copyright © 2007 pearson education canada 1 theories of personality chapter 13

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

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Theories of PersonalityTheories of Personality

Chapter 13Chapter 13


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Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

• Measuring PersonalityMeasuring Personality• Genetic influences on personalityGenetic influences on personality• Environmental influences on personalityEnvironmental influences on personality• Cultural influences on personalityCultural influences on personality• Psychodynamic influences on personalityPsychodynamic influences on personality• The inner experience: Humanistic/ExistentialThe inner experience: Humanistic/Existential


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Defining Personality and TraitsDefining Personality and Traits

• PersonalityPersonality– Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of

behaviours, thoughts, motives, and behaviours, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual emotions that characterizes an individual throughout lifethroughout life

• TraitTrait– A characteristic of an individual, describing A characteristic of an individual, describing

a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feelingfeeling


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Measuring PersonalityMeasuring Personality

• Objective Tests (inventories)Objective Tests (inventories)Standardized questions requiring written Standardized questions requiring written

responses; they typically include scales on responses; they typically include scales on which people are asked to rate themselveswhich people are asked to rate themselves

• Factor analysis is often used to examine Factor analysis is often used to examine the underlying characteristicsthe underlying characteristics


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““Big Five” Personality Big Five” Personality DimensionsDimensions

• The Big Five have emerged as distinct, The Big Five have emerged as distinct, central personality dimensions in many central personality dimensions in many countries around the worldcountries around the world

• Are stable over a lifetimeAre stable over a lifetime• Some argue it is incomplete; other important Some argue it is incomplete; other important

dimensions (e.g., religiosity) are missingdimensions (e.g., religiosity) are missing• Others (Eysenck) argue for only 3 factorsOthers (Eysenck) argue for only 3 factors


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““Big Five” Personality DimensionsBig Five” Personality Dimensions

• ExtroversionExtroversion

• AgreeablenessAgreeableness

• Conscientiousness / DependabilityConscientiousness / Dependability

• Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability

• Culture / Intellect / OpennessCulture / Intellect / Openness


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Minnesota Multiphasic Minnesota Multiphasic Personality InventoryPersonality Inventory

• Most widely used personality instrumentMost widely used personality instrument– Now the MMPI - 2Now the MMPI - 2

• Clinical & Employment settingsClinical & Employment settings

• Measures aspects of personality that, if Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest a problem extreme, suggest a problem – e.g., extreme suspiciousnesse.g., extreme suspiciousness

• Long test ‑ 567 questionsLong test ‑ 567 questions


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Characteristics of the MMPI‑2Characteristics of the MMPI‑2

• Has several different scales (multiphasic)Has several different scales (multiphasic)• Scales thought to measure different kinds of Scales thought to measure different kinds of

psychological disorders psychological disorders – e.g., depressione.g., depression

• Scale scores indicate how you compare with Scale scores indicate how you compare with othersothers

• Overall assessment is interpretiveOverall assessment is interpretive– From inspecting profile of different scalesFrom inspecting profile of different scales


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MMPI Score ProfileMMPI Score Profile


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MMPI Validity ScalesMMPI Validity Scales

• Four scales designed to determine Four scales designed to determine whether respondent is presenting self whether respondent is presenting self accuratelyaccurately

• Example: L scale (‘Fake Good’) - Trying Example: L scale (‘Fake Good’) - Trying too hard to present self in a positive too hard to present self in a positive lightlight– ““I smile at everyone I meet” (T) I smile at everyone I meet” (T) – ““I read every editorial every day” (T)I read every editorial every day” (T)


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MMPI Sample ItemsMMPI Sample Items

• I usually feel that life is worthwhile and I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interestinginteresting– DepressionDepression

• Evil people are trying to influence my mindEvil people are trying to influence my mind– Paranoia Paranoia

• I seem to hear things that other people can’t I seem to hear things that other people can’t hearhear– SchizophreniaSchizophrenia


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Consistency over a lifetimeConsistency over a lifetime


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Projective TestsProjective Tests

• Based on the assumption that the test taker Based on the assumption that the test taker will transfer (“project”) unconscious conflicts will transfer (“project”) unconscious conflicts and motives onto an ambiguous stimulus.and motives onto an ambiguous stimulus.

