CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESSChapters 9, 19 (Bernstein), 326-362, 773-776Chapters 9, 19 (Bernstein), 326-362, 773-776

CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESS

(def.) awareness of your (def.) awareness of your thoughts, actions, thoughts, actions, feelings, sensations, feelings, sensations, perceptions, and other perceptions, and other mental processesmental processes

an aspect of many mental an aspect of many mental processes rather than processes rather than being a unique mental being a unique mental process of its ownprocess of its own

possible that other possible that other creatures experience creatures experience consciousnessconsciousness

ANALYZING ANALYZING CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESS

Some scientists studying consciousness describe their work as Some scientists studying consciousness describe their work as cognitive cognitive sciencescience or or cognitive neuroscience cognitive neuroscience to highlight the connection of their to highlight the connection of their work to biological psychology, sensation, perception, memory, and work to biological psychology, sensation, perception, memory, and human cognition.human cognition.

Other psychologists study consciousness more directly by addressing Other psychologists study consciousness more directly by addressing three central questions about it:three central questions about it:

1.1. The first question concerns the The first question concerns the mind-body problemmind-body problem..

• DUALISMDUALISM--a theory supported by 17th century philosopher René --a theory supported by 17th century philosopher René Descartes in which the mind and the body are considered separate Descartes in which the mind and the body are considered separate or different; rarely accepted by modern psychologistsor different; rarely accepted by modern psychologists

MATERIALISMMATERIALISM--suggests the mind and the body are one and the --suggests the mind and the body are one and the same; validated by studies of individuals whose brain damage same; validated by studies of individuals whose brain damage causes a disruption in consciousnesscauses a disruption in consciousness

ANALYZING ANALYZING CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESS

2.2. A second question looks at whether consciousness is a unified A second question looks at whether consciousness is a unified phenomenon or several different ones.phenomenon or several different ones.

• According to the According to the theatre viewtheatre view, consciousness is a single , consciousness is a single phenomenon. It’s a “stage” on which all the various aspects of phenomenon. It’s a “stage” on which all the various aspects of awareness converge to “perform” before the “audience” of your awareness converge to “perform” before the “audience” of your mind.mind.

• The The parallel distributed processing (PDP) modelsparallel distributed processing (PDP) models describe the describe the mind as processing many parallel streams of information which mind as processing many parallel streams of information which interact to create the unitary experience of consciousness. Support interact to create the unitary experience of consciousness. Support for this view comes from research on sensation, perception, memory, for this view comes from research on sensation, perception, memory, cognition, and language that suggest components of these processes cognition, and language that suggest components of these processes are analyzed in separate brain regions.are analyzed in separate brain regions.

3.3. A third question about consciousness addresses the relationship A third question about consciousness addresses the relationship between conscious and unconscious mental activities. between conscious and unconscious mental activities.

• Over a century ago, Sigmund Freud theorized that some mental Over a century ago, Sigmund Freud theorized that some mental activities occurred without our awareness.activities occurred without our awareness.

• Modern research doesn’t support much of Freud’s theory BUT studies Modern research doesn’t support much of Freud’s theory BUT studies have shown many important mental activities do occur outside of have shown many important mental activities do occur outside of awareness.awareness.

ANALYZING ANALYZING CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESS

SOME FUNCTIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESSSOME FUNCTIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

The conscious brain experiences a representation of the sensory world The conscious brain experiences a representation of the sensory world that is the result of many complex nonconscious computations.that is the result of many complex nonconscious computations.

The conscious brain has access to the RESULTS of these computational The conscious brain has access to the RESULTS of these computational processes but not to the processes themselves as many occur so quickly processes but not to the processes themselves as many occur so quickly our conscious experience cannot keep up with them.our conscious experience cannot keep up with them.

The overall process of consciousness allows access to a vast store of The overall process of consciousness allows access to a vast store of memories and other information.memories and other information.

Over a century ago, psychologist William James compared Over a century ago, psychologist William James compared consciousness to a stream, describing it as ever-changing, multilayered, consciousness to a stream, describing it as ever-changing, multilayered, and varying in both and varying in both quantityquantity and and qualityquality..

