cooperative principle

Presented toPresented to

Mr Nazir MalikMr Nazir Malik

Presented byPresented by

Amnah MogheesAmnah Moghees

Ayesha IqbalAyesha Iqbal

Bushra siddiquiBushra siddiqui

Amna MukhtarAmna Mukhtar

ContentsContents

PresuppostionPresuppostion ImplicatureImplicature Types and properties of implicatureTypes and properties of implicature Grice theoryGrice theory Cooperative principlesCooperative principles Conversational maximsConversational maxims Relevance theoryRelevance theory conclusionconclusion

Presupposition Presupposition ImplicatureImplicature

PresuppositionPresupposition

DefinitionDefinition- lat.: praesupponere = to presupposelat.: praesupponere = to presuppose- inferences about what is assumed in utterancesinferences about what is assumed in utterances- can be associated with a special grammatical can be associated with a special grammatical

feature: presupposition-triggersfeature: presupposition-triggers- refer to common world knowledge; that must be refer to common world knowledge; that must be

shared by participants of communicationshared by participants of communication> speaker makes assumptions & presupposes > speaker makes assumptions & presupposes

knowledgeknowledge> addressee must share this knowledge and > addressee must share this knowledge and

make use of make use of

HistoryHistory

Historical BackgroundHistorical Background

FregeFrege- „„if anything is asserted there is always an if anything is asserted there is always an

obvious presupposition that the simple or obvious presupposition that the simple or compound proper names used have a compound proper names used have a reference“reference“

- e.g.: Kepler died in miserye.g.: Kepler died in misery

> presupposes: the name Kepler designates > presupposes: the name Kepler designates something.something.

Frege`s theory of presuppositions:Frege`s theory of presuppositions:

- Referring phrases and temporal clauses carry Referring phrases and temporal clauses carry presuppositions to the effect that they do in presuppositions to the effect that they do in fact referfact refer

- A sentence and it`s negative counterpart share A sentence and it`s negative counterpart share the same set of presuppositionsthe same set of presuppositions

- In order for an assertion to be either true or In order for an assertion to be either true or false, it`s presupposition must be true false, it`s presupposition must be true

Russel‘s viewRussel‘s view

- 1905 Russell came to quite different conclusions1905 Russell came to quite different conclusions- problem: sentences that lacked proper referentsproblem: sentences that lacked proper referents

- e.g.: (a) e.g.: (a) The King of France is wiseThe King of France is wise

- logical form paraphrased: logical form paraphrased:

There is a King of France and there`s no one elseThere is a King of France and there`s no one else

who`s King of France and he is wisewho`s King of France and he is wise

Strawson‘s approachStrawson‘s approach

- 1950 Strawson different approach1950 Strawson different approach- it`s a failure to distinguish sentences from it`s a failure to distinguish sentences from uses uses

of sentencesof sentences- e.g.: e.g.: The King of France is wiseThe King of France is wise- statement may well have been true in 1670 and statement may well have been true in 1670 and

false in 1770; false in 1770; - but in 1970 cannot be said to be either true or but in 1970 cannot be said to be either true or

false, because of the non-existence of a King false, because of the non-existence of a King

- Strawson Strawson brought out the example:brought out the example:

(b) (b) There is a present King FranceThere is a present King France- sentence (b) is a precondition for sentence (a)sentence (b) is a precondition for sentence (a)- Strawson called this relationship between (a) & (b) Strawson called this relationship between (a) & (b)

presuppositionpresupposition- formallyformally he held: he held:

A statement A presupposes a statement B A statement A presupposes a statement B iff B is a precondition of the truth or falsity of Aiff B is a precondition of the truth or falsity of A

Presupposition-TriggersPresupposition-Triggers

presuppositions seem to be tied to particular words or presuppositions seem to be tied to particular words or aspects of surface structure >aspects of surface structure >

presupposition-triggerspresupposition-triggers

John managed to stop in John managed to stop in timetime

from this we can infer:from this we can infer:

(a) (a) John stopped in timeJohn stopped in time

(b) (b) John tried to stop in John tried to stop in timetime

>> manage manage = presupposition-= presupposition-triggertrigger

1) Definite descriptions1) Definite descriptions

John saw/didn`t see John saw/didn`t see the the man with two headsman with two heads>> there exist a man with two >> there exist a man with two headsheads

2) Factive verbs2) Factive verbs

Martha Martha regretsregrets/doesn`t /doesn`t regretregret drinking John`s drinking John`s>> Martha drank >> Martha drank John`s home brewJohn`s home brew

3) Implicative verbs3) Implicative verbs

Ali Ali managedmanaged/didn`t /didn`t managemanage to open the to open the doordoor