• Examples include the Thematic Examples include the Thematic Apperception Test and the RorschachApperception Test and the Rorschach


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Thematic Apperception TestThematic Apperception Test

• Person is asked to tell a Person is asked to tell a story about the “hero” in story about the “hero” in the picturethe picture– Another projective testAnother projective test

• Based on Murray’s Based on Murray’s personality theorypersonality theory– People are distinguished People are distinguished

by the needs that motivate by the needs that motivate their behaviourtheir behaviour


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The Rorschach Inkblot TestThe Rorschach Inkblot Test

• Ambiguous stimuliAmbiguous stimuli• Person is asked to Person is asked to

report what they seereport what they see• This type of test is This type of test is

called projectivecalled projective– No clear image, so No clear image, so

the things you see the things you see must be “projected” must be “projected” from inside yourselffrom inside yourself

Sample Rorschach CardSample Rorschach Card


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Genetic Influences on Genetic Influences on PersonalityPersonality

• Heredity and temperamentHeredity and temperament

• Heredity and traitsHeredity and traits

• Evaluating Genetic TheoriesEvaluating Genetic Theories


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Genetic Influences on Genetic Influences on PersonalityPersonality

• 123 pairs of identical twins 123 pairs of identical twins and 127 pairs of fraternal and 127 pairs of fraternal twinstwins

• Measured on “Big Five” Measured on “Big Five” personality dimensionspersonality dimensions

• Results suggest that Results suggest that personality differences in personality differences in the population are 40 - the population are 40 - 50% genetically 50% genetically determineddetermined


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Heredity and TemperamentHeredity and Temperament

• TemperamentsTemperaments– Physiological dispositions to respond to the Physiological dispositions to respond to the

environment in certain waysenvironment in certain ways– Present in infancy and assumed to be innatePresent in infancy and assumed to be innate– Includes:Includes:

• ReactivityReactivity• SoothabilitySoothability• Positive and Negative EmotionalityPositive and Negative Emotionality

– Temperaments are relatively stable over timeTemperaments are relatively stable over time


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Heredity and TraitsHeredity and Traits

• HeritabilityHeritability– A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total

variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a groupdifferences among individuals within a group

– Heritability of personality traits is about 50%Heritability of personality traits is about 50%• Within a group of people, about 50 % of the variation Within a group of people, about 50 % of the variation

associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the groupdifferences among individuals in the group

– Genetic predisposition is not genetic inevitabilityGenetic predisposition is not genetic inevitability


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Evaluating Genetic TheoriesEvaluating Genetic Theories

• If genetic theories are correct we may If genetic theories are correct we may not be able to transform our not be able to transform our personalities: implications for therapypersonalities: implications for therapy

• May leave us to focus on living with May leave us to focus on living with temperaments we havetemperaments we have

• Removes blame from parentsRemoves blame from parents• Be careful not to oversimplify support Be careful not to oversimplify support

for genetic influencesfor genetic influences


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Environmental Influences on Environmental Influences on PersonalityPersonality

• The power of parentsThe power of parents

• The power of peersThe power of peers

• Situations and circumstancesSituations and circumstances


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The Power of ParentsThe Power of Parents• The shared environment of the home has little The shared environment of the home has little

influence on personalityinfluence on personality– The non-shared environment is a more important The non-shared environment is a more important

influenceinfluence• Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is

consistent over time and that they use with all consistent over time and that they use with all childrenchildren

• Even when parents try to be consistent in the way Even when parents try to be consistent in the way they treat their children, there may be little relation they treat their children, there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn between what they do and how their children turn outout


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The Power of PeersThe Power of Peers

