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Context and Sources of Vedic Literature

Marco Ferrini

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CONTEXT AND SOURCES OF VEDIC LITERATURE

FOREWORD

We can best appreciate Vedic concepts when they are expressed in the original

Sanskrit language; nonetheless, we are aware that the first contact with this idiom could

generate some difficulty. To help readers through this preliminary stage, we will provide a few

basic rules of pronunciation, followed by a glossary of Sanskrit terms and concepts

transliterated into Latin characters.

We wish to inform the academics reading our books that our intention is to address the

widest possible audience, people from cultural backgrounds which may differ considerably

from the Hindo-Vedic world. For this audience, the use of diacritic symbols would create a

further barrier to their understanding of the contents. It is for this reason that we have avoided

them, with the only obvious exception being the Sanskrit language exam text.


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1. Vedic Literature and the West

The immense cultural heritage of India was originally, and is still today, conveyed by

Vedic literature and works based thereon. The acceptance of the Vedas as revealed scriptures

is in fact one of the fundamental criteria for one to be considered a Hindu. Vedic literature is

considered the source of all knowledge, physics and metaphysics, and has reached us thanks to

traditional exegetic schools (Sampradayas).

Let us first try to clarify the meaning of the term Veda. The verbal root vidmeans

"to know", as well as "to see". In the Vedas, the ancient sages (rishis) describe what they have

learnt through their intuitive knowledge and inner vision (darshana). They propose the search

for light and the breakdown of material substance in order to gain access into ones luminous

interior space. They did not consider themselves the authors of their works, but rather

receptacles of divine enlightenment, in virtue of their absorption in meditation and profound

inspiration.

In the Upanishads, which are among the most important and well-known texts of

Vedic culture, the rishis define this enlightenment as the path towards the realization of the

immortal self and the reunion of the individual being (atman) with the Supreme Being

(Paramatma). A recurring metaphor in the Vedas is that of a heroic enterprise meant to release

herds of cows, let the water flow, open the sky and conquer darkness. This introspective

journey produces a vision bestowing prosperity and the triumph of light over darkness. The

superior Reality can be experienced through this "intuitive perception" alone, as its full

knowledge is the result of an interiorized, transcendental consciousness which is not

accessible through the intellect.

The Vedas lead to the perfect understanding of reality and its essence, because they

reconnect the knower with what can be known, which is described in the philosophical peaksof the Scriptures as the totality of Being in all His unlimited manifestations. This all-pervading

Being has and gives bliss, since it is devoid of corruption, old age, death and re-birth. It is

beyond time, it is God or one of his expansions.

The ancient culture of India has always inspired a majority of the population of South-

West Asia, and also influenced the ancient Western world, as proved by modern scientific


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research. It is quite possible that the Greeks, considered the forefathers of Western thought,

did not create their philosophy out of nothing; but instead that their doctrines acted as a

valuable bridge for a much older knowledge. Among the many possible examples, we can

mention Orphism, one of the best known religious movements in Greece which spread from

the 6th century B.C. Orphism was based on rituals meant to purify the living being while

disengaging it from the "wheel of births", i.e. transmigration (metempsychosis) in various

bodies, including animals and vegetables. Such conception closely resembles the Vedic

doctrines ofkarma, samsara, and mukti, or moksha, which we shall mention later. Eraclitus,

Phytagoras, Socrates and Empedocles shared such doctrines, and even Plato drew extensively

from them.

Famous European thinkers, such as Shopenhauer, Nietzsche, Hegel, Thoreau and

Emerson came into contact with the Indian reality and expressed great appreciation for itsculture. Shopenhauer, for example, saw India as the land of original wisdom, the place to

which Europeans could trace back their origin, and the civilization from which they had been

influenced in a decisive way.

Studying ancient Indian texts, European scholars were surprised to find out that they

contained a very evolved body of knowledge that was anything but primitive; marked by

advanced developments in a number of fields such as astronomy, medicine, psychology,

grammar, logic, philosophy, music, and mathematics.

As we shall see in the course of our study, the traditional literature of India provides

an integrated and organic knowledge, full of implications on the practical and existential level

and aimed at the actual improvement of life quality. It proposes an interactive search,

conveying behavioural values and models capable of guiding every action of man in this

world; it offers an overall view of action, connected to concepts of cosmogony and

eschatology, and to the fundamental reasons for life and its aim. A philosophical system, no

matter how great and ingenious, would in fact be unsubstantial if it could not be applied

concretely to everyday life, thereby raising the level of consciousness and improving our

existence in a practical manner.

The Vedas are not only religious texts, but also vast bodies of symbols, doctrinal

formulas, and suggestions of existential values that find their place at the peak of ancient and

modern history, constituting the greatest adventure of the human intellect.


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The value of these works, precious synthesis of theory and practice, is not limited to a

certain population, geographical place and time span; it represents an eternal patrimony

available to mankind. They investigate the phenomenal and the noumenal, the physical and

psychic world, the transcendent dimension, matter and Spirit, embracing disciplines that range

from psychology to philosophy, from law to logic and physics and, last but not least, to the in-

depth reflection on subjects related to the sacred sphere in the broader and highest sense.

This ancient culture, foundation of religious thought and feeling for the Indian

population, represents the most ancient knowledge of humanity, a knowledge that has

maintained its worth and freshness in time, so much so that it is still of extraordinary interest

even today. Vedic conceptions of the structure of the material world, the body, and the human

mind constitute an important reference point for the avant-garde scientific world. Ever-

widening fields of archaeology, psychology, medicine and modern physics evaluate andconfirm the worth of ancient Vedic science.

Although they employ different methodologies and paths, the final scope of both

philosophical and traditional Indian literature is the spiritual realization of the living being and

the achievement ofmoksha, i.e. freedom from samsara. This cycle of embodied existence is

marked by the continuous succession of births and deaths, into which the conditioned beings

devoid ofatma-vidya, or knowledge of the self, are painfully forced. Moksha coincides with

the overcoming of avidya, spiritual lack of consciousness, and produces emancipation from

the suffering resulting from it. Man is thus allowed to reintegrate his historical person and his

spiritual self, and to move from the unconscious to the luminous conscience in order to

rediscover the Divine. The Supreme Being remains the sole and original Principle from which

everything emanates, even if it manifests Itself in an unlimited number of forms and names.

From an initial and superficial reading of the Vedic religious reality, it would seem

natural to speak of polytheism. However, such concept only reflects the surface of the Aryan

(Brahmin) culture, which on the contrary portrays a monotheistic religious thought of a

polymorphous nature, meaning that the different manifestations of the Divine represent the

manifold aspects of Its unity.

Therefore, beyond the apparent inconsistencies and ambiguities, Vedic works share a

common identifiable view of the world and a specific perspective of salvation results from the

multifarious mystical and metaphysical paths. This literature transmits basic principles and

values that are well rooted in the collective life of the Indians, and which give substance and


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cohesion to the various components of Hinduism, providing an organic and united, although

markedly differentiated, character.

This learning has exerted, and still is exerting, a grounding and unifying function on

the entire Indian civilization. Apart from some ideological degeneration, India has been able to

retain an almost intact religious and cultural identity in the course of the millennia, in spite of

the political, social and economical upheavals that it has so often experienced. We must also

underline, however, that the content of the Vedas, although perfectly preserved, is nowadays

unfortunately understood less and less in its essence and traditional values; especially

following the adulteration of such knowledge which started at the beginning of the nineteenth

century in the colonial and strongly Eurocentric environment.

The first indologists deserve credit for producing an enormous amount of precious

didactic instruments such as translations, Sanskrit dictionaries and critical editions of themajor Vedic works. Nonetheless, they were faced with an older, broader-ranging and more

value-driven culture than those known thus far; particularly Greco-Roman culture, at that time

the highest example of historical civilization. In the cultural, religious, and political climate of

the colonial period, as eminent scholars now amply confirm, the West orchestrated a real and

true denigration campaign meant to minimize Indian thought, thereby reducing it to myth and

extravaganza; in an attempt to ultimately discount its authentic value.

Moreover, during the 19th and 20th centuries, many Indian scholars, in reaction to the

economical, political and intellectual colonialism of the West, insisted on their legitimate right

to interpret their own history and culture. Sometimes, however, this interpretative process was

influenced by excessive nationalism and by a sentimental, romantic view of the past; and it has

often been conducted with poor scientific accuracy, therefore lacking an objective

consideration for the tradition and literature of ancient India.

In the course of the centuries, such deceiving factors have contributed to overshadow

the authentic meaning of this culture and to further hinder a correct approach to the

remarkably complex knowledge of Vedic civilization.