>> Ali tried to open >> Ali tried to open the doorthe door

4) Change of state verbs4) Change of state verbs

Kissinger Kissinger continuedcontinued/didn`t /didn`t continuecontinue to rule the to rule the

worldworld

>> Kissinger had >> Kissinger had been ruling the worldbeen ruling the world

5) Iteratives5) Iteratives

You can`t get gobstoppers You can`t get gobstoppers anymoreanymore

>> You once could get >> You once could get gobstoppersgobstoppers

6) Verbs of judging6) Verbs of judging

Agatha Agatha accusedaccused/didn`t /didn`t accuseaccuse Ian of Ian of plagiarismplagiarism

>> (Agatha thinks) >> (Agatha thinks) plagiarism is bad plagiarism is bad

7) Temporal clauses7) Temporal clauses

BeforeBefore Strawson was Strawson was even born, Frege even born, Frege noticed/didn`t notice noticed/didn`t notice presuppositionspresuppositions

>> Strawson was born>> Strawson was born

8) Cleft sentences8) Cleft sentences

It was/wasn`t It was/wasn`t Ahmad that kicked Ahmad that kicked ball.ball.

>> Someone kicked >> Someone kicked the ball.the ball.

9) Implicit clefts with stressed 9) Implicit clefts with stressed constituentsconstituents

Linguistics Linguistics was/wasn`t invented by was/wasn`t invented by CHOMSKY!CHOMSKY!

>> Someone invented >> Someone invented linguisticslinguistics

10) Comparison and contrast10) Comparison and contrast

Basanti is/isn`t a Basanti is/isn`t a better cook than better cook than NaseeboNaseebo

>> >> Naseebo is a Naseebo is a cookcook

11) Non-restrictive relative clauses11) Non-restrictive relative clauses

The Proto-Harrappans, The Proto-Harrappans, who flourished 2800-who flourished 2800-2650 B.C., were/were 2650 B.C., were/were not great temple not great temple buildersbuilders>> The Proto->> The Proto-Harrappans flourished Harrappans flourished 2800-2650 B.C.2800-2650 B.C.

12) Counterfactual conditionals12) Counterfactual conditionals

If Hannibal had only If Hannibal had only had twelve more had twelve more elephantselephants, the Romance , the Romance language would/would language would/would not this day existnot this day exist>> Hannibal didn`t have >> Hannibal didn`t have twelve more elephantstwelve more elephants

13) Questions13) Questions

Is Newcastle in Is Newcastle in England or is it in England or is it in Australia?Australia?

>> Newcastle is in England >> Newcastle is in England or Newcastle is in or Newcastle is in AustraliaAustralia

ExerciseExercise

(a)(a) I`ve coached Jack`s childrenI`ve coached Jack`s children definite description (existence presupposition)definite description (existence presupposition) presupposes presupposes Jack has childrenJack has children

(b) When did the Sixers beat the Lakers?(b) When did the Sixers beat the Lakers? wh-questionwh-question presupposespresupposes the Sixers beat the Lakers the Sixers beat the Lakers

ExerciseExercise

(c) (c) Hey, Judy, give me a hand.Hey, Judy, give me a hand. so calledso called social relationship relation social relationship relation presupposes that the addressee is socially intimiate presupposes that the addressee is socially intimiate

with the speakerwith the speaker or socially inferior (e.g. a young child)or socially inferior (e.g. a young child) it has been claimed that the use of a vocative proper it has been claimed that the use of a vocative proper

noun (like Judy) presupposes that the person so noun (like Judy) presupposes that the person so addressed is called by that nameaddressed is called by that name

ExerciseExercise

(d) (d) During the robbery, did you not thinkDuring the robbery, did you not think of yourof yourvictim?victim?

temporal clausetemporal clause duringduring – plus the trailing phrase – implies you were – plus the trailing phrase – implies you were

involved and victimised someoneinvolved and victimised someone

(e) (e) I`m asking you for the third time: ‘Did you steal theI`m asking you for the third time: ‘Did you steal the cake?‘cake?‘

ordinal numeralsordinal numerals you have alredy been asked twiceyou have alredy been asked twice

Properties of PresuppositionsProperties of Presuppositions

1)1) NegationNegation

- remains constant under negation- remains constant under negation

- - negation only alters a sentence`s entailmentnegation only alters a sentence`s entailment

I want to do it againI want to do it again > same presupposition;> same presupposition;

I don`t want to do it againI don`t want to do it again the subject has done it the subject has done it already one or more already one or more timestimes


2) Defeasibility2) Defeasibility- can be cancelled by certain circumstances (e.g. can be cancelled by certain circumstances (e.g.

compound sentences, modality, negation)compound sentences, modality, negation)e.g.: (a) Saira cried before she finished her thesise.g.: (a) Saira cried before she finished her thesis

(b) Saira finished her thesis(b) Saira finished her thesisbut now compare:but now compare:

