Consciousness andthe Two-Track N/ind

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Consciousness-our awareness of ourselves and ourenvironment-can be experienced in various states.Chapter 3 examines not only normal consciousness,but also sleep and dreaming, hypnotic states, drug-altered states, and near-death experiences.

Most of the terminology in this chapter is intro-duced in the sections on Sleep and Dreams and onDrugs and Consciousness. Among the issues dis-cussed are why we sleep and dream, whether hypno-sis is a unique state of consciousness, and possiblepsychological and social-cultural roots of drug use.

NOTE: Answer guidelines for all Chapter 3 questionsbegin on page76.

CHAPTER REVIEW

First, skim each section, noting headings and boldfaceitems. After you have read the section, review eachobjective by answering the fill-in and essay-typequestions that follow it. As you proceed, evaluateyour performance by consulting the answers begin-ning on page 76. Do not continue with the next sec-tion until you understand each answer. If you needto, review or reread the section in the textbook beforecontinuing.

Introduction and The Brain andConsciousness (pp. 8s-9r)Objective 1: Discuss the significance of consciousnessin the history of psychology.

L. The study of was central in

the early years of psychology and in recent

decades, but for quite some time it was displaced

bv the studv of observable

Advances in neuroscience made it possible to

relate

to various mental states; as a result, psychologists

once again affirmed the importance of

Define consciousness in a sentence.

Objective 2: Discuss the contributions of cognitiveneuroscience, and explain what is meant by the two-track mind.

3. The interdisciplinary study of how brain activity

is linked with mental processes is callec

4. Much of our everyday thinking, feeling, and act-

ing operates outside of our

awareness.

5. Unconscious information processing occurs(sequentially / simultane-

ously) on

tracks.

(serial/parallel)

6. Solving new problems(requires/does not require) conscious attention.

7. In comparison with unconscious processing, con-

scious processing has a(n)

(limited/unlimited) capacity, is relatively

(fastlslow), and processes

oieces of information

(simultaneously / serially).

61

9.

Chapter 3 Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

Objective 3: Discuss how our perceptions are direct-ed and limited by selective attention, noting how wemay or may not be affected by unattended stimuli.

8. When we focus our conscious awareness on a

particular stimulus, we are using

Your ability to attend to only one voice amongmany is called the _-=-

Failing to see a visible object when our attention

is directed elsewhere is called

When researchers distracted participants with a

counting task, the participants displayed

and

failed to notice a gorilla-suited assistant whopassed through. Two specific forms of this phe-nomenon are

and

Another result of distrac-

tion involves not noticing that different peopleare speakins, called

Some stimuli are so powerful they demand ourattention, causing us to experience

Our biological clock is reset each day by exposure

to

which triggers proteins in the

of the eyes to signal thebrain's gland to increase or

decrease its production of

6. In the brain, the cluster of cells called the

controls the circadian clock.

Objective 5: List the stages of the sleep cycle, andexplain how they differ.

7. The sleep cycle consists ofdistinct stages.

8. The rhythm of sleep cycles was discovered when

Aserinsky noticed that, at periodic intervals dur-

ing the night, the of a sleep-ing child moved rapidly. This stage of sleep, dur-ing which occur, is called

The relatively slow brain waves of the awake but

relaxed state are known as

waves.

10. During Stage 1 sleep, people often experience

sensations similar to

These sensations may later

be incorporated into

The bursts of brain-wave activity that occur dur-

ing Stage 2 sleep are called

12. Large, slow brain waves are called

waves. They occur first inStage , and increasingly

during Stage

L0.

9.

LL.

are therefore called

sleep, which

sleep. A person in the latterstage of sleep generally will be(easy / difficult) to awaken. It is during this stagethat children may wet the bed or begin

Sleep and Dreams (pp el-t07)Objective 4: Describe the cycle of our circadianrhythm, and identify some events that can disruptthis biological clock.

1. Our bodies'internal "clocks" control several

, The sleep-waking cycle follows a 24-hour clockcalled the

3. Body temperature(rises/falls) as morning approaches and begins to

(rise/fall) again before we

go to sleep.

4. When people are at their daily peak in circadian

is sharpest andarousal,

is most accurate.

Describe the bodily changes that accompany REMsleep.

13. During REM sleep, the motor cortex is(active/relaxed), while the

muscles are (active/

relaxed). For this reason, REM is often referred to

AS sleep.

14. The rapid eye movements generally signal the

beginning of a , which dur-

ing REM sleep is often storylike,

, and more richly

hallucinatory.