Important developments in Western scientific research, especially in the field of

archaeology, have recently demolished most of the commonly accepted theories taught as

proven and obvious facts from the beginning of the nineteenth century till just a few years ago.

As we shall closely examine in our subjects of study, increasing doubts have been raised

regarding different issues such as the "Aryan invasion," while sociology and anthropology


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have revised the meaning of "caste"; this word, by the way, is actually of Portuguese origin

and thus extraneous to the Vedic conception.

In the social-religious system of varna-ashrama-dharma, there are no hermetically

sealed and impassable classes, but functional divisions of society called varnas. These do not

correspond to a rigid birthright (jati), but to the actual qualities and aspirations of individuals.

The four varnas (social divisions) and the four ashrams (stages of life) warrant harmony and

reciprocal legitimization of the diverse individual beings. They are instruments for the

development of personality, allowing everyone, according to their guna-karma (tendencies

and experiences), to find their best position in society, and to progress through the finest

expression of their potential.

Over the millennia, this social subdivision has been ideologically adulterated, mostly

by those same people who considered themselves to be the depositaries of tradition, i.e. thesmarta brahmanas (caste brahmanas). Their rigid and restrictive interpretation of birthright

concealed the real purpose of gaining and preserving privileges, among which those coming

from the monopoly of the religious rituals. This practice has caused the degeneration of the

entire Indian social class system, to the point of reducing varna-ashrama-dharma to an unjust

instrument of oppression at the expense of the weaker classes.

It is in this situation that European scholars have found in India since the 15th century.

By extending this phenomenon to the past millennia, and mistaking it for the original model

described in the Vedic literature, the selfsame scholars then spread the idea to the West under

the name of "the caste system".

Our studies find a place in this climate of cultural renewal, a climate that induces us to

re-think human history from a broader perspective. Today we can in fact consider the

historical events that took place outside or even within the Indian environment with a more

critical eye; and view those events in light of the many misunderstandings they caused

regarding Vedic civilization. We intend to offer knowledge of this civilization as objectively

as possible, and study its various cultural expressions according to the parameters of the

tradition they belong to, utilizing the criteria of modern scientific research in the proper

context.

II. Revelation and Tradition: Shruti and Smriti


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The ancient sacred literature of India is divided in Shruti and Smriti. Shruti or

Revelation (lit. listening) is the collection of sacred scriptures containing the knowledge

revealed by God to the rishis, the ancient sages who heard it through inspired perception in a

state of divine contemplation. It is for this reason that they are classified as apaurusheya, or of

non-human origin.

Smriti or tradition (lit. recollection, memory) is the collection of texts produced

within the Aryan civilization that constitutes the exegesis, or traditional commentaries, on the

works of the Revelation. This literature recording the history, culture, language, and customs

of Brahmin society forms a harmonious unity with the knowledge of the Shruti on which it is

based.

Smriti can be defined as a tree, whereas Shruti is the seed. As a matter of fact, Smriti,

as it is drawn from Shruti, celebrates and expands the truths contained within it while

sustaining the philosophical conclusions of the Revelation with rigorous faith. Shruti and

Smriti are thus considered of equal value. In case of contrast or discord between these two

sources of knowledge, the first one is to be held as the most reliable and authoritative.

The Shruti literature contains four Vedic Samhitas1, also defined as Vedas in the

proper sense of the word, are known as Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda andAtharvaveda, the

Brahmanas, theAranyakas, and the Upanishads.

The Four Samhitas

Rigveda-samhita: collection of hymns. This text is the most ancient known to

humanity and contains more than one thousand hymns, most of them in praise of various

celestial beings, or devas2. TheRigveda is used mainly in cults of worship meant for material

gains such as protection, long life, healthy children and good harvests from various deities.

1Lit. put together, united; Samhita can thus be translated as collection.

2 Celestial beings in charge of different functions within the Universe; see for example Rigveda I.24: To Varuna

andRigveda II.12: To Indra. The Sanskrit word deva does not indicate God, but a specific category of celestial

beings. They are indeed endowed with superhuman powers, but limited to the control over numerous natural

phenomena; a kind of administrators, appointed by the Supreme Being for the preservation of the universal


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The Samhita opens with a hymn dedicated to Agni3, a deva presiding over sacrifice,

and this is evidence of the importance given to sacrificial activity in Vedic times. In Rigveda

we also find eschatological and cosmogonical subjects expressed through myths and symbols,

such as the genesis of the universe and the origin of the devas.

TheRigveda written in verse is a kind of liturgical manual for one of the four priests

performing Vedic sacrifices (agnihotra). This minister, called hotar (the invoker), had the

responsibility of inviting the devas to participate in a sacrificial ceremony.

Aside from Indra, Mitra and Varuna, one of the most celebrated deities in theRigveda

is Savitror Surya, the Sun deva who gives life to all beings and represents the cosmic order to

which humans should adhere in perfect harmony so as to obtain peace, prosperity and

protection. Surya is also bearer of spiritual illumination:

From Savitr the God, wise supreme Spirit, we crave that gift most

worthy to be sought, by which he grants his worshipers protection.

His rays vouchsafe to us the great Gods boon.

Sustainer of the Heaven, Lord of the cosmos, this sage puts on his

golden-coloured mail. Clear-sighted, far-extending, filling the

heavens, Savitr has brought bliss our lips must praise.

Amply he fills the realms of Earth and Heaven; in tune with his

own being he sings the hymn.

The God, with arms outstretched, all creatures fosters, arousing,

lulling all life with his rays.

He lights up all things, guards each holy ordinance. None can

deceive him, the great God, the radiant.

He has stretched our his arms to all earth dwellers. Maintaining

his own laws he runs his course.

With his own greatness Savitr has filled the three domains of space,

three worlds, three heavens. He moves the threefold heaven and

threefold Earth. With ordinances three he himself protects us.

order. All these powerful beings are in fact His emanations, expression of His infinite divine powers ( shakti).

Cfr.Mundaka UpanishadII.1.7.3 The Deva of fire, who devours sacrificial offerings, tendered with the triple repetition of the term svaha

(oblation). It is worth noting that the Vedic pantheon is well structured and characterized by the definite

hierarchies of celestial beings, each one having specific duties and features.


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Most gracious God, life-stirrer, bringer of slumber, controller of

all, what moves not and what moves, may Savitr the God vouchsafe us

shelter and security, distress held thrice at bay.

God Savitr comes nigh with changing seasons. May he enhance our

stock of food and sons! May he grant strength through days and

nights to follow and may he send us wealth with progeny.4

Although theRigveda is composed of hymns addressed to various deities of the Vedic

pantheon, in some passages especially a consciousness of the fact that they are nothing but

different aspects of the same unique Supreme Being, identified as Vishnu can be found. In

Rigveda in fact, the abode of Vishnu is defined as the highest of all abodes, paramampadam5:

They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni or the heavenly sunbird

Garutmat. The seers call in many ways that which is One6

God is truly unique although He is described in various ways, as His functions are

multiple and His divine attributes are innumerable. Compared to Him, the Infinite Being, we

are indeed minute. According to Vedic texts, humans offer invocations to this Divine One by

means of various epithets in accordance with His qualities and functions:

So often we prefer to call Him Agni (the foremost adorable),

sometimes Indra (the most resplendent), sometimes Varuna (the most

venerable), sometimes as Aryaman (the supreme lawgiver); He alone

is the divine virility and vitality in us, and is therefore known as

Rudra; He verily is the Savitr since everything is born of Him; He is

Divya (effulgent); He is the law-abider, and hence is known as Yama;

He alone is the measure and a benevolent friend to us, and hence His

name is Mitra; He is the supreme Lord and therefore Brihaspati and

Brahman; He pervades the entire universe and hence he is Vishnu; He

is blissful and hence known as Soma, and on account of His

4Rigveda IV.53.5Rigveda I.22.20-21.

6Rigveda I.164.46.


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benevolence and kindness, He is called Shiva, Shankara and

Mayaskara [...]; He is one, though seers call Him with various names,

such as Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, Divya, Suparna, Garutman, Yama

e Matarishvan7.

The following hymn refers to the famous lila (divine play) of Vishnus triple step

(trivikrama), narrated in a masterly manner in the Bhagavata Purana8. With His first two

steps, the God of the gods - for the occasion Vamana deva, the dwarfbrahmacari - covered

the three worlds; and then with His third step, He put His foot on the head of the devoted King

Bali.