(c) Saira died before she finished her thesis(c) Saira died before she finished her thesis> presupposition is abandoned in this context, or set of> presupposition is abandoned in this context, or set of

background beliefsbackground beliefs


3) The projection problem3) The projection problem- behavior of presuppositions in complex sentencebehavior of presuppositions in complex sentence

3.1) Survival properties of presuppositions3.1) Survival properties of presuppositions- negation: negation: The chief constable didn`t arrest three menThe chief constable didn`t arrest three men

> presupposition> presupposition there is a chief constable there is a chief constable survivessurvives- modal contexts: modal contexts: It`s possible that the chief constableIt`s possible that the chief constable

arrested three menarrested three men > presupposition (there is a chief constable) also > presupposition (there is a chief constable) also survivessurvives


- compound sentences (connectives like compound sentences (connectives like andand, , oror, , if…if…thenthen) )

- holes (e.g. holes (e.g. factive verbsfactive verbs, , modal operatorsmodal operators, etc.), etc.)

> allows presuppositions to ascend to become > allows presuppositions to ascend to become presuppositions of the complex wholepresuppositions of the complex whole


3.2) Defeasibility of presuppositions3.2) Defeasibility of presuppositions- coordinate sentences: coordinate sentences: John doesn`t manage to pass John doesn`t manage to pass

hishis exam, in fact he didn`t even tryexam, in fact he didn`t even try- plugs (verbs of propositional attitude like plugs (verbs of propositional attitude like believebelieve, ,

imagineimagine and all verbs of saying like and all verbs of saying like telltell, , saysay, etc.):, etc.):

Loony old Harry believes he`s the King of FranceLoony old Harry believes he`s the King of France- filters (formed using the connectives filters (formed using the connectives andand, , oror, , if…thenif…then

and the related expressions e.g.and the related expressions e.g. but but, , alternativelyalternatively,…),…)

> let some presupposition through but not others> let some presupposition through but not others

Kinds of ExplanationKinds of Explanation

1)1) Semantic presuppositionSemantic presupposition

Definition:Definition:

> A sentence A semantically presuppose another > A sentence A semantically presuppose another sentence B iff:sentence B iff:

(a) in all situations where A is true, B is true(a) in all situations where A is true, B is true

(b) in all situations where A is false, B is true(b) in all situations where A is false, B is true


- semantics concerned with context-independent, stable semantics concerned with context-independent, stable meaning of words and clausesmeaning of words and clauses

- presuppositions are not stable, have context-presuppositions are not stable, have context-independent aspects of meaningindependent aspects of meaning

therefore presuppositions belong in pragmatics and therefore presuppositions belong in pragmatics and not in semantics not in semantics


2)2) Pragmatic presuppositionPragmatic presupposition

Definition:Definition:

An utterance A pragmatically An utterance A pragmatically presupposes a proposition B iff A is appropriate presupposes a proposition B iff A is appropriate only if B is mutually known by participantsonly if B is mutually known by participants

ImplicatureImplicature

The following incident, which occurred at a seaside The following incident, which occurred at a seaside resort in Kent, was reported in several national resort in Kent, was reported in several national newspapers in July 1994.newspapers in July 1994.Kent Coastguard reports that a girl, drifting out to Kent Coastguard reports that a girl, drifting out to sea on an inflatable set of false teeth, was rescued by sea on an inflatable set of false teeth, was rescued by a man on a giant inflatable lobster.a man on a giant inflatable lobster.

ImplicatureImplicature A case of natural meaning, A case of natural meaning, x means that p entails px means that p entails p

These spots are measles. These spots are measles. *Those spots meant measles, but I hadn’t got *Those spots meant measles, but I hadn’t got measles.measles.

A case of non-natural meaning or meaning-n, A case of non-natural meaning or meaning-n, x x means that p does not entail pmeans that p does not entail pThose three rings on the bell (of the bus) mean that Those three rings on the bell (of the bus) mean that the bus is full.the bus is full.Those three rings on the bell (of the bus) mean that Those three rings on the bell (of the bus) mean that the bus is full. But it isn’t in fact full – the conductor the bus is full. But it isn’t in fact full – the conductor made a mistakemade a mistake..


Grice’s theory of speakers meaning:Grice’s theory of speakers meaning: SSpeakerpeaker means means-nn-nn pp by by utteringuttering UUtterancetterance to to

AAudienceudience if and only if if and only if SS intends: intends:

1. 1. AA to think to think pp

2. 2. AA to recognize that to recognize that SS intends (1.) and intends (1.) and

3. 3. AA’s recognition of ’s recognition of SS’s intending (1.) to be the ’s intending (1.) to be the primary reason for primary reason for AA thinking thinking pp

Conventional ImplicatureConventional Implicature

non-thruth conditional inference, which is not non-thruth conditional inference, which is not deductive in any general, natural way from the deductive in any general, natural way from the saying of what is said, but arises solely saying of what is said, but arises solely because of the conventional features attached because of the conventional features attached to particular lexical items and/or linguistic to particular lexical items and/or linguistic constructionsconstructions


p therefore q +>> q follows from pp therefore q +>> q follows from p

He is a Chinese, he therefore uses chopsticks.He is a Chinese, he therefore uses chopsticks.

p but q +>> p contrasts with qp but q +>> p contrasts with q

John is poor, but he is honest.John is poor, but he is honest.

