrenalgland
Pancreas
Ovary
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Figure 1.3f The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Cardiovascular SystemBlood vessels transport blood,which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide,nutrients, wastes, etc. The heartpumps blood.
Heart
Bloodvessels
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Figure 1.3g The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Lymphatic System/ImmunityPicks up fluid leaked from blood vesselsand returns it to blood. Disposesof debris in the lymphatic stream.Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes)involved in immunity. The immuneresponse mounts the attack againstforeign substances within the body.
Lymph nodes
Spleen
Thoracicduct
Lymphaticvessels
Thymus
Red bonemarrow
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Figure 1.3h The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Respiratory SystemKeeps blood constantly supplied withoxygen and removes carbon dioxide.The gaseous exchanges occur throughthe walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Lung
Trachea
Larynx
Pharynx
Nasalcavity
Bronchus
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Figure 1.3i The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Liver
StomachSmallIntestine
LargeIntestine
Rectum
Anus
Digestive SystemBreaks down food into absorbable unitsthat enter the blood for distribution tobody cells. Indigestible foodstuffs areeliminated as feces.
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Kidney
Ureter
Urinarybladder
Urethra
Urinary SystemEliminates nitrogenous wastes from thebody. Regulates water, electrolyte andacid-base balance of the blood.
Figure 1.3j The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Prostategland
Penis
Testis
Scrotum
Ductusdeferens
Male Reproductive SystemOverall function is production of offspring. Testesproduce sperm and male sex hormone, and maleducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to thefemale reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggsand female sex hormones. The remaining femalestructures serve as sites for fertilization anddevelopment of the fetus. Mammary glands offemale breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Uterus
Vagina
Uterinetube
Ovary
Mammaryglands (inbreasts)
Female Reproductive SystemOverall function is production of offspring. Testesproduce sperm and male sex hormone, and maleducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to thefemale reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggsand female sex hormones. The remaining femalestructures serve as sites for fertilization anddevelopment of the fetus. Mammary glands of femalebreasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Figure 1.3k–l The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Survival Needs
• Appropriate amounts necessary for life– Too little or too much harmful
• Nutrients
• Oxygen
• Water
• Normal body temperature
• Appropriate atmospheric pressure
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Survival Needs
• Nutrients– Chemicals for energy and cell building– Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
vitamins
• Oxygen– Essential for energy release (ATP production)
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Survival Needs
• Water– Most abundant chemical in body– Environment of chemical reactions– Fluid base for secretions and excretions
• Normal body temperature– 37° C– Affects rate of chemical reactions
• Appropriate atmospheric pressure– For adequate breathing and gas exchange in
lungs
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Homeostasis
• Homeostasis– Maintenance of relatively stable internal
conditions despite continuous changes in environment
– A dynamic state of equilibrium– Maintained by contributions of all organ
systems
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of all factors that can change (variables)
• Communication necessary for monitoring and regulation – Functions of nervous and endocrine systems
• Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish communication via nerve impulses and hormones
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Components of a Control Mechanism
• Receptor (sensor)– Monitors environment– Responds to stimuli (something that causes changes in
controlled variables)
• Control center– Determines set point at which variable is maintained– Receives input from receptor– Determines appropriate response
• Effector– Receives output from control center– Provides the means to respond – Response either reduces (negative feedback) or enhances
stimulus (positive feedback)
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Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintainstable internal conditions.
Slide 1
Output: Information sentalong efferent pathway toeffector.
Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.
3
Receptordetectschange.
2
Stimulus produceschange invariable.
1
4
Responseof effectorfeeds back toreduce theeffect ofstimulus andreturnsvariableto homeostatic level.
5
ControlCenter
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
Receptor Effector
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
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Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintainstable internal conditions.
Slide 2
Stimulus produceschange invariable.
1
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
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Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintainstable internal conditions.
Slide 3
Stimulus produceschange invariable.
1
Receptordetectschange.
2
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
Receptor
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Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintainstable internal conditions.
Slide 4
Afferentpathway
Stimulus produceschange invariable.
1
Receptordetectschange.
2
Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.
3
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
Receptor
ControlCenter
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Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintainstable internal conditions.
Slide 5
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
Stimulus produceschange invariable.
1
Receptordetectschange.
2
Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.
3
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
Receptor
ControlCenter
Effector
Output: Information sentalong efferent pathway toeffector.
4
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Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintainstable internal conditions.
Slide 6
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
Stimulus produceschange invariable.
1
Receptordetectschange.
2
Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.
3
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
Receptor
ControlCenter
Effector
Output: Information sentalong efferent pathway toeffector.
4
Responseof effectorfeeds back toreduce theeffect ofstimulus andreturnsvariableto homeostatic level.
5
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Negative Feedback
• Most feedback mechanisms in body
• Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus– Variable changes in opposite direction of
initial change
• Examples– Regulation of body temperature (a nervous
system mechanism)– Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an
endocrine system mechanism)
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Figure 1.5 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
Control Center(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
ReceptorsTemperature-sensitivecells in skin and brain)
EffectorsSweet glands
Sweat glands activated
ResponseEvaporation of sweatBody temperature falls;stimulus ends
Body temperaturerises
Stimulus: Heat
ResponseBody temperature rises;stimulus ends
EffectorsSkeletal muscles
EfferentpathwayShivering begins
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
Afferentpathway
Control Center(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
ReceptorsTemperature-sensitivecells in skin and brain
Stimulus: Cold
Body temperaturefalls
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Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH
• Receptors sense decreased blood volume
• Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• ADH causes kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood
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Positive Feedback
• Response enhances or exaggerates original stimulus
• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
• Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment– Enhancement of labor contractions by
oxytocin (chapter 28)– Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
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Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.Slide 1
Releasedchemicalsattract moreplatelets.
Positivefeedbackloop
Plateletsadhere to site andrelease chemicals.
Feedback cycle endswhen plug is formed.
Platelet plugis fully formed.
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
1
23
4
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Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.Slide 2
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
1
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Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.Slide 3
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
1
Plateletsadhere to site andrelease chemicals.
2
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Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.Slide 4
Positivefeedbackloop
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
1
Plateletsadhere to site andrelease chemicals.
2 Releasedchemicalsattract moreplatelets.
3
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Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.Slide 5
Positivefeedbackloop
Feedback cycle endswhen plug is formed.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.
1
Plateletsadhere to site andrelease chemicals.
2
Platelet plugis fully formed.4
Releasedchemicalsattract moreplatelets.
3
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Homeostatic Imbalance
• Disturbance of homeostasis– Increases risk of disease– Contributes to changes associated with aging
• Control systems less efficient
– If negative feedback mechanisms overwhelmed
• Destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over (e.g., heart failure)