In sacrificial rituals, Vishnu is celebrated as the deity embracing and transcending timeand space. His triple steps are therefore to be interpreted also in this sense:

I will proclaim the mighty deeds of Vishnu who measured out the

earthly regions and propped the heavens above, accomplishing in his

course three mighty strides.

For this his prowess Vishnu is acclaimed. He inhabits the

mountains, like a savage beast wandering at will; in his three mighty

paces are set all worlds.

Now may my prayer ascend to the far-striding Vishnu, the Bull,

who dwells upon the mountains, to him who unaided measured with

threefold step these far-flung spheres.

The marks of his three strides are filled with honey

imperishable; each is cause of joy. Alone he supports the three spheres

Earth and Sky and things living.

May I attain to Vishnus glorious mansions where the fainthful

rejoice, where close beside the Strider within his highest footstep

springs the well of purest honey!

7Cit.RigvedaSamhita. VedaPratishthana, New Delhi, vol. 1. p. 6-7.

8 Canto VIII, chapters 18 to 22.


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O for your realms where dwell the tireless oxen9 abundantly

furnished with horns, whence shins from the highest step of the widely

striding Hero, his multiple splendors!10

Samaveda-Samhita: Collection of melodies. These melodies were used by the priest

udgatar(the chanter, from the root-word utmeaning intonation, breath) to accompany the

preparation and offering of sacrifice. The Samaveda stanzas are used mainly in ritual and are

not of much significance from a literary point of view. The great majority of them derive from

the Rigveda. A considerable contribution of the Samaveda is that it constitutes the most

ancient model of liturgical music, with every stanza corresponding to a precise melody. The

Samaveda however contains only the lyrics of the hymns, not the melodies, while the musical

annotations are contained in proper manuals called gana.

Yajurveda-Samhita: Collection of sacrificial formulas (the Sanskrit root-wordyaj stands for

to sacrifice, offer, worship). This text can be considered a real collection of mantras,

formulas and prayers with which the minister (adhvaryu) accompanied the single moments of

the sacrifice. In the Yajurveda, the ritual act is described as valid and powerful in itself, as

such even devas and stars could be bent to the celebrants will. According to brahminical

literature, a sacrifice or yajna is an action par excellence; thanks to which material reality

ceases to be an encumbrance tying one to conditioned existence. A properly executed sacrifice

then becomes an instrument with which to fathom the supreme reality. Sacrifice is the heart of

the Universe; based on the sacred word, it represents the foundation and support for all that is,

defends against all evil, characterises an upright life, and is the source of power for the devas

themselves. Sacrificial activity acts on and transforms matter, both in its physical

manifestations (aggregates of earth, water, fire, air and ether), and its psychic ones (sense

faculties, mind, intellect and distorted conception of ego). Sacrifice is movement, alteration,

reaction; it is the supreme means that allows the individual being to break free of his shackles

made of selfish actions and re-harmonize with the cosmic order.

The technology concerning Vedic sacrifice, carefully described in the Brahmanas, is

centred on the sacrificial fire, Agni (from which derive names like agnishtoma or agnihotra

9It refers to Indra and Vishnu, that in theRigveda are in close relation, so in a hymn they are invoked together.

10Rigveda I.154.


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indicating various categories of fire sacrifices)11

, that unites the world of humans to the world

ofdevas, carrying to the latter the sacrificial offerings of the former. As a matter of fact, Yajna

is a powerful instrument by means of which the cosmic economy is maintained: humans offer

sacrifices to celestial beings who, if satisfied, provide them with all they need to lead a well-

balanced life in harmony with cosmic laws.12

Everything is grounded in sacrifice the devas, human beings, that which is

sacrificed, and he who sacrifices, the stars, the universe, and all creatures. The ritual grants

perpetual and renewed genesis to the universe and to life; it is a manifestation of the rhythmic

flow of vital dynamics. The Universe and individual beings express the essence of their

connection through sacrifice, an exceptional way to connect to the supreme order (dharma)13.

The universe sustains the life of all beings with food, air, water, intelligence, and all that

everyone needs to live a harmonious earthly existence while elevating ones consciousness, inview of a deeper spiritual comprehension.

In the Yajurveda, Vishnu has absolute prominence over all other deities and is often

identified with the sacrificial act itself (Yajna-purusha).

A rather interesting point, both from the linguistic and literary point of view, is that

this Samhita also contains a great number of verses drawn fromRigveda and makes broad use

of complex figures of speech and puns. The Yajurveda has come to us in two different

versions called Shuklayajurveda or white Yajurveda and Krishnayajurveda or black

Yajurveda. White (shukla) and black (krishna), refer to the fact that while the first version is

composed exclusively ofmantras (and is therefore defined white or pure, because devoid

11Agnishtoma literally means hymn of praise to Agni; it is a solemn sacrifice where soma is offered, a juice

extracted from an unidentified creeper, described as the celestial drink of immortality and happiness; it lasts five

days and is accompanied by recitation of twelve hymns. The agnihotra is a fire sacrifice. There are various

types of agnihotra or fire sacrifices; the daily one is known after the name of Trinaciketa, because it was

revealed to Naciketa by the deva of death and dharma, Yamaraja. This specific Agnihotra is among the basic

duties of a religious disciple and is performed three times a day: at dawn, midday and sunset.12

Cit. Bhagavad-gita III.10: In the beginning of creation, the Lord of all creatures sent forth generations of

men and demigods, along with sacrifices for Vishnu, and blessed them by saying: Be thou happy by this yajna

[sacrifice], because its performance will bestow upon you everything desirable for living happily and achieving

liberation.13

Among various meanings of the term dharma we remind here those of law, duty, religiosity, justice, natureand quality, referred to objects or persons. Dharma is also the divine social cosmic order that regulates and

sustains life for humans and for the Universe (the Sanskrit root-word dhr means to support, to sustain).Dharma is not an artificial order based on the repression of ones deep urges, it is rather the universal principle

inscribed almost as genetic code in the inner self of every creature. Its violation causes an unnatural, restraining

and pathologic condition, inevitably marked by conflicts and sufferings. Precisely on the basis of this deep

consciousness, in Indian traditional society religiosity is not taken as mere rituality, maybe executed passively

and in any case relegated to a confined circle of existence; on the contrary, it represents the way of life

permeating the individual in all his anthropological totality, as indicated by the binomial religion-nature

[characteristic of every living being], perfectly rendered by the concept ofdharma.


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of any addition); the second one contains comments explaining the meaning of sacrificial

formulas and the symbolism of ritual practices as well. Like all works meant to elaborate and

comment on psychological, philosophical and theological assumptions, the blackYajurveda is

fundamental for a deep and total understanding of the white Yajurveda.

Following are some hymns taken from Yajurveda. The first one expresses the

realization that the source of every happiness and every physical, psychic and spiritual well-

being lies within the Divine and not therefore within the human being, who is unable to

perform his duties and to overcome the difficulties of material existence without contribution

from a higher dimension:

You are Energy, give me energy;

your are Courage, give me courage;you are Strength, give me strength;

you are Vigour, give me vigour;

you are Zeal, give me zeal;

you are Victory, give me victory14

In the second hymn again the sense and purpose of Shruti is found: liberation from

material conditioning (moksha). Numerous are the ways that lead to such liberation - ethically

correct action (dharma), knowledge (jnana), and pure love for God (bhakti)15

:

I know that Primordial Man, golden as the sun, beyond darkenss.

Knowing him a man even now becomes immortal. This is the way to

attain him, there is no other16

Atharvaveda-Samhita: Collection of magic hymns. This Samhita was not originally

included among the texts of Vedic wisdom, which were together known as trayi-vidya, or

14Yajurveda XIX.9.15

Bhakti, a key concept for Hinduism, is the devotion to God in His personal form, mainly Vishnu-Krishna.

Through bhakti devotee and Divinity are tied up by mutual love and enjoy the same state of bliss (the term in

fact derives from the root-word bhaj meaning both to worship and to take part in).Bhakti is together loving

devotion and participation in the nature of God, who reveals Himself to His devotee and gives him illumination,

truth, love and mercy.16Yajurveda XXXI.18.


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triple knowledge17

. One reason for this omission is that its verses are not considered as

stylish as the ones of the other three collections, and are therefore not quite worthy of being

listed among sacrificial formulas. The content as well is considered distant from brahminical

religiosity and Vedic ritual. In the Atharvaveda in fact, magic spells, prayers, invocations and

sacrificial formulas for human everyday activities are found. There are hymns invoking a

generous harvest, long life, good health, victory in battle, wealth, family concord, recovery

from illness, and the like. These formulas could change the natural course of the events, both

for better and for worse. Their efficacy depended on a correct recitation; even the slightest

mistake - an alteration of a pause or an accent, the wrong pronunciation of a vowel or a

consonant group for example - could distort the meaning of the ritual and provoke effects

contrary to those desired. The influence of the sacred word is fundamental in sacrifice; it is the

mantras uttered by the celebrants that operate on the physical dimension in order to achieve ametaphysical end. The sacrificial formula elevating the consciousness of the performer

because this is the essential component of the sacrifice, the consciousness of those who

sacrifice grants him what otherwise would not be obtainable.