Our sales have gone up, but theirs have gone Our sales have gone up, but theirs have gone down.down.

Conventional ImplicatureConventional Implicature even p +>> contrary to expectationseven p +>> contrary to expectations

Even his wife didn’t think that John would win the by- Even his wife didn’t think that John would win the by- electionelection..

p moreover q +>> q is in addition to pp moreover q +>> q is in addition to pXiaoming can read German. Moreover, he can write Xiaoming can read German. Moreover, he can write

poems in the language.poems in the language.

p so q +>> p provides an explanation for qp so q +>> p provides an explanation for qMary is taking Chinese cookery lessons. So her Mary is taking Chinese cookery lessons. So her husband has bought her a wok.husband has bought her a wok.


conventional implicatures in English include conventional implicatures in English include butbut, , eveneven, , thereforetherefore, , yetyet; ; actuallyactually, , alsoalso, , anywayanyway, , barelybarely, , besidesbesides, , howeverhowever, , manage tomanage to, , on the other handon the other hand, , onlyonly, , still thoughstill though, , tootoo and and yetyet..

Generalized vs. ParticularisedGeneralized vs. Particularised

generalized implicature generalized implicature interpretation without any interpretation without any particular contextparticular context

Most of John’s friends believe in marriage.Most of John’s friends believe in marriage.

+> not all of John’s friends believe in marriage+> not all of John’s friends believe in marriage particularized implicature particularized implicature depends crucially on its depends crucially on its

linguistic contextlinguistic context

A: Where is Peter? A: Where is Peter?

B: The light in his office is on. B: The light in his office is on.

+> He is in his office.+> He is in his office.

Generalized vs. ParticularisedGeneralized vs. Particularised

Exercise: Of the following two conversational Exercise: Of the following two conversational implicatures, which is the generalized one and which implicatures, which is the generalized one and which is the particularized one?is the particularized one?

A: How did yesterday’s guest lecture go?A: How did yesterday’s guest lecture go?

B: Some of the faculty left before it ended.B: Some of the faculty left before it ended.

+> Not all of the faculty left before it ended.+> Not all of the faculty left before it ended.

+> The lecture didn’t go well.+> The lecture didn’t go well.

Special forms of conversational Special forms of conversational implicatureimplicature

metaphor - transfer of meaningmetaphor - transfer of meaning

Queen Victoria is of iron. Queen Victoria is of iron.

She has some identical properties like hardness, She has some identical properties like hardness, resilience, non-flexibility or durability.resilience, non-flexibility or durability.

irony - means the opposite of what is saidirony - means the opposite of what is said

It’s raining cats and dogs. Person A says: It is really It’s raining cats and dogs. Person A says: It is really a nice day today.a nice day today.

tautologytautology

War is war.War is war.

Special forms of conversational Special forms of conversational implicatureimplicature

Example: Example:

Maria spilled her chocolate milk over the Maria spilled her chocolate milk over the breakfast table. Mother: That‘s great.breakfast table. Mother: That‘s great.

Business is businessBusiness is business..

Edmund is a pig.Edmund is a pig.

Properties of Conversational Properties of Conversational ImplicatureImplicature

defeasibility or cancellablitydefeasibility or cancellablityan implicature can be cancelled, by first implying an implicature can be cancelled, by first implying something and than denying that implicaturesomething and than denying that implicature- implicatures evaporate in the face of inconsistency - implicatures evaporate in the face of inconsistency with semantic entailment – inconsistent entailmentwith semantic entailment – inconsistent entailmentHis wife is often complaining.His wife is often complaining.~+> His wife is often complaining, in fact she’s ~+> His wife is often complaining, in fact she’s always complainingalways complaining..


- implicatures suspend if they are not in keeping with - implicatures suspend if they are not in keeping with background or ontological assumptionsbackground or ontological assumptionsJohn and Mary bought an apartment near the Louvre John and Mary bought an apartment near the Louvre in Paris.in Paris.+> John and Mary bought an apartment near the +> John and Mary bought an apartment near the Louvre in Paris together, not one each.Louvre in Paris together, not one each.The Americans and the Russians tested the atom The Americans and the Russians tested the atom bomb in 1962.bomb in 1962.~+>The Americans and the Russians tested the atom ~+>The Americans and the Russians tested the atom bomb in 1962 together, not one each.bomb in 1962 together, not one each.