Variations in quantity--the degree to which one is aware of mental Variations in quantity--the degree to which one is aware of mental events--result in events--result in levels of consciousnesslevels of consciousness..

Variations in quality--in the nature of the mental processing available Variations in quality--in the nature of the mental processing available to awareness--are referred to as different to awareness--are referred to as different states of consciousnessstates of consciousness..

ANALYZING ANALYZING CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESS

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESSLEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Again, variations in quantity (the degree to which you are aware of Again, variations in quantity (the degree to which you are aware of mental events) result in different mental events) result in different levels of consciousnesslevels of consciousness..

1.1. Mental activity that you are aware of occurs at the Mental activity that you are aware of occurs at the conscious levelconscious level..

2.2. At the At the nonconscious levelnonconscious level are physiological processes that you are physiological processes that you cannot be directly aware of existing although some use cannot be directly aware of existing although some use biofeedback trainingbiofeedback training to learn to alter nonconscious processes. to learn to alter nonconscious processes. (e.g., lowering your own heart rate)(e.g., lowering your own heart rate)

The The cognitive unconscious cognitive unconscious includes:includes:

1.1. the the preconscious level preconscious level in which mental events are outside of in which mental events are outside of awareness but can easily be brought to awareness; andawareness but can easily be brought to awareness; and

2.2. the the subconscioussubconscious or or unconscious levelunconscious level in which mental in which mental activities can alter thoughts, feelings, and actions but that are activities can alter thoughts, feelings, and actions but that are more difficult to bring into awareness.more difficult to bring into awareness.

ANALYZING ANALYZING CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESS

MENTAL PROCESSING WITHOUT AWARENESSMENTAL PROCESSING WITHOUT AWARENESS

Many important mental operations, such as learning, can occur Many important mental operations, such as learning, can occur without awareness.without awareness.

blindsightblindsight--Some people with blindness caused by damage on top --Some people with blindness caused by damage on top of the primary visual cortex still have fibers from the eyes connected of the primary visual cortex still have fibers from the eyes connected to other brain areas that process visual information. Some of these to other brain areas that process visual information. Some of these connections may permit visual processing without awareness (a connections may permit visual processing without awareness (a condition known as blindsight). Though they report seeing nothing, condition known as blindsight). Though they report seeing nothing, such patients can still perform tasks dependent upon vision.such patients can still perform tasks dependent upon vision.

primingpriming--Research on priming finds that people are influenced by --Research on priming finds that people are influenced by stimuli they are not consciously aware of processing. People tend to stimuli they are not consciously aware of processing. People tend to respond faster or more accurately to previously seen stimuli, even respond faster or more accurately to previously seen stimuli, even when they cannot consciously recall having seen those stimuli.when they cannot consciously recall having seen those stimuli.

ANALYZING ANALYZING CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESS

THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF CONSCIOUSNESSTHE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Brain damage can impair consciousness.Brain damage can impair consciousness.

People with People with prosopagnosiaprosopagnosia are not consciously able to recognize are not consciously able to recognize faces. However, such people show differences in eye movement, faces. However, such people show differences in eye movement, brain activity, and autonomic nervous system responses to faces that brain activity, and autonomic nervous system responses to faces that should be familiar to them. They unconsciously or “covertly” respond.should be familiar to them. They unconsciously or “covertly” respond.

Damage to the hippocampus can result in anterograde amnesia--the Damage to the hippocampus can result in anterograde amnesia--the inability to form new memories. Yet people with this condition can inability to form new memories. Yet people with this condition can learn new skills. They just cannot consciously recall doing so.learn new skills. They just cannot consciously recall doing so.

ANALYZING ANALYZING CONSCIOUSNESSCONSCIOUSNESS

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESSSTATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Variations in quality, in the focus, and in the clarity of your experience Variations in quality, in the focus, and in the clarity of your experience of yourself are referred to as different of yourself are referred to as different states of consciousnessstates of consciousness..

States range from deep sleep to alert wakefulness.States range from deep sleep to alert wakefulness.