The importance given to liturgical chant in ritual practices derives from the

understanding that only one who is conscious of its sacred nature can reap the real fruits of

sacrifice.

TheAtharvavedaSamhita was assigned to the Vedic priest brahmana or atharvaveda.

This priest was considered the topmost priest among those celebrating sacrifices (the hotar,

adhvaryu and udgatar), as not only did he identify every negative aspect or real mistake

committed during the complex ritual activity, but he also had the task of dissolving said

sacrifice through mental force, skill, and superior knowledge of the highest truth. It was he

who made the sacrifice perfect from a ritualistic point of view and therefore pure and

effective.

This collection is not lacking in passages of high literary value and hymns of inspired

poetry with spiritual and cosmogonical content describing the creation of the world and the

search for the absolute truth, that truth beyond the phenomoenical world. Among the various

exemplary hymns of this work quoted here is the one asking for the power to overcome every

fear while taking refuge in the Supreme Being and re-establishing a relationship of harmony

with the Creator, the Creation and all creatures. According to the ancient philosophical

17The trayi-vidya comprisesRig, Sama and YajurVeda.


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thought of India, fear is in fact due to the perception of duality, when one feels separated from

his real self, from God and the whole creation:

Breathe on us fearlessness, Heaven and Earth! By the strength of

God, by the Light of God, may we be free from fear!

May the boundless atmosphere set us in fearlessness!

May the offering of the seven Seers set us in fearlessness!

From the North and the South, the East and the West let the Light

of God direct on this village sustenance, welfare, and ease.

May the Power of God grant us freedom from foes, removing all

fear, deflecting all wrath.

Below and above,Behind and before,

Grant us freedom from enemies, o Power of God.18

From that which we fear, o Lord, make us fearless. O bounteous

One, assiste us with your aid. Drive far the malevolent, the foeman.

Indra, the generous giver, we invoke. May we please all creatures,

both two-legged and four-legged!

Let not the armies of our foes overwhelm us! Destroy all evil

spirits!

Indra is the Saviour who kills the Demon, our longed-for protector,

coming from afar. May he defend us from the farthest point, from the

middle, from behind, and from before!

Lead us to a wide worlds, o wise one, to heavenly ligth,

fearlessness, and blessing. Strong are your arms, o powerful Lord. We

resort to your infinite refuge.

May the atmosphere we breathe breathe fearlessness into us:

fearlessness on earth and fearlessness in heaven!

May fearlessness guard us behind and before!

May fearlessness surround us above and below!

18Atharvaveda VI.40.


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May we be without fear of friend and foe!

May we be without fear of the known and the unknown!

May we be without fear by night and by day!

Let all the world be my friend!19

The Samhitas are also calledMantra-samhitas because they are composed of various

types of hymns or mantras: invocations, benedictions, sacrificial formulas, liturgical prayers,

exorcisms, and so on.Mantra literally means instrument of thought, an instrument that helps

to reflect and meditate; indicating as well a sacred word, the Vedic hymn, the mystic verse, the

spiritual sound vibration, the sacred formula addressed to a specific Deity20:

The mantras contained in the Vedas are mainly meant to praise and win graces from

the various devas, such as Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, and are used above all during thecelebration of sacrifices (yajna) described in the middle part of the Vedas, especially in the

section called Karma-kanda, which will be described further on. According to tradition, these

hymns are instruments operating directly through sound, both the material sound vibration and

its relative component of consciousness, resulting in a deliberate transformation of reality both

physical and psychological. These mantras are all but naive and primitive invocations, quite

the reverse; they reveal a formal perfection and a potent evocative nature.

These hymns have liturgical value, and are not structured in the manner of speculative

speech with its beginning, development, and conclusion. They do not explain; their language

takes for granted the knowledge of the doctrine to which they refer. Therefore, in order to

comprehend the Vedas it is necessary to study the Smriti literature as well. Each Samhita

generally includes theBrahmanas.

The Brahmanas: texts related to the Brahman21

, the spiritual reality, or texts for

brahmanas, theologians, Vedic teachers and priests. The Brahmanas are the books of

sacrificial science, treatises written in prose that give both logical and mystical explanations

regarding what happens during rituals, recounting their origin, and clarifying the connection

between objects on the sacrificial arena and their cosmic counterparts. They constitute a kind

19Atharvaveda XIX.15.

20 For instance: om keshavaya namah, I offer my obeisances to Keshava.21 Spirit, Absolute, Supreme Reality (Paramartha), trascendental Truth (Paramtattva). The term Brahman,

morphologically built up on the verbal root-word brih, meaning to grow or to expand, indicates the spiritual

essence: all-pervading, infinitely vast, without limits. It corresponds to the concept of Spirit in Western theology.


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of manual meant to facilitate the execution of sacrifices which requested such meticulousness

and precision of procedure that a slightest mistake would not only invalidate every effort, but

actually lead to something different, sometimes even to the opposite of what is longed for.

These works containing philosophical and theological speculations illustrate those fine

dynamics activated by the liturgical act in order to achieve the desired end.

One of the most important Brahmanas is the Shatapathabrahmana or Brahmana of

one hundred paths22

[for self-realization], belonging to the white Yajurveda, serving the

functions of the adhvaryu. Here is the amplest Brahmana of all; indeed, it contains a gold

mine of precious information on religion and social organization showing the level of

elaboration reached by ancient Indian thought. It abounds in detail-rich narrations presented in

epic poetry such as Mahabharata, Ramayana, and the Puranas - and it also exploressubjects dealt with by Samkhya philosophy.

The final part of this Brahmana contains the BrihadaranyakaUpanishad, one of the

works with the most significant content representing the seed for numerous doctrines of

subsequent schools. Practically there is no Indian philosophical system that makes no

reference to this work in some way, be it explicitly or implicitly. Herewith follows an example

taken from the Shatapathabrahmana:

The question arises, Which is the better, the man who sacrifices

to the Self, or the man who sacrifices to the Gods? The man who

sacrifices to the Self must be the reply, for he who sacrifices to the

Self is also the one who possesses the knowledge that through his

sacrifice his body is brought to completion, through this sacrifice his

body finds its proper place. Just as a snake rids itself of its dead skin,

so the man who performs sacrifice rids himself of his mortal body, that

is to say, of sin, and by dint of verses, formulas, Vedic melodies, and

offerings takes possession of the heavenly realm23

22One hundred are the adhyaya or sections that constitute the book.

23Shatapathabrahmana XI.2.6.13.


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The Aranyakas: texts of the woods, used by ascetic hermits24

who retired to the

forest (aranya) to practice interior sacrifice and devote themselves to a life of rigorous

renunciation and meditation in order to contemplate the self and realize the dimension of the

Spirit:

He who lives in us as our guide, who is one, and yet appears in

many forms, in whom the hundred lights of heaven are one, in whom

the Vedas are one, in whom the priests are one he is the spiritual

atman within the person25

TheAranyakas, as well as theBrahmanas, are associated to the Vedic Samhitas: to the

Rigveda apply the Aitareya-aranyaka and the Kaushitaki-aranyaka; to the Yajurveda, the

Taittiriya-aranyaka; to the Samaveda, the Aranyakasamhita. As for the content, these worksdo not describe ritual acts and liturgical rules but rather explain their symbolic value. The

Aranyakas are generally considered a connecting link between the Brahmanas and the

speculative literature of the Upanishads.

The Upanishads: sessions with the Guru. The word Upanishad derives from the

Sanskrit root-word sadto sit down, tied to the adverbs of place upa (near to) and ni (under,

below), as a whole indicating the position taken by the disciple who sits at the Masters feet to

listen to his teachings. In a broad sense, it could be translated as esoteric teachings, or

secret doctrine, a proof of the eminently initiatory value of this knowledge perceived by the

rishi thanks to his meditative experience.