- - implicatures are annulled when they run contrary to implicatures are annulled when they run contrary to what the immediate linguistic context of utterance what the immediate linguistic context of utterance tells us tells us

A: This CD costs 8 euros, and I haven’t got any A: This CD costs 8 euros, and I haven’t got any money on me.money on me.

B: Don’t worry I’ve got 8 eurosB: Don’t worry I’ve got 8 euros

~+> Mary has got only 8 euros.~+> Mary has got only 8 euros.


non-detachablititynon-detachablitity

some aspects of meaning are semantic and can be some aspects of meaning are semantic and can be changed or removed by relexicalization or changed or removed by relexicalization or reformulation; no matter how much you reword an reformulation; no matter how much you reword an utterance (find synonyms), the implicature remainsutterance (find synonyms), the implicature remains

I have cats, which are fat. A visitor comes and says: I have cats, which are fat. A visitor comes and says: Underfed, isn’t he?Underfed, isn’t he?

Frail/puny/skinny/delicate/light-on-his-feet/slim line, Frail/puny/skinny/delicate/light-on-his-feet/slim line, isn’t he?isn’t he?


calculabilitycalculabilityconversational implicatures can be reconstructed conversational implicatures can be reconstructed from the literal meaning of the utterance, the co-from the literal meaning of the utterance, the co-operative principle and its conversational maxims and operative principle and its conversational maxims and the context in which the utterance appearedthe context in which the utterance appearedLate on Christmas Eve in 1993 an ambulance is sent Late on Christmas Eve in 1993 an ambulance is sent to pick up a man who has collapsed in Newcastle City to pick up a man who has collapsed in Newcastle City centre. The man is drunk and vomits all over the centre. The man is drunk and vomits all over the ambulance man who goes to help him. The ambulance man who goes to help him. The ambulance man says: “Great, that’s really great! ambulance man says: “Great, that’s really great! That’s made my Christmas!”That’s made my Christmas!”


non-conventionalitynon-conventionality

implicature relies on the saying of what is said, but is implicature relies on the saying of what is said, but is not part of what is saidnot part of what is said


reinforceabilityreinforceability

made explicit without producing too much of a sense made explicit without producing too much of a sense of redundancyof redundancy

The soup is warm.The soup is warm.

+> The soup is not hot. +> The soup is not hot.

The soup is warm, but not hot. The soup is warm, but not hot.


universalityuniversalityimplicatures tend to be universal, being motivated implicatures tend to be universal, being motivated rather than arbitraryrather than arbitrarySome young people like pop music.Some young people like pop music.+>Not all young people like pop music.+>Not all young people like pop music.The man has two children.The man has two children.+> The man has no more than two children.+> The man has no more than two children.The cloth is white.The cloth is white.+> The cloth is wholly white.+> The cloth is wholly white.

Conventional vs. ConversationalConventional vs. Conversational

neitherneither makes an contribution makes an contribution

to thruth conditionsto thruth conditions

associated with speaker orassociated with speaker or

utterance rather than utterance rather than

proposition or sentenceproposition or sentence

Conventional vs. ConversationalConventional vs. Conversational

attachedattached by convention by convention to particular lexical to particular lexical items or linguistic items or linguistic constructionsconstructions

arbitrary part of arbitrary part of meaning, must be meaning, must be learned ad hoclearned ad hoc

given by convention, given by convention, must be stipulatedmust be stipulated

derive from co-operative derive from co-operative principle and its maximsprinciple and its maxims

non-conventional, non-conventional, motivated rather than motivated rather than arbitraryarbitrary

calculable via natural calculable via natural procedure usingprocedure using

- pragmatic principles- pragmatic principles

- context knowledge- context knowledge

- background assumptionsbackground assumptions

Conventional vs. ConversationalConventional vs. Conversational not cancellable, cannot not cancellable, cannot

be defeatedbe defeated detachable detachable

depend on the depend on the particular linguistic item particular linguistic item usedused

tend not to be universaltend not to be universal

cancellablecancellable

non-detachable non-detachable

attached to the attached to the semantic content, not to semantic content, not to the linguistic form of the linguistic form of what is saidwhat is said

universaluniversal

ExamplesExamples

The American actress, Kathleen Turner, was The American actress, Kathleen Turner, was discussing perceptions of women in the film discussing perceptions of women in the film industry:industry:‘‘I get breakdowns from the studios of the I get breakdowns from the studios of the scripts that they’re developing… and I got one scripts that they’re developing… and I got one that I sent back furious to the studio that said that I sent back furious to the studio that said “The main character was thirty-seven but still “The main character was thirty-seven but still attractive.” I circled the but in red ink and I attractive.” I circled the but in red ink and I sent it back and said, “Try again!”sent it back and said, “Try again!”