1,5. The sleep cycle repeats itself about every

minutes. As the night pro-

gresses, Stage 4 sleep becomes

(longer/briefer) and REM

periods become

(longer/briefer). Approximately

percent of a night's sleep is

spent in REM sleep.

Objective 5: Describe individual differences in sleepduration and the effects of sleep loss, noting five rea-sons that we need sleep.

16. Newborns spend nearly(how much?) of their day asleep, while adultsspend no more than

17. Sleep patterns are influenced by

, as indicated bv the fact

that sleep patterns among(identical/fraternal) twins are very similar. Sleep

is also influenced by _,

indicated by the fact that people now sleep

(more/less) than they did acentury ago.

Allowed to sleep unhindered, most people willsleep

night.

Sleep and Dreams 63

L9. Teenagers typically need

hours of sleep but now average nearly

hours less sleep than

teenagers of 80 years ago. To psychologist

William . this indicates that

the vast majority of students are dangerously

sleep-deprived. One effect of this state is to pro-

mote weight gain by increasing the hormone

and decreasing the hormone

. Another is that sleep depri-

vation may suppress the functioning of the

body's system and alter meta-

bolic and hormonal functioning in ways that

mimic and are conducive to

and

. Another indication of the

hazards of this state is that the rate of

tends to increase immediately

after the spring time change in Canada and the

United States.

Describe the behavioral effects of sleep loss.

20. Two possible reasons for sleep are to

us and to help restore body

tissues, especially those of the

. Animals with high waking

produce an abundance of

chemical

that are toxic to

facilitates our

experiences and stimulates

thinking.

21. During sleep a growth hormone is released by

gland. Adults spend(more/less) time in deep

sleep than children and so release

-. Sleep also

of the day's

1.8.

(how many?) hours a

(more/less) growth hormone.

64 Chapter 3 Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

Objective 7: Identify the major sleep disorders.

22. A persistent difficulty in falling or staying asleepis characteristic of . Sleepingpills and alcohol may make the problem worsesince they tend to (increase/reduce) REM sleep.

State several tips for those suffering from insomnia.

The sleep disorder in which a person experiences

uncontrollable sleep attacks is

People with severe cases of this disorder may col-

lapse directly into sleep andexperience a loss of

. This disorder may be linkedto low levels of the neurotransmitter

which is linked to alertness.

24. Individuals suffering from

stop breathing whilesleeping. This disorder is especially prevalent

among

25. The sleep disorder characterizedby extremefright and rapid heartbeat and breathing is called

. UrLlike

nightmares, these episodes usually happen earlyin the night, during Stage

sleep. The same is true of episodes ofand

problems that (runldo notrun) in families. These sleep episodes are most

likely to be experienced by

(yo*g children/adolescents/older adults), in

whom this stage tends to be the

and

Objective 8: Describe the most common content ofdreams, and compare the five major perspectives onwhy we dream.

26. Dreams experienced during

27. For both men and women, 8 in 10 dreams are

marked by (positive/nega-tive) emotions, such as fears of being

28. Freud referred to the actual content of a dream as

content. Freud believed

that this is a censored, symbolic version of the

true meaning, or -.=--'--

-, of the dream.

29. According to Freud, most of the dreams of adults

reflect wishes and are the keyto understanding inner .ToFreud, dreams serve as a psychic

that dis-

charges otherwise unacceptable feelings.

30. Researchers who believe that dreams serve an-processing function receive

support from the fact that REM sleep facilitates

31. Brain scans confirm the link between

sleep and

32. Other theories propose that dreaming servessome function, for example,

that REM sleep provides the brain with needed

. Such an explanation is

supported by the fact that(infants/adults) spend the most time in REMsleep.

33. Still other theories propose that dreams are elicit-ed by random bursts of activ-

ity originating in lower regions of the brain, such

as the . According to the

theory,dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of

this activity. The bursts are believed to be given

their emotional tone by the brain's

system. PET scans of sleeping people revealincreased activity in the brain'ssystem, especially the Othertheorists see dreams as a natural part of brain

and

development.

34. Researchers agree that we

its

sleep are vivid, emotional, and bizawe. (need/do not need) REM sleep. After being

deprived of REM sleep, a person spends moretime in REM sleep; this is the

effect.

35. REM sleep (does/does not)

occur in other mammals. Animals such as fish,

whose behavior is less influenced by learning,

(doldo not) dream. This find-

ing supports the

theory of dreaming.