Among all the existing Upanishads (there are more than three hundred), 108 are

considered authentic. They are acknowledged by the traditional schools (Sampradaya), and

listed in theMuktika Upanishad. Among these, fourteen are regarded as the most ancient and

important, and as such certainly the most often quoted in the philosophical systems of classical

Indian thought (Shad Darshana)26

. They are called Vedic Upanishads since they can be

attributed to the various schools related to the Vedic Samhitas. These works are namely:

Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Kena, Isha, Katha,

Shvetashvatara, Mundaka, Mahanarayana, Prashna, Maitrayaniya, and Mandukya.

24 This is the social condition ofvanaprastha, see note 17.25

TaittiriyaAranyaka III.11.1.26 See chapter V,Literature of the Six Darshana.


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In their entirety, the Upanishads constitute the Vedanta, the conclusive part of the

Vedas (Veda-anta), but also the final scope or essence of the Vedas, the utmost inference of

Vedic speculative logic. Starting from short doctrinal formulations taken from the four

Samhitas, the so-called maha-vakya (great sayings), the Upanishadical rishis have elaborated

philosophical speculations of rare metaphysical depth, with a subjective language full of

introspective visions27

, making the Upanishads one of the highest expressions of thought and

literature of all times.

These works, written both in prose and verse, reveal the tight net relating the

individual to the Universe; they analyze the relationship between microcosm and macrocosm,

opening up a vision of reality founded on a strong connection between self and Superself,

minute brahman and Supreme Brahman, the final essence that sustains everything and is thesource of everything.

The correspondence between microcosm and macrocosm reaches its culmination in

the statement asserting the qualitative identity of atman and Brahman, the fundamental

principle of all that is:

This atman is the Lord of all beings, the King of all beings. Just as

the spokes are fixed in the hub and the rim of a chariot wheel, in the

same way all these beings, all the Gods, all the worlds, all life breaths,

all these selves, are fixed in the atman28

. [...] Brahman has not an

earlier or a later, has neither inside nor outside. Brahman is the

atman, the all-experiencing. This is the teaching.29

As a thousand sparks from a fire well blazing spring forth, each

one like the rest, so from the Imperishable all kinds of beings come

forth and to him return. Divine and incorporal is the universal Spirit;

he is inside and outside, he is the unborn30

27 The Upanishads expose in fact an intuitive knowledge, of non-systematic nature.28BrihadaranyakaUpanishadII.5.15.29

BrihadaranyakaUpanishadII.5.19.30MundakaUpanishadII.1-2.


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The one God, hidden in all beings, all-pervading, the atman

existent within every being, the surveyor of all actions, dwelling in all

creatures, the witness, the spirit, the unique, free from attributes.31

Yajnavalkya, famous and great Master of theBrihadaranyakaUpanishad, on the eve

of his retirement to the forest for meditation, reveals to his wife Maitreyi that knowledge that

alone grants immortality32

:

Yajnavalkya said: It is not for love of a husband that a husband

is loved, but rather for love of the atman. Nor is it for love of a wife

that a wife is loved but rather for love of the atman. Nor is it for love

of sons that sons are loved but rather for love of the atman. Nor is itfor love of wealth that wealth is loved but rather for love of the atman.

[...]Nor is it for love of all that all is loved but rather for love of the

atman. It is the atman that should be seen, heard, thought about and

deeply pondered. O Maitreyi, it is only by seeing, hearing, thinking

about and deeply pondering this atman that all this universe is known.

33

In the Upanishads articulated and efficient descriptions of the Universe, of the interior

experience, deep explanations on different states of consciousness, and on the human

personality in its numerous components - perceptive, instinctive, thinking, imaginative,

volitional, emotional, intellectual, intuitive, and spiritual can be found. These texts indicate

the way for a perfect guide of ones psychic becoming, and analyse the connection between

subjective, objective, and absolute realities. There are also reflections on dharma, karma

doctrine, samsara, and the sacrificial act. In these texts, the fire sacrifice34

, fully documented

in the four Veda Samhitas and in all Vedic literature, is analysed, celebrated symbolically in

the beings inner nature, and then transcended in favour of another type ofyajna aimed at self

31ShvetashvataraUpanishadVI.11.

32BrihadaranyakaUpanishadII.4.3.

33BrihadaranyakaUpanishadII.4.5.34 We remind here that sacrifice makes use of a series of physical elements essential to the execution of the ritual

and of a vast variety of libations offered into the sacrificial fire according to complicated procedures. The

reciting of sacred formulas accompanies the whole ritual practice.


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knowledge characterized by deep meditation and offering of the sense objects into the fire of

ones controlled mind.35 The renunciation of these objects through mind control is typical of

the yogi whose sacrifice is centred on meditation (dhyana) and emotional detachment from

what could hinder spiritual realization (vairagya).

Depending on individual guna36and karma, some persons may feel more inclined to

fire sacrifice, others to meditation, while others lean toward bhakti, the highest of all forms of

sacrifice and ascetic practices characterized by trusting love and deep devotion to the Supreme

Brahman. Three large categories ofyajna can then be delineated: those officiated through fire,

those officiated in ones mind (meditation), and those officiated in ones heart (bhakti).

As will be seen later, these different procedures correspond to different paths of spiritual

realization, respectively karma-marga (the path of action), jnana-marga (the path knowledgeand meditation), and bhakti-marga (the path of loving devotion to God). In accordance with

tradition, the fire sacrifice, nowadays rarely performed, is a form ofyajna not suitable for the

present era.37

. Every cosmic era (yuga)38

has its specific type ofdharma or religiosity. The

agnihotra was timely performed during treta-yuga, when persons could have extraordinary

intellectual and mnemonic capabilities, greater longevity, and better environmental conditions,

all requisite elements for a correct performance of complex rituals.

35Bhagavad-gita IV.27: Others, who are interested in achieving spiritual realization through control of mind

and senses , offer the functions of all the senses , and of the life breath , as oblations into the fire of the controlled

mind.36 According to the Samkhya school, from Nature (prakriti) spring three kinds of energy that determine the

conditioning of the jivabhutas, the embodied beings, namely: tamoguna, characterized by the colour black,

corresponds to lethargy, darkness, laziness, torpor, dullness, disorder, delay, lack of clear sight. Rajoguna,

characterized by red, corresponds to frenzied action, excitement, anxiety, strong selfish desires, avidity,

creativeness, competitiveness, antagonistic spirit. Sattvaguna, whose colour is white, corresponds to reflection,

equilibrium, lightness, luminosity, altruism, far-sightedness and harmony. The term guna has many meanings,

among which that of rope is symbolic; these energies, in fact, bind the living being to the phenomenal world.37

According to the tradition, our times correspond to the Kali-yuga, the last of the four eras, that succeed

cyclically, and characterize the cosmic becoming. It has begun five thousand years ago, and it is compared to the

winter season because of its degrading and deteriorating aspects. In this era hatred and discord prevail (the termkali precisely means quarrel) as well as the progressive refusal of religious principles and an impoverishment

of the human beings psychophysical and intellectual resources; we are less and less able to conceptualise,

memorize and understand metaphysical truth. Cfr. Bhagavata Purana I.1.10: O learned sage, in this iron age,

the age ofKali, men live only for some years, they are always irascible, lazy, bewildered, unlucky and above all

continually troubled.38 According to Puranic cosmogony, every cosmic cycle (kalpa) is constituted of 1.000 mahayuga, each one

divided into 4 ages: satya-yuga, treta-yuga, dvapara-yuga and, fourth and last, kali-yuga. The four cosmic ages,

during which the universes are created, maintained and reabsorbed in an uninterrupted cycle, are subject to

progressive decay, reaching its highest point at the end ofkali-yuga.


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In dvapara-yuga however, theyugadharma39was worshipping the Deity in the temple

(arcanam); dvaparayuga is, in fact, the era when big temples were built in India and many

other parts of the world. The Shruti and Smriti literature, and above all the Puranas and

the Itihasa, explain that the yuga-dharma for the current era, Kali-yuga, is bhakti; that is,

acting with love and devotion for the satisfaction of the Supreme Lord, Brahman, the

incomparable One, the God of all devas, the Origin of life and of the worlds, the One who is

above everything and controls everything (Ishvara), the highest Source of every beauty and

every fascination (Krishna)40

. By means ofbhakti, potentially available to all, it is possible to

rediscover our original nature, to reconnect with the Divine,41

and to rise to the highest level of

consciousness, something attainable in the past only after long and complex ascetic practices42

which would be unthinkable to perform nowadays.

Krishna, who in the Bhagavad-gita proclaims Himself as the utmost recipient of all

different forms of sacrifice and austerity (bhoktaram yajna-tapasam)43

, explains to Arjuna the

essence ofyajna in view ofbhakti.