ExamplesExamples

A and B are sisters. A is getting ready for a job A and B are sisters. A is getting ready for a job interview:interview:A:A: Did you get your velvet jacket back from Did you get your velvet jacket back from

the cleaners?the cleaners?B:B: You’re not borrowing it.You’re not borrowing it.A:A: I don’t want to borrow it. I just I don’t want to borrow it. I just wondered wondered if you got it back.if you got it back.B:B: You just wondered!You just wondered!A: Well, I haven’t got anything decent to wear!A: Well, I haven’t got anything decent to wear!

ExamplesExamples

Speaker A is a newly-widowed woman who Speaker A is a newly-widowed woman who finds living with her interfering mother a finds living with her interfering mother a strain: strain:

A:A: I wish you wouldn’t creep up on me, I wish you wouldn’t creep up on me, mother.mother.

B:B: I don’t creep, dear. I merely refrain from I don’t creep, dear. I merely refrain from making gratuitous noise.making gratuitous noise.

ExamplesExamples

A:A: Let’s have a drink.Let’s have a drink.

B:B: It’s not one o’clock yet.It’s not one o’clock yet.

An hour or so later:An hour or so later:

A:A: Let’s have a gin and tonic – it’s after one Let’s have a gin and tonic – it’s after one o’clock.o’clock.

B:B: I didn’t say that you could drink after I didn’t say that you could drink after one one o’clock. I said that you couldn’t drink o’clock. I said that you couldn’t drink before.before.

ProblemsProblems

The stated criterion is The stated criterion is not adequate to not adequate to explain its own explain its own examplesexamples

. . Example:Example: student:student: may I come may I come in?in?

Teacher:Teacher: I have already I have already marked the attendance.marked the attendance.

In this example, we observe that In this example, we observe that utterance A has no direct linguistic utterance A has no direct linguistic relevance with utterance B.relevance with utterance B.

The difficulty is that it is not The difficulty is that it is not clear; exactly how much clear; exactly how much enrichment is allowed for enrichment is allowed for elements of explicature.elements of explicature.

Example: A: I am out of petrol. B: There’s a garage just

around the corner. A: No, it doesn’t. It’s only for

repairs.Now, in this utterance, “no, it doesn’t” implies only to the fact that the garage does not sell petrol, enrichment provides the extra needed information that it is only for repairs, and it does not imply that the garage does not exist at all.

““Pragmatics”Pragmatics”

Stephen C. Levinson Stephen C. Levinson

Pg 225Pg 225

GRICE’S THEORY OF GRICE’S THEORY OF IMPLICATUREIMPLICATURE

Paul Grice: Paul Grice: Theory of Conversational Theory of Conversational


Grice’s theory is essentially about how Grice’s theory is essentially about how people use languagepeople use language

How is it possible to mean more than we How is it possible to mean more than we actually say?actually say?

Co operative principleCo operative principle

The speaker is co operative and intends to The speaker is co operative and intends to communicate something communicate something

That something must be more than what the That something must be more than what the words meanwords mean

It leads to implicatureIt leads to implicature

Conversational maximsConversational maxims

Maxims are unstated assumptions we have in Maxims are unstated assumptions we have in conversations conversations

We assume that they are providing an We assume that they are providing an appropriate amount of information, they are appropriate amount of information, they are telling the truth, being relevant, and trying to telling the truth, being relevant, and trying to be as clear as they canbe as clear as they can

THE MAXIM OF QUALITYTHE MAXIM OF QUALITY

do not say what you believe to be falsedo not say what you believe to be false

do not say that for which you lack do not say that for which you lack adequate evidenceadequate evidence

THE MAXIM OF QUANTITYTHE MAXIM OF QUANTITY

make your information as informative as is make your information as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchangerequired for the current purposes of the exchange

do not make your contribution more do not make your contribution more informative than is requiredinformative than is required

THE MAXIM OF RELEVANCE THE MAXIM OF RELEVANCE

make your contributions make your contributions relevantrelevant

THE MAXIM OF MANNERTHE MAXIM OF MANNER

avoid obscurityavoid obscurity

avoid ambiguityavoid ambiguity

be briefbe brief

be orderlybe orderly

Grice’s point is not that we always adhere to Grice’s point is not that we always adhere to these maxims on a superficial level but rather these maxims on a superficial level but rather that, wherever possible, people will interpret that, wherever possible, people will interpret what we say as conforming to the maxims on what we say as conforming to the maxims on at least some levelat least some level

Relevance Theory Relevance Theory ( Wilson & Sperber ) ( Wilson & Sperber )

Relevance Theory Relevance Theory

Introduction Introduction Principles of relevancePrinciples of relevance Cognitive principle(human cognition is geared Cognitive principle(human cognition is geared

to the maximisation of relevance)to the maximisation of relevance) Communicative principle (utterances create Communicative principle (utterances create

expectations of optimal relevance)expectations of optimal relevance)

Grice’s claim Grice’s claim expression &recognition of intention expression &recognition of intention Classical code model :Classical code model :A communicator A communicator encodes her intended message encodes her intended message

into a signal , which is decoded by the into a signal , which is decoded by the audience using an audience using an identical copy of codeidentical copy of code..