Hypnosis (pp. toa-t t2)Objective 9: Discuss the characteristics of people whoare susceptible to hypnosis, and evaluate claims thathypnosis can influence people's memory, will, health,and perception of pain.

1. Hypnosis is a

s"", ,h", " *br"., Ji"ii::1,:Y:"TiI;:i-ings or thoughts, for exarnple.

2. Most people are (some-

what/not at all) hypnotically suggestible.

Describe people who are the most susceptible tohypnosis.

3. The idea that we can relive childhood experiencesthrough hypnosis-referred to as

-hasnot been supported by research.

4. Research studies show that "hypnotically

refreshed" memories combine

with

5. An person in a legitimate

can induce people-hypnotized or not-to perforrn some unlikelyacts.

6. Hypnotherapists have helped some people allevi-

ate headaches, asthma, and stress-related skin

disorders through the use of

suggestions.

Hypnosis 55

7. Hypnosis (is/is not) especial-ly helpful for the treatment of obesity. It

(islis not) useful in treatingsmoking, drug, and alcohol addictions.

8. Hypnosis (canlcannot)

relieve pain.

PET scans show that hypnosis reduces brainactivity in a region involved in

to painful stimuli, but not intheraw

cortex that receives the

9.

input.

Objective 10: Give arguments for and againsthypnosis as an altered state of consciousness.

10. Skeptics believe that hypnosis may reflect the

workings of

These findings provide sup-port for thetheory of hypnosis.

Summarize the argument that hypnosis is not analtered state of consciousness.

11. Hilgard has advanced

nosis there is a

the idea that during hyp-

, or split,between different levels of consciousness. For

example, he believes that there is a split between

and

aspects of pain. Hypnotic pain relief may also be

due to selective , that is, to the

person's focusing on stimuli other than pain.

Discuss the current view of hvpnosis as a blend of thetwo vier.t's.

the

55 Chapter 3 Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

Drugs and Consciousness (pp I l2-126)

Objective 11: Discuss the nature of drug dependenceand addiction, and identify three common miscon-ceptions about addiction.

1. Drugs that alter moods and perceptions are calleddrugs.

Drug users who require increasing doses to expe-rience a drug's effects have developed

for the drug. The user's braincounteracts the disruption to its normal function-ing; thus, the user experiences

3. After ceasing to use a drug, a person who experi-symptoms has devel-

oped a physical . Regular useof a drug to relieve stress is an example of a

dependence. A person whohas a compulsive craving for a substance despite

adverse consequences is

that substance.

Briefly state three corunon misconceptions aboutaddiction.

4. The three broad categories of drugs discussed in

the text include , which tend

to slow body functions;which speed body functions; and

, which alter perception.

These drugs all work by mimicking, stimulating,or inhibiting the activity of the brain's

. Psychologically, our cultur-ally influenced

role.

also play a

Objective 12: Explain how depressants affect nervoussystem activity and behavior, and summarize thefindings on alcohol use and abuse.

nervous system.

5. Alcohol may make a person more

/ more ,of

daring. Alcohol affects

memory by interfering with the process of trans-

ferring experiences into _-

"f ,", d*,k,.,s -*,,TT":il*'J,?; :ff iH1."of-

7. Excessive use of alcohol can also affect cognition

the brain, especially in(men/women). Alcohol also

and focuses one's

attention on the

and away from

by

reduces

situation

consequences/

5. Depressants

activity andnervous systembody function.

thus lessening

Describe how a person's expectations can influencethe behavioral effects of alcohol.

8. Tranquilizers, which are also known as

have effects similar to those

of alcohol.

9. Opium, morphine, and heroin all

(excite/depress) neural

functioning. Together, these drugs are called the

. lrVhen they are present, the

brain eventually stops producing

Objective L3: Identify the major stimulants, andexplain how they affect neural activity and behavior.

10. The most widely used stimulants areLow doses of alcohol. which is classified as a

, slow the activity of thethe

11. Methamphetamine triggers the release of the

neurotransmitter , which

stimulates brain cells that enhance

and

12. Eliminating would increase

life expectancy more than any other preventive

measure. Smoking usually begins during

. Smokers

(doldo not) become depen-

dent on , and they

(doldo not) develop toler-

ance to the drug. Quitting causes

SYMP-

toms that include

13. Nicotine quickly triggers the release of

and two

neurotransmitters that diminish

and boost and

Nicotine

also stimulates the

system to release

and

rotransmitters that calm

reduce sensitivity to

Cocaine and crack deplete the brain's supply of

the neurotransmitters

and result in depression as the drugs' effectswear off. They do this by blocking the

of the neurotransmitters.

which remain in the nerve cells'

Cocaine's psychological effects depend not onlyon dosage and form but also on

Drugs and Consciousness

This drug triggers the release of the neurotrans-

mitters and

and blocks the reabsorption

of - . Among the adverse

effects of this drug are disruption of the body's

clock, suppression of the

and

impaired and other

functions.