Work done as a sacrifice for Vishnu has to be performed,

otherwise work causes bondage in this material world. Therefore, o

son of Kunti, perform your prescribed duties for Vishnus satisfaction,

and in that way you will always remain free from bondage44

According to Hindovedic tradition, all forms of sacrifice, even if different in time and

ways performed, lead to realization of the Divine. Although apparently based on a quasi profit

relationship with the Divinity to whom the celebrant turns for the sole purpose of obtaining the

benefits of material nature, even ritualistic religiosity centred on the sacrificial fire as

described in the Karma-kanda section of the Vedas, in time can make one develop a higher

39 The method of self-realization prescribed for eachyuga (cosmic age).40

According to Nirukta Dictionary of Sanskrit etymology, the term Krishna is made up of krish fascination,attraction, but also existence, and of na spiritual pleasure, bliss. Therefore Krishna is identified with the

original Source of every fascination and happiness, the personal God, ready to help, to sympathize, to grant His

grace (prasada) to he who surrenders unto Him, bestowing liberation from the influences of material nature and,

in the end, bhakti.41

The concept of union with the Supreme Lord is perfectly expressed by the term yoga, that derives from the

rootyuj (unite, connect).The aim ofyoga is to awaken the self and bring it back to the contemplation of Truth.42 Austerity is theyuga-dharma for the age ofSatya or Krita.43

Bhagavad-gita V.29.44Bhagavad-gita III.9.


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level of consciousness. By means of this ritualistic practice and by virtue of the supreme

principle of socio-cosmic economy that unites the human natural terrestrial world and the

celestial sphere in a reciprocal relationship, individuals can satisfy their worldly desires in the

end, bearing in mind a view to realizing that the obtained benefits are temporary, ephemeral,

and do not meet the beings deepest needs, of which permanent happiness is the basest of all.

It is precisely on the strength of this comprehension that the child sage Naciketa,

protagonist of the Katha Upanishad, decides not to accept the opulent gifts offered by Yama,

the deva of death; magnificent horse carts, gold, land, servants, beautiful women that, as

Naciketa says, will be all taken away from him at the time of death. The real spiritual seekers

main point is the consciousness that authentic eternal happiness (ananda) is only possible by

walking the path of self-realization:

Ephemeral these [girls]; Death, they wear out the vigour of all the

senses of man. Even the longest life is indeed short. So keep thy horses,

dance and song for thyself.

Man is not to be satisfied with wealth. Moreover, will this wealth

last once we have seen thee? We shall also live as long as you

rule.[]

Having reached the imperishable, immortal ones, what mortal,

being perishable himself and knowing [the more worthy boons to be

received from them], can exult in living very long, after scrutinizing

the enjoyments of dancing and singing?

Tell me, Death, about that supreme Life after death, regarding

which they have doubt. Naciketas does not choose any boon other than

that incomprehensible one.

[Yama said:] One thing is the good and quite different indeed is

the pleasant; they both bind the purusha with different objectives.

Blessed is he who between these two chooses the good alone, but he

who chooses what is pleasant loses the true goal.

Both the good and the pleasant approach man; the wise one

discriminates between the two, having examined them well. The wise


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man prefers the good to the pleasant, but the fool chooses the pleasant,

through avarice and attachment.

So thou, o Naciketas, hast renounced all those pleasurable objects

of love and those pleasant in appearance, having pondered over them

well. Thou hast not gone into this path of wealth in which many men

perish.

Wide apart and leading to different ends are these two: ignorance

and what is known as knowledge. I consider Naciketas an aspirant of

knowledge because much prospect did not shake him.

Fools dwelling in the very midst of ignorance, yet vainly fancying

themselves to be wise and learned, go round and round staggering to

and fro, like blind men led by the blind.To the ignorant befooled by the delusion of wealth, the path of the

hereafter never appears. This is the only world and there is no

other. He who thinks thus falls into my control again and again.

Even to hear of it is not available to many; many, even having

heard of it, cannot comprehend; wonderful is its teacher and equally

clever the pupil. Wonderful indeed is he who comprehends it when

taught by an able preceptor. []

The consummate fulfilment of all desires, the foundation of the

universe, the endless fruit of all rites, the other shore where there is no

fear, the most adorable and great, the exalted resort, the basis of life45,

even having seen that, thou, being intelligent o Naciketas, hast

rejected it with firm resolve.

The wise man relinquishes both joy and sorrow, having realised by

means of meditation on the inner self, that ancient effulgent One, hard

to be seen, subtle, immanent, seated in the heart, and residing within

the body.46

The Smriti literature comprises: Puranas, Itihasas, Shastras, Tantras, Sutras, and

Vedangas. Puranas, classified as Maha-puranas (the eighteen major Puranas) and Upa-

45

This description refers to the highest possible pleasures available in the material realm (Svarga planets).46Katha UpanishadI.1. 26-29; I.2.1-7; 11-12.


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puranas (the eighteen minor o secondary Puranas) are attributed to the sage Vyasadeva47

, who

perceived them through divine Revelation; because of this, they are regarded together with the

Itihasas, as the fifth Veda, and as valuable as the Vedic Samhitas, as confirmed by

ChandogyaUpanishadVII.1.2 and 7.11:

Narada said: I know, sir, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the

Samaveda, the Atharvaveda as the fourth; as the fifth [Veda], the

Ancient Stories. [I know further] the Veda of Vedas, the ritual for

ancestors, calculus, augural sciences, the knowledge of the signs of the

times, dialectics, ethics and political sciences, sacred knowledge,

theology, knowledge of the spirits, military science, astrology, the

science of snakes and of celestial beings. This, sir, is what I know.

Literally the termpurana means ancient, but this should not lead the reader to think

that this word simply reflects a linear conception of time such as the one on which Western

culture is based. In Indian tradition characterised by a cyclical view of time (kalacakra), these

ancient narrations containing celebrated cosmogonical, anthropological and eschatological

doctrines do not recount stories of the past, but instead tell tales of truth transcending the

concepts of time and space as commonly understood. From the point of view of Hindovedic

tradition, what is ancient isBrahman, the supreme Being, the original and conclusive reality

above everything. Therefore these texts are called puranas, ancient, not only because they

talk about ancient truths, but above all because their main purpose is that of making known

the one and only truth, the very essence of the Vedas and of all that is:

yasmat pura hy anitidam puranam tena tat smritam

Because this verily lives since the origins of all times and that is

why it is called purana, ancient48

47Lit. divine compiler; he is credited with the writing of the Mahabharata and the compilation of the

four Vedas (therein including the various parts of revealed knowledge such as Mantras, Brahmanas,

Aranyakas, Upanishads and Sutras). Vyasa, Vishnu-Krishnas avatar, is also called Dvaipayana, born on

the island, because of his birth on one of the Yamuna islands.48Vayu-purana I.1.183ab.


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The import of Puranic literature is immense as it represents the source of thought,

religiosity, and history of India beginning from its remotest origins. The eighteen Maha-

puranas are addressed to three different human categories, and therefore traditionally divided

into three groups of six volumes each according to their content. The Sattvika Maha-puranas

are addressed to the persons mostly influenced by sattvaguna and celebrate the feats of Hari49

-

Vishnu-Krishna (God). In the Rajasika Maha-puranas, addressed to those who are mainly

influenced by rajoguna, Brahma50

is particularly glorified; while meant for those who mainly

undergo tamoguna influence are the Tamasika Maha-puranas,containing prayers offered to

Agni and Shiva51

.

The Puranas dedicated to sattvic persons, above all theBhagavata,Padma and Vishnu

Puranas, are to be numbered among the main sources of the Bhagavata tradition, one of thetwo philosophical and religious lines of Vaishnavism

52.

The Bhagavata Purana, also known as Shrimad-Bhagavatam, is the most well-known and

appreciated among all Puranas - not in the least for its literary value - and stands out in the

49 One of the innumerable names testified by both Shruti and Smriti literaturedesignating the highest and most

exceptional Divinity, the God of the gods, the supreme Creator and Supervisor of the Universe. Hari literally

means The One who removes all obstacles.50

According to Puranic literature (cit. chapters six and nine of the second canto of the Bhagavata Purana),Brahma is the first to be manifested, born inside the lotus flower whose stem grows from the navel of the

supreme Being, Vishnu, and by Him invested with the power to mould the material Universe and with it all

living species.51

Lit. the beneficial. Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva form the so-called Trimurti, the divine triad, where they

respectively carry on the function of creation, preservation and dissolution of the Universe. Puranic literature

clearly shows that Brama and Shivas position is subordinate to that of Vishnu, on Whom they both depend (cit.