Inferential code:Inferential code:A communicator provides A communicator provides evidence of her evidence of her

intentionintention to convey a certain meaning, which to convey a certain meaning, which is is inferred inferred by the audience on the basis of by the audience on the basis of evidence provided.evidence provided.

An utterance is linguistically coded piece of An utterance is linguistically coded piece of evidence so that verbal comprehension evidence so that verbal comprehension involves an element of decoding.involves an element of decoding.

Whereas decoded linguistic meaning is just Whereas decoded linguistic meaning is just one of the inputs to a non demonstrative one of the inputs to a non demonstrative inference process which yields an inference process which yields an interpretation of speaker’s meaning.interpretation of speaker’s meaning.

Goal of inferential pragmatics is to Goal of inferential pragmatics is to explain how the hearer infers the explain how the hearer infers the speaker’s meaning on the basis of speaker’s meaning on the basis of

the evidence provided.the evidence provided.Grice’s central claim: utterances Grice’s central claim: utterances automatically create expectations automatically create expectations

which guide the hearer towards the which guide the hearer towards the speaker’s meaning speaker’s meaning

Relevance & Cognition Relevance & Cognition

Relevance is not only of utterances but of Relevance is not only of utterances but of thoughts , memories and conclusions of thoughts , memories and conclusions of inferences.inferences.

In relevance theory any external In relevance theory any external stimulus stimulus or or internal representation which provides an internal representation which provides an input input (sight ,sound or utterance)(sight ,sound or utterance)toto cognitive process cognitive process may be relevant to an individual at some time.may be relevant to an individual at some time.

Processing of Relevant input yields positive Processing of Relevant input yields positive cognitive effect. cognitive effect. Contextual implicationContextual implication

Relevance matter of degree Relevance matter of degree

what makes an input worth picking out from what makes an input worth picking out from the mass of competing stimuli is not just that it the mass of competing stimuli is not just that it is relevant, but that it is more relevant than any is relevant, but that it is more relevant than any alternative. alternative.

Effort and EffectEffort and Effect Other things being equal, Other things being equal, the greater the the greater the

positive cognitive effects positive cognitive effects achieved by achieved by processing an input, the processing an input, the greater the relevance greater the relevance of the input of the input to the individual at that time.to the individual at that time.

Other things being equal, the greater the Other things being equal, the greater the processing efforts expended , the lower the processing efforts expended , the lower the relevance of the input to the individual at that relevance of the input to the individual at that time.time.

We are serving meat.We are serving meat. We are serving chickenWe are serving chicken We are either serving chicken or (7-3) is not We are either serving chicken or (7-3) is not

46.46. So , characterization of relevance is So , characterization of relevance is

comparative rather than the quantitative. comparative rather than the quantitative.

Inside & outside relevanceInside & outside relevance

Weight , distance processing time strength of Weight , distance processing time strength of implications ,level of attention etc.implications ,level of attention etc.

Relevance theory treats effect and effort as Relevance theory treats effect and effort as non- representational dimensions of mental non- representational dimensions of mental process: but they exist and play role in process: but they exist and play role in cognition , whether not or represented; and cognition , whether not or represented; and when they are represented its in the form of when they are represented its in the form of comparative judgment rather than absolute comparative judgment rather than absolute numerical ones. numerical ones.

Cognitive principal of relevanceCognitive principal of relevancemaximisation of relevance maximisation of relevance

Relevant stimuli Relevant stimuli Relevance & communication Relevance & communication Ostensive inferential communicationOstensive inferential communication( it involves the ( it involves the

use of an ostensive stimuli)use of an ostensive stimuli)A: Ostensive inferential intention : the intention to informA: Ostensive inferential intention : the intention to informLeave an empty glass in your field of visionLeave an empty glass in your field of visionB : The communicative intention : the intention to inform B : The communicative intention : the intention to inform

the audience of one’s informative intention.the audience of one’s informative intention.Wave the empty glass in front of youWave the empty glass in front of youNot only I might like a drink , but I would like a drink.Not only I might like a drink , but I would like a drink.

Communication principal of Communication principal of relevancerelevance

every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its own own optimal relevanceoptimal relevance. .