• Adolescent culture includes different Adolescent culture includes different peer groups organized by different peer groups organized by different interestsinterests

• Peer acceptance is so important to Peer acceptance is so important to children and adolescents that being children and adolescents that being bullied, victimized or rejected by peers bullied, victimized or rejected by peers is far more traumatic than punitive is far more traumatic than punitive treatment by parentstreatment by parents


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Situations & CircumstancesSituations & Circumstances• Reciprocal Determinism Reciprocal Determinism

The two-way interaction between The two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of of the individual in the shaping of personality traitspersonality traits


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Non-shared EnvironmentNon-shared Environment

• Unique aspects of a person’s Unique aspects of a person’s environment and aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of individual in the shaping of personality traitspersonality traits


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•Two-way process of Two-way process of reciprocal reciprocal determinismdeterminismshows how the shows how the genetic and genetic and situational factors situational factors are both importantare both important


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Cultural Influences on Cultural Influences on PersonalityPersonality

• Culture, values and traitsCulture, values and traits

• Customs in contextCustoms in context

• Aggressiveness and altruismAggressiveness and altruism


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Culture, Values, and TraitsCulture, Values, and Traits

• CultureCulture– A program of shared rules that govern the A program of shared rules that govern the

behaviour of members of a community or behaviour of members of a community or societysociety

– A set of values, beliefs and attitudes shared A set of values, beliefs and attitudes shared by most members of that communityby most members of that community


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Culture, Values, and TraitsCulture, Values, and Traits

• Individualistic cultureIndividualistic culture– Cultures in which the self is regarded as Cultures in which the self is regarded as

autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with othersprized above duty and relations with others

• Collectivistic cultureCollectivistic culture– Cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded Cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded

in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishesprized above individual goals and wishes


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Customs in ContextCustoms in Context

• When culture isn’t appropriately considered, When culture isn’t appropriately considered, people attribute unusual behaviour to people attribute unusual behaviour to personalitypersonality

• TimelinessTimeliness– monochronic culturesmonochronic cultures

• time is ordered sequentially, schedules and deadlines time is ordered sequentially, schedules and deadlines values over peoplevalues over people

– polychronic culturespolychronic cultures• time is ordered horizontally, people valued over time is ordered horizontally, people valued over

schedules and deadlineschedules and deadline


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AggressivenessAggressiveness

• Considerable cross-cultural evidence Considerable cross-cultural evidence suggests that male aggression results more suggests that male aggression results more from cultural factors than biological onesfrom cultural factors than biological ones

• In cultures in which competition for In cultures in which competition for resources is fierce and survival is difficult, resources is fierce and survival is difficult, men are “toughened up” and pushed to men are “toughened up” and pushed to take riskstake risks


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AltruismAltruism

• Culture also strong influence on moral Culture also strong influence on moral behaviour. Children from the United behaviour. Children from the United States were less likely to be altruistic States were less likely to be altruistic when compared with children from when compared with children from Kenya, India, Mexico, the Philippines Kenya, India, Mexico, the Philippines and Okinawaand Okinawa


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Psychodynamic Influences on Psychodynamic Influences on PersonalityPersonality

• Psychodynamic theories explain Psychodynamic theories explain behaviour and personality in terms of behaviour and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within unconscious energy dynamics within the individualthe individual

• Freud and Psychoanalysis Freud and Psychoanalysis

• Other Psychodynamic approachesOther Psychodynamic approaches

• Evaluating psychodynamic approachesEvaluating psychodynamic approaches


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Freud and PsychoanalysisFreud and Psychoanalysis

• The structure of the personalityThe structure of the personality

• Intrapsychic – within the mind (psyche)Intrapsychic – within the mind (psyche)

• Libido – in psychoanalysis, the psychic Libido – in psychoanalysis, the psychic energy that fuels the life or sexual energy that fuels the life or sexual instincts of the idinstincts of the id


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The Structure of PersonalityThe Structure of Personality