Bhagavata Purana II.5.15-17; III.9.1-25; III.28.22). The reader is reminded here that also hymns ofRigveda,

echoed by Samaveda and Yajurveda, recognize and glorify Vishnu as the highest Divinity (cit.Rigveda I.22.20-

21).52

The Vaishnava tradition of monotheistic faith (polymorphous monotheism) is the most important of the great

three Indian religious traditions(the other two being Shakta and Shaiva). Going back to pre-historical ancient

times, it is based on bhakti, loving devotion to God, Vishnu-Krishna (from which the term vishnuitor vaishnava

derives) or to His manifestations (Avatars). As in Prof. Gerald James Larsons, Indias Agony Over Religion,

(State University of New York Press, 1995, p.20) the worship of Vishnu or Krishna in one of Their variousdivine manifestations (Avatar) represents the profession of faith of two thirds of modern Hindus. Vaishnavism

is split in two philosophical and religious currents: Bhagavata (followers of Bhagavan) and Pancaratra

(followers of the doctrine taught in five nights). This last term has been variously and amply interpreted, but in

most cases it refers to an esoteric knowledge that five sages received from God during five nights. The Samhitas

or collections of the Pancaratra are based on the Narayaniya, a vast religious poem of the Mahabharata

dedicated to Vishnu-Narayana. These works more than two hundred arranged by academicians of the late

Gupta epoch, deal with the fundamental themes of Vaishnava monotheism, orbiting around the supreme aspect

of Vasudeva (Vishnu) and His emanations. They also contain important descriptions on yogic, mantric and

ritualistic practices, rules for temple building and worship of theMurtis, or sacred images.


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Bhagavata53 school as the original commentary on the Vedanta-sutras54

and the very essence

of all Vedanta philosophy (sarva vedanta saram)55. This fact is described in the Bhagavata

Purana itself (I canto, II chapter, third stanza), where it is stated that such Purana is shruti

sara, the essence of Shruti, and therefore, all things considered, the essence of Vedanta,

representing the end ofShruti. Moreover, since the central topic of Vedanta is Brahman, or

spiritual reality, the Bhagavata Purana narrating the lilas (divine pastimes) of the supreme

Being Bhagavan and His main manifestations (Avatars)56

can be rightly considered an

extension and in-depth study (thus commentary) on the Vedanta sutras (in this regard see also

Bhagavad-gita XIV.27, where Krishna declares Himself to be the foundation ofBrahman).

TheBhagavataPurana also celebrates the importance of absolute surrender unto God

(atma-nivedanam), as well as of service offered to Him in love and pure devotion (bhakti) assurrender and service are considered the essence of spiritual life:

The supreme occupation [dharma] for all humanity, is that by

which men can attain to loving devotional service unto the

Transcendent Lord. Such devotional service must be unmotivated and

uninterrupted to completely satisfy the self.

By rendering devotional service unto the Personality of Godhead,

Shri Vasudeva, one immediately acquires causeless knowledge and

detachment from the world.

The activities a man performs according to his own position are

only so much useless labour is they do not provoke attraction for the

message of the Personality of Godhead.

[...] Shri Krishna, the Personality of Godhead, who is the

Paramatma [Supersoul] in everyones heart and the benefactor of the

truthful devotee, cleanses desire for material enjoyment from the heart

53 Besides sattvic Puranas, the main works ofBhagavata literature, also known as Vaishnava literature or

Vaishnava-smriti, are the Bhagavad-gita, two Itihasas and the Vaishnava Samhitas; the latter is a group of

handbooks of the sacred, containing important theological doctrines and enunciating rules for the construction

of temples and ofMurtis (divine images), the celebration of rituals and religious festivities.54 Cit. chapter V,Literature of the Six Darshanas.55

Cfr.Bhagavata Purana XII.13.12 e 15.56 Lit. descent.


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of the devotee who has developed the urge to hear his message which

is in itself virtuous when properly heard and transmitted.

By serving the pure devotee of the Lord and offering prayers to the

Lord, all that is troublesome is destroyed and bhakti becomes steady.

[...]Vasudeva is the supreme object of knowledge, Vasudeva is

supreme sacrifice, Vasudeva is the supreme way of Yoga, Vasudeva is

the perfection of all activities. Vasudeva is supreme knowledge,

Vasudeva is supreme austerity, Vasudeva is supreme dharma,

Vasudeva is the ultimate goal of existence.57

To the Itihasas belong two epic poems in Sanskrit language: Mahabharata and

Ramayana, forming the meta-historical corpus of the Arya civilization. These twomonumental epic poems describe an immense type sample of human and divine personalities

and glorify the spiritual, ethical, and social values of the entire brahminical civilization. They

narrate respectively the history of the Bharata dynasty and that of theRaghava dynasty, both

of whom flourished in pre-historic India. At the core of these historical events reign the divine

figures of Krishna inMahabharata and of Rama inRamayana.

Mahabharata has a central role in both Indian and world literature. Indeed, composed

of more than one thousand stanzas58

, it is the most extensive epic poem, not only of India, but

of the whole of humanity, equalling eighttimes the Iliadand the Odyssey put together59

. This

monumental work written in Sanskrit language is traditionally credited to the great sage

(maharishi) Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasadeva and, together with the poet Valmikis Ramayana,

it constitutes the corpus of Indian traditional history (Itihasa meaning it happened thus)60

,

one of the essential parts ofSmriti.

57BhagavataPurana I.2.6-29.58

This work is also known as Shatasahasri-samhita (Collection of one hundred thousand stanzas), cit.Mahabharata, I.1.101-102.59

Cit. Zimmer, H. Filosofie e Religioni dellIndia. Mondadori, Milan, 2001, p. 502.60

V. S. Apte gives an interesting interpretation of the term Itihasa, defining it as an event of the past in the

form of narration, containing teachings on Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha (cit. Apte, V. S. The Practical

Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, l965, p. 245); Dharma (universal law, cosmic order,

rules of action), Artha ([achievement of] purposes, success, prosperity), Kama (satisfaction, pleasure) andMoksha (liberation [from births]) are the four purposes of human life (purushartha).


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In the Shruti literary tradition,Mahabharata is celebrated, along with Ramayana and

the Puranas, as the fifth Veda (cit. Chandogya Upanishad VII.1.2 and 4; VII.2.1 and

VII.7.1). Moreover, the poem is equated to the Vedas because of its fourfold subdivisions (cit.

for instanceAtharva Veda XV.6.11, Taittiriya Aranyaka II.9, Shatapatha Brahmana XI.5.6.8,

Brihadaranyaka UpanishadII.4.10, Chandogya Upanishad III.4.1-2, Maitry Upanishad

VI.32-33). Crediting epic poetry with the same sacredness attributed to the Veda Samhitas,

such statements emphasize the existence of an indissoluble bond between Shruti (Revelation)

and Smriti (Tradition), not only from a literary point of view, but above all as inseparable

textual references of physical and metaphysical knowledge. In such a picture, the function the

traditional sources attribute to monumental epos, and generally to Itihasas and Puranas, has

noteworthy import; that is to sustain, strengthen, and bring out the Vedas. The influence of this

work inside the Hindovedic literary corpus is testified by Suta Gosvami, one of the mainnarrators ofMahabharata, when he defines it by the expression karshnam vedam

61(lit.

Krishnas Veda), ascribing to it the power to purify man from all activities against dharma

(cosmic order) and to bestow immortality (sat), wisdom (cit) and blissfulness (ananda) on

him.

The extraordinary cultural significance ofMahabharata in Shruti and Smriti literature

was considered by Vaishampayana, the other great narrator of the poem, in the closing lines of

the first chapter: The divine sages weighed the four Vedas on a scale against one single

scripture, the Bharata. The latter proved to be superior, both in content and in length. From

that time on, this work - more extensive than the four Vedas with all their mysteries - became

known to the world asMahabharata62

. This verse not only explains the traditional etymology

of the works title, it moreover emphasizes the superiority ofMahabharata over all other

literature stemming from the Vedas; and thus prepares the cultural framework suitable for the

renowned shloka63

that possibly better than anything else acknowledges the extraordinary

richness of content of the widest epic poetry in the world:

dharme carthe ca kame ca mokshe ca bharatarshabha

yad ihasti tad anyatra yan nehasti na tat kvacit

61 Cit.Mahabharata I.1.268.62

Cit.Mahabharata I.1.271.63 Poetic stanza in four octosyllabic lines, constituting the classical standard of Indian epic poetry.