Resumption of optimal relevance:Resumption of optimal relevance: An ostensive stimulus is optimally relevant if:An ostensive stimulus is optimally relevant if: It is relevant enough to be worth the audience’s It is relevant enough to be worth the audience’s

processing effortprocessing effort It is the most relevant one compatible with It is the most relevant one compatible with

communicator’s abilities and preferences.(will and communicator’s abilities and preferences.(will and abilityability) unwillingness is violation of the co-operative ) unwillingness is violation of the co-operative principle.principle.

E.g Silence unwillingness or in ability?E.g Silence unwillingness or in ability?

Relevance- theoretic comprehension Relevance- theoretic comprehension procedureprocedure

Follow a path of least effort in computing Follow a path of least effort in computing cognitive effects: test interpretive hypothesis cognitive effects: test interpretive hypothesis ( disambiguation , reference resolutions , ( disambiguation , reference resolutions , implicatures, etc.) in order of accessibility.implicatures, etc.) in order of accessibility.

Stop when your expectations of relevance are Stop when your expectations of relevance are satisfied.(relevance varies inversely with satisfied.(relevance varies inversely with effort)effort)

Relevance and comprehensionRelevance and comprehensionverbal & non-verbal casesverbal & non-verbal cases

Verbal communication can achieve a degree of Verbal communication can achieve a degree of explicitness not available in non-verbal explicitness not available in non-verbal communication.communication.

Grice invoked his co-operative principal and Grice invoked his co-operative principal and maxims to deal with implicatures, thus there has maxims to deal with implicatures, thus there has been a tendency to assume that all “primary been a tendency to assume that all “primary processes” involved in the recovery of explicit processes” involved in the recovery of explicit content are less inferential than the “secondary content are less inferential than the “secondary processes” involved in the recovery of processes” involved in the recovery of implicatures.implicatures.

Comprehension process in brief Comprehension process in brief Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about explicit explicit

content( explicature) via decodingcontent( explicature) via decoding, disambiguation , , disambiguation , reference resolution, and other pragmatic enrichment reference resolution, and other pragmatic enrichment processes.processes.

Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about the Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about the intended contextual assumptionsintended contextual assumptions( implicated ( implicated premises)premises)

Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about the Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about the intended contextual implicationsintended contextual implications( implicated ( implicated conclusions)conclusions)

All tasks are not sequential but parallel against a All tasks are not sequential but parallel against a background of expectationsbackground of expectations

Loose talk and metaphors are Loose talk and metaphors are alternative routes to achieving alternative routes to achieving

optimal relevanceoptimal relevance Peter : what do you think of Martin’s latest novel.Peter : what do you think of Martin’s latest novel. Mary : it puts me to sleep.Mary : it puts me to sleep. Grice : test literal interpretation first, and consider Grice : test literal interpretation first, and consider

a figurative interpretation only if Quality 1 is a figurative interpretation only if Quality 1 is violated.violated.

Experimental evidence shows that literal Experimental evidence shows that literal interpretations are not computed first.interpretations are not computed first.

Peter will not probably wonder whether Mary Peter will not probably wonder whether Mary literally falls asleep.literally falls asleep.

Loose or metaphorical uses convey an array to Loose or metaphorical uses convey an array to individuals none individually required to individuals none individually required to achieve relevance, but some are needed.achieve relevance, but some are needed.

John has a square mind. John has a square mind. For Grice , irony also involves flouting in first For Grice , irony also involves flouting in first

maxim but has a different account in relevance maxim but has a different account in relevance theory , involving choice use.theory , involving choice use.

Conclusion Conclusion Relevance theory is an experimentally testable Relevance theory is an experimentally testable

cognitive theory,cognitive theory, But communicative principle of relevance is a law But communicative principle of relevance is a law

like generalisation which follows from the like generalisation which follows from the cognitive principle of relevance together with cognitive principle of relevance together with Gricean view of communication as a process of Gricean view of communication as a process of inferential intention attribution.inferential intention attribution.

The communicative principle of relevance could The communicative principle of relevance could be falsified by finding genuine communicative be falsified by finding genuine communicative acts which did not convey a presumption of their acts which did not convey a presumption of their own optimal relevanceown optimal relevance

Bibliography Bibliography

Sperber , D; Wilson, D. Relevance TheorySperber , D; Wilson, D. Relevance Theory Horn ,LR; Ward,G : the hand book of pragmaticsHorn ,LR; Ward,G : the hand book of pragmatics Thomas, Jenny (1995). Thomas, Jenny (1995). Meaning in Interaction: an Meaning in Interaction: an

Introduction to PragmaticsIntroduction to Pragmatics. London: Longman.. London: Longman. Levinson, Stephen C. (1983). Levinson, Stephen C. (1983). PragmaticsPragmatics. .

Cambridge: CUP.Cambridge: CUP. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/implicature/. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/implicature/. 4.10.2006.4.10.2006.

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