• Id: Operates according to Id: Operates according to the pleasure principle the pleasure principle – Primitive and unconscious Primitive and unconscious

part of personalitypart of personality

• Ego: Operates according Ego: Operates according to the reality principleto the reality principle– Mediates between id and Mediates between id and

superegosuperego

• Superego: Moral ideals Superego: Moral ideals and conscienceand conscience


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Defence MechanismsDefence Mechanisms

• RepressionRepression• ProjectionProjection• DisplacementDisplacement• Reaction formationReaction formation• RegressionRegression• DenialDenial


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Other Psychodynamic ApproachesOther Psychodynamic Approaches

• Jungian TheoryJungian Theory– Collective unconsciousCollective unconscious

• The universal memories, symbols, and The universal memories, symbols, and experiences of human kind experiences of human kind

• Represented in the archetypes or universal Represented in the archetypes or universal symbolic images that appear in myths, art, symbolic images that appear in myths, art, stories, and dreamsstories, and dreams

– Two important archetypes are maleness Two important archetypes are maleness and femaleness, which Jung believed and femaleness, which Jung believed existed in both sexesexisted in both sexes


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Other Psychodynamic ApproachesOther Psychodynamic Approaches

• The Object-Relations SchoolThe Object-Relations School– Emphasizes the importance of the infant’s Emphasizes the importance of the infant’s

first two years of life and the baby’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with the formative relationships, especially with the mothermother

• Emphasized children’s needs for a powerful Emphasized children’s needs for a powerful mother and to be in relationshipsmother and to be in relationships


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• Three scientific failingsThree scientific failings– Violating the principle of falsifiabilityViolating the principle of falsifiability– Drawing universal principles from the Drawing universal principles from the

experiences of a few atypical patientsexperiences of a few atypical patients– Basing theories of personality development Basing theories of personality development

on retrospective accounts and the fallible on retrospective accounts and the fallible memories of patientsmemories of patients

Evaluating Psychodynamic TheoriesEvaluating Psychodynamic Theories


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The Humanistic ApproachThe Humanistic Approach

• Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow

• Carl RodgersCarl Rodgers

• Rollo MayRollo May

• Evaluating HumanistsEvaluating Humanists


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Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow

• Humanist psychologyHumanist psychology– An approach that emphasizes personal An approach that emphasizes personal

growth, resilience, and the achievement of growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potentialhuman potential

• Peak experiencesPeak experiences– Rare moments of rapture cause by the Rare moments of rapture cause by the

attainment of excellence or the experience attainment of excellence or the experience of beautyof beauty


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Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Actualization

Physiological

Safety

Belongingness

Esteem


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Carl RogersCarl Rogers

• Unconditional Positive RegardUnconditional Positive Regard– A situation in which the acceptance and A situation in which the acceptance and

love one receives from significant others is love one receives from significant others is unqualifiedunqualified

• Conditional Positive RegardConditional Positive Regard– A situation in which the acceptance and A situation in which the acceptance and

love one receives from significant others is love one receives from significant others is contingent upon one’s behaviourcontingent upon one’s behaviour


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Self-Discrepancy TheorySelf-Discrepancy Theory

• Self-esteem is defined by the match between how we Self-esteem is defined by the match between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselvessee ourselves and how we want to see ourselves


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Rollo MayRollo May

• Shared with humanists the belief in free Shared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety and emphasized loneliness, anxiety and alienationalienation

• ExistentialismExistentialism– Free will confers on us responsibility for Free will confers on us responsibility for

our actionsour actions


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Evaluating HumanistsEvaluating Humanists

• Hard to operationally define many of the Hard to operationally define many of the conceptsconcepts

• Have added balance to the study of Have added balance to the study of personalitypersonality

• The approach has encouraged others to The approach has encouraged others to focus on “positive psychology”focus on “positive psychology”

• The argument that we have the power to The argument that we have the power to choose our own destiny has fostered a new choose our own destiny has fostered a new appreciation for resilienceappreciation for resilience

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