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Regarding dharma, artha, kama and moksha, o bull among the

Bharata, what is here [written] one can find somewhere else, but what

is not here [written] one cant find anywhere else64

Since the four purusharthas65

traditionally constitute the four large areas to which all

existential experiences are to be related, the work has been envisioned by the poet Vyasa as an

immense fresco whose hues are as many as all possible conditions of life in human history -

joys and sorrows, tragedies and triumphs, glory and disgrace - staged through birth (janma),

disease (vyadhi), old age (jara) and death (mrityu) on the way towards immortality.

Unanimously, the term Mahabharata designates the great [poem of] Bharata, including in

this meaning the characteristic of akhyana (lit. tale, story, epos). As a matter of fact,

Mahabharata narrates the history of the main descendents of the royal family of emperorBharata, from whom the Indian subcontinent took its name (Bharata Varsha).

Bharata66

is an important monarch of the somavamsha, the Moon dynasty, originating from

Brahma and counting among its principal representatives Atri, Soma and Yayati. Yadu and

Puru, two sons of this last emperor, are the progenitors of the main lineages in the

somavamsha: the first one being the Yadavas, the lineage where Krishna, took birth, the

glorious Lord (Bhagavan), whose supremacy will shine through the whole epos, the second

one being the Pauravas, including Bharata and Kuru, progenitor of both Kauravas and

Pandavas. Mahabharata is chiefly focused on one event bearing as protagonists these two

families of cousins, Pandavas and Kauravas, whose members unquestionably face each other

in a fratricidal war involving the foremost kings on Earth in both parties.

Here is the famous war of Kurukshetra67

reported in full in the central part of the

poem; this is a war that will cause the death of millions of warriors, out of which the only

survivors will be the Pandavas, always flawlessly devoted to dharma, the true and right heirs

to Bharatas throne, by dint of their rectitude more than ancestry. The ideal core of the whole

Itihasa is Bhagavad-gita (the Song of the glorious Lord, Vishnu-Krishna), a sacred Sanskrit

64Mahabharata I.62.53 and, with little variance,Mahabharata XVIII.5.50.

65Cit. note 79.

66 The birth of Bharata, king Dushanta and Shakuntala the son of, is narrated inMahabharata I. 68-74.67 Kurukshetra, the Kurus land, is still today a sacred place nearby Delhi. Mahabharata (I.2.10) defines it as

dharmistha, imbued with, leading to Dharma. In confirmation of the sacredness of the place, Bhagavad-gita

(I.1) opens with the wordsDharmakshetra (land ofDharma), precisely with reference to Kurukshetra.


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text, the most widespread and well known in the world. Fundamental to ancient Indian

literature in traditional schools, irrespective of their religious adherence or philosophical stand;

and regardless of the succession of spiritual Masters (sampradaya) they take instruction from;

it represents what The Holy Gospel represents to Christianity.

On account of its content, Bhagavad-gita is the only text that is part at the same time

of both Shruti and Smriti. As it is included within the Mahabharata,Bhagavad-gita is in fact

counted as Smriti literature; but since it was personally revealed by the supreme Lord, the

foundation ofBrahman andDharma (cit.Bhagavad-gita XIV.27), Gita as well amounts to the

essence ofShruti literature. The work appears as an episode of the sixth book (Bhismaparvan

Bhismas book) ofMahabharata, ensuing its narration in a tragic and painful moment;

namely, just prior to the fratricidal battle between Pandavas and Kauravas.

In seven hundred shlokas arranged in eighteen chapters, it celebrates the dialoguebetween Krishna, hero God, and Arjuna, prince warrior. On a war chariot, on the sacred

Kurukshetra plain, for the occasion turned into a battlefield between two armies arrayed and

ready for combat, Krishna reveals to Arjuna the science of life and of spiritual realization,

indicating the way ofdharma. Bhagavad-gita begins with Arjunas crisis: recognizing in the

opposing army his relatives, masters and dear friends, he hesitates to fight, appealing instead

to principles of reason and feeling. Krishna then urges him to carry out his duty as warrior

(kshatriya) since only by fulfilment of ones duty can man aspire to liberation. Krishna thus

starts His teachings:

While speaking learned words, your are mourning for what is not

worthy of grief. Those who are wise lament neither for the living nor

for the dead.

Never was there a time when I did not exist, nor you, nor all these

kings; nor in the future shall any of us cease to be.

As the embodied soul continuously passes, in this body, from

boyhood to youth to old age, the soul similarly passes into another

body at death. A sober person is not bewildered by such a change.

O son of Kunti, the non permanent appearance of happiness and

distress, and their disappearance in due course, are like the

appearance and disappearance of winter and summer seasons. They


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arise from sense perception, o scion of Bharata, and one must learn to

tolerate them without being disturbed.

O best among men, the person who is not disturbed by happiness

and distress and is steady in both is certainly eligible for liberation.

[...].

That which pervade the entire body you should know to be

indestructible. No one is able to destroy that imperishable soul.

The material body of the indestructible, immeasurable and eternal

living entity is sure to come to an end; therefore, fight, o descendant of

Bharata. [...]

It is said that the soul is invisible, inconceivable and immutable.

Knowing this, you should not grieve for the body. [...]Considering your specific duty as a kshatriya, you should know

that there is no better engagement for you than fighting on religious

principles; and so there is no need for hesitation.

O Partha, happy are the kshatriyas to whom such fighting

opportunities come unsought, opening for them the doors of the

heavenly planets.

If, however, you do not perform your religious duty of fighting,

then you will certainly incur sins for neglecting your duties and thus

lose you r reputation as a fighter.

People will always speak of your infamy, and for a respectable

person, dishonor is worse than death.

[...] O son of Kunti, either you will be killed on the battlefield and

attain the heavenly planets, or you will conquer and enjoy the earthly

kingdom. Therefore, get up with determination and fight.

Do thou fight for the sake of fighting, without considering

happiness or distress, loss or gain, victory or defeat and by so doing

you shall never incur sin.68

68Bhagavad-gita II.11-39.


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Bhagavad-gita is an authentic set of cosmogonical, anthropological and eschatological

doctrines, touching philosophy, psychology, ethics, and spirituality, all interconnected and

aimed at a substantial continuity among the different planes of being and a tight net of

correspondences between micro and macro cosmos. It deals with all three traditional ways for

the attainment of liberation (moksha): the way of action (karmamarga), the way of knowledge

and meditation (jnanamarga), and the way of amorous devotion to God (bhaktimarga). The

latter represents the essential and conclusive teaching ofGita, and is described as the way that

can lead every individual to rediscover ones eternal love relationship with the cosmic Being;

it is the path of complete reintegration of the self in universal harmony, thanks to which one

can attain all his worldly aims and at the same time resume his divine nature:

All activities just depend upon me and act always under myprotection. In such yoga, be fully concious of me

69

Always think of me, become my devotee, worship me and offer

your homage unto me. Thus you will come to me without fail. I

promise you this because you are my very dear friend.70

Ramayana, lit. Ramas Journey, is the other great poem of ancient Indian epic

literature. Composed in prehistoric times by the sage Valmiki, it consists of about 24,000

stanzas in fine classical Sanskrit collected in chapters (sarga) of different length and arranged

in seven books (kanda, lit. sections). The work narrates the descent on the Earth as well as

the divine adventures of Rama (or Ramacandra), Vishnus Avatar, playing the role of the ideal

monarch, respectful ofdharma (dharmatman).

Ramayana is considered the most important literary source of ancient India. Its stories

and protagonists inspired Indian poets of all times. On the subject, the author Valmiki has

Brahma speak the following words: As long as mountains and rivers stay on Earth,

Ramayana stories will spread among humans.71. There are numerous translations and

adaptations of the poem in various languages such as Bengali, Tamil, Dravidian, Hindi, as

well as in Buddhist literature. To date read and recited daily, it is the most popular epos in the

69Bhagavad-gita XVIII.57.70

Bhagavad-gita XVIII.65.71Ramayana I;2.36b-37a.


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whole of India. Thanks to its teachings, this work leads man towards interior consciousness

and trusting love for God (bhakti):

He who just once has sought my protection, praying: I am

yours!, I will protect him from all creature. This is my religion.72

The Shastras: doctrines, treatises. The most famous are those on law, politics and

medicine. Among the Dharma-shastras (treatises on law), one of the most celebrated and

authoritative is Manavadharma-shastra, known also as Manu-smriti or Manu-samhita,

fundamental for both civil and penal law.

The main reference text among the Artha-shastras (treatises on politics) is

Kautiliyartha-shastra by Kautiliya, named also Canakya or Vishnugupta, a very famous primeminister who, in the last quarter of the IV century A.C., was one of the architects of the

context and sources 1

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