Objective 14: Describe the physiological and psycho-logical effects of hallucinogens, and summarize theeffects of LSD and marijuana.

17. Hallucinogens are also referred to as

. Two common synthetic hal-

and

LSD, which is chemically similar to a subtype of

the neurotransmitter . LSD

works by the actions of this

neurotransmitter.

18. The active ingredient in marijuana is abbreviated

Describe some of the physical and psychologicaleffects of mariiuana.

67

and

Stimulants

addictive.

(arelare not)

lucinogens are

1.4.

neu-

and

19. All psychoactive drugs trigger

which helps explain both

and

Objective 15: Discuss the biological, psychological,and social-cultural factors that contribute to drug use.

20. Drug use by North American youth(increased / declined) during

the 1970s, then declined until the early 1990s due

to increased

and efforts by the media to

deglamorize drug use.

and

L5.

16. The drug

is both a

and a

, or MDMA,

and the

21.

Chapter 3 Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

Adopted individuals are more susceptible to

alcohol dependence if they had a(n)

(adoptive /biological) parent

with a history of alcohol dependence. Boys who

at age 6 are (more/less)

excitable are more likely as teens to smoke, drink,

and use other drugs. Genes that are more com-

mon among people predisposed to alcohol

dependence may cause deficiencies in the brain's

system.

Identify some of the psychological and social-culturalroots of drug use.

22. Among teenagers, drug use(varies/is about the same) across

and

grouPs.

African-American high school seniors report the

(highest/lowest) rates of

drug use. A major social influence on drug use is

the culture.

State three possible channels of influence for drug

prevention and treatment programs.

Near-Death Experiences (pp. i26-128)

Objective 16: Describe the near-death experience, andand discuss the debate over whether it is an alteredstate of consciousness

1. The reports of people who have had near-deathexperiences are very similar to the

reported by drug users. Theseexperiences may be the result of a deficient sup-

PROGRESS TEST I

Multip I e - Ch o i c e Que sti o n s

Circle your answers to the following questions andcheck them with the answers on page 78.If youranswer is incorrect, read the explanation for why it isincorrect and then consult the appropriate pages ofthe text (in parentheses following the correct answer).

L. As defined by the text, consciousness includeswhich of the following?a. focused attentionb. sleepingc. hypnosisd. all of these conditions

The cluster of brain cells that control the circadianrhythm is thea. amygdala.b. suprachiasmatic nucleus.c. NPY.d. pineal.

Compared to their counterparts of B0 years ago,teenagers today average _ sleep each night.a. 2 hours lessb. 4 hours lessc. t hour mored. about the same amount of

Sleep spindles predominate during which stageof sleep?a. Stage 2b. Stage 3

Stage 4REM sleep

During which stage of sleep does the body expe-rience increased heart rate, rapid breathing, andgenital arousal?

J.

23.

24.

a.

b.

c.

c.d.

c.d.

c.d.

6. The sleep cvcle is approximatelv minutes.

a. Stage2b. Stage 3

a. 30b. 50

Stage 4REM sleep

7590

I The effects of chronic sleep deprivation include

a. suppression of the immune system.b. altered metabolic and hormonal functioning.c. impairedcreativity.d. all of these effects.

ply ofbrain.

or other insults to the

One effect of sleeping pills is to

a. decrease REM sleep.b. increase REM sleep.c. decrease Stage 2 sleep.d. increase Stage 2 sleep.

Cocaine and crack produce a euphoric rush by

a. blocking the actions of serotonin.b. depressing neural activity in the brain.c. blocking the reuptake of dopamine in brain

cells.d. stimulating the brain's production of endor-

phins.

\A/hich of the following is classified as a depres-sant?

methamphetamine c. marijuanaLSD d. alcohol

Which of the following preventive measureswould have the greatest impact on average lifeexpectancy?

a. eliminating obesityb. eliminating smokingc. eliminating sleep deprivationd. eliminating binge drinking

\A/hich of the following statements concerninghypnosis is true?

a. People will do anything under hypnosis.b. Hypnosis is the same as sleeping.c. Hypnosis is in part an extension of the divi-

sion between conscious awareness and auto-matic behavior.

d. Hypnosis improves memory recall.

People who heard unusual phrases prior to sleepwere awakened each time they began REM sleep.The fact that they remembered less the nextmorning provides support for the theorvof dreaming.

a. manifest contentb. physiologicalc. information-processingd. activation-synthesis

According to Freud, dreams are

a symbolic fulfillment of erotic wishes.the result of random neural activity in thebrainstem.the brain's mechanism for self-stimulation.the disguised expressions of inner con{licts.

Progress Test 1 69

Psychoactive drugs affect behavior and percep-tion througha. the power of suggestion.b. the placebo effect.c. alteration of neural activity in the brain.d. psychological, not physiological, influences.

All of the following are common misconceptionsabout addiction, EXCEPT the statement thata. to overcome an addiction a person almost

always needs professional therapy.b. psychoactive and medicinal drugs very quick-

ly lead to addiction.c. biological factors place some individuals at

increased risk for addiction.d. many other repetitive, pleasure-seeking

behaviors fit the drug-addiction-as-disease-needing-treatment model.

At its beginning, psychology focused on thestudy ofa. observablebehavior.b. consciousness.c. abnormal behavior.d. all of the above.

\A/hich of the following is NOT a theory ofdreaming mentioned in the text?a. Dreams facilitate information processing.b. Dreaming stimulates the developing brain.c. Dreams result from random neural activity

originating in the brainstem.d. Dreaming is an attempt to escape from social

stimulation.

The sleep-waking cycles of young people whostay up too late typically are - hours induration.a. 23b. 24

c. 25d,. 26

15.

9.16.

10.

a.

b.

17.11.

18.12.

19.1.3.

20. The lowest rates of drug use among high schoolseniors is reported by:a. Asian-Americans.b. Hispanic-Americans.c. African-Americans.d. Native Americans.

a.

b.

c.d.

70 Chapter 3 Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

Matching Items

Match each term with its appropriate definition ordescription.

D efinitions or D esciptions

surface meaning of dreamsdeeper meaning of dreamsstage(s) of sleep associated with deltaWAVCS

stage(s) of sleep associated with muscu-lar relaxationsleep disorder in which breathing stopssleep disorder occurring in Stage 4 sleepdepressanthallucinogenstimulantsimultaneous unconscious andconscious tracksdisorder in which sleep attacks occurstudy of how brain activity is linked tomental activitytwilight stage of sleep associated withimagery resembling hallucinations

1..,3.

Terms

a. marijuanab. alcoholc. Stage 1 sleepd. cognitiveneurosciencee. manifest contentf. cocaineg. narcolepsyh. sleep apneai. Stages 3 and 4 sleepj. REM sleepk. latent contentl. night terrors

m. dual processing

4.

5.

6.n

8.9.

10.

1L.12.

13.

PROGRESS TEST2

Progress Test 2 should be completed during a finalchapter review. Answer the following questions afteryou thoroughly understand the correct answers forthe section reviews and Progress Test 1.

Multiple- Choice Questions

1.. Which of the following statements regardingREM sleep is true?a. Adults spend more time than infants in REM

sleep.b. REM sleep deprivation results in a REM

rebound.c. People deprived of REM sleep adapt easily.d. Sleeping medications tend to increase REM

sleep.

2. The perceptual error in which we fail to see anobject when our attention is directed elsewhere isa. dissociation.b. inattentional blindness.c. perceptualadaptation.d. divided consciousness.

3. Alcohol has the most profound effect ona. the transfer ofexperiences to long-term

memory.b. immediate memory.

c. previously established long-term memories.d. all of these factors.

A person whose EEG shows a high proportion ofalpha waves is most likelya. dreaming. c. in Stage 3 or 4 sleep.b. in Stage 2 sleep. d. awake and relaxed.

Circadian rhythms are thea. brain waves that occur during Stage 4 sleep.b. muscular tremors that occur during opiate

withdrawal.c. regularbody cycles that occur on a 24-hour

schedule.d. brain waves that are indicative of Stage 2

sleep.

A person who requires increasing amounts of adrug in order to feel its effect is said to havedevelopeda. tolerance.b. physical dependency.c. psychological dependency.d. resistance.

Which of the following is NOT an example of abiological rhythm?a. the circadian rhythmb. the 90-minute sleep cyclec. the five sleep stagesd. sudden sleep attacks during the day

4.

5.

5.

r7