States can also be affected by drugs and other influences.States can also be affected by drugs and other influences.

Most people spend most of their time in a waking state of Most people spend most of their time in a waking state of consciousness.consciousness.

This is considered the baseline state against which other states of This is considered the baseline state against which other states of consciousness are measured.consciousness are measured.

Mental processing in this state varies with changes in attention or Mental processing in this state varies with changes in attention or arousal.arousal.

When changes in mental processes are great enough for you or others When changes in mental processes are great enough for you or others to notice significant differences in how you function, you have entered to notice significant differences in how you function, you have entered an an altered state of consciousnessaltered state of consciousness..

Value judgments of different states of consciousness, such as Value judgments of different states of consciousness, such as hallucinations hallucinations (perceptual experiences that occur in the absence of (perceptual experiences that occur in the absence of sensory stimuli), vary from culture to culture.sensory stimuli), vary from culture to culture.

SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

Early researchers thought that sleep was a time of mental inactivity, but Early researchers thought that sleep was a time of mental inactivity, but modern research shows sleep is actually a very active, complex state.modern research shows sleep is actually a very active, complex state.

The brain’s electrical activity is monitored by an electroencephalograph The brain’s electrical activity is monitored by an electroencephalograph (EEG) which records changes in brain waves as behavior or mental (EEG) which records changes in brain waves as behavior or mental processes change.processes change.

The waves of an awake, alert person are small, closely spaced, and The waves of an awake, alert person are small, closely spaced, and irregular. These are called irregular. These are called beta wavesbeta waves..

A relaxed person with closed eyes (awake but inattentive) shows A relaxed person with closed eyes (awake but inattentive) shows alpha alpha waveswaves, which are regular, rhythmic waves occurring at speeds of eight , which are regular, rhythmic waves occurring at speeds of eight to twelve cycles per second.to twelve cycles per second.

Theta waves Theta waves follow alpha waves and indicate even slower brain waves.follow alpha waves and indicate even slower brain waves.

Delta wavesDelta waves show low brain activity and are associated with deep show low brain activity and are associated with deep sleep.sleep.

As a person sleeps, he or she experiences four NREM (non-rapid eye As a person sleeps, he or she experiences four NREM (non-rapid eye movement stages) of sleep as well as periods of REM (rapid eye movement stages) of sleep as well as periods of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.movement) sleep.

During a normal night’s sleep brain waves show distinctive and systematic During a normal night’s sleep brain waves show distinctive and systematic changes as a person passes through various stages of sleep.changes as a person passes through various stages of sleep.

Stages of SleepStages of Sleep

SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMINGStages of SleepStages of Sleep

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SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

Most people experience four to six cycles of NREM and REM sleep every night.Most people experience four to six cycles of NREM and REM sleep every night.

Begins with NREM Stage 1 (lasts a few minutes)Begins with NREM Stage 1 (lasts a few minutes)

Followed by NREM Stage 2 (about 20 minutes)Followed by NREM Stage 2 (about 20 minutes)

Next comes NREM Stages 3 and 4 (roughly the next 40 minutes)Next comes NREM Stages 3 and 4 (roughly the next 40 minutes)

Once relaxed and deeply asleep in NREM Stage 4, the sequence Once relaxed and deeply asleep in NREM Stage 4, the sequence reversesreverses..

Goes back through NREM Stage 3 and into NREM Stage 2Goes back through NREM Stage 3 and into NREM Stage 2

After NREM Stage 2, then REM sleep (usually lasting 5-15 minutes)After NREM Stage 2, then REM sleep (usually lasting 5-15 minutes)

As sleep continues, the periods of REM sleep get longer and slow-wave NREM Stages As sleep continues, the periods of REM sleep get longer and slow-wave NREM Stages 3 and 4 become shorter.3 and 4 become shorter.

The last few sleep cylces are primarily NREM Stage 2 and REM sleeping lasting up to The last few sleep cylces are primarily NREM Stage 2 and REM sleeping lasting up to 40 minutes.40 minutes.

Over a person’s lifetime, NREM Stages 3 and 4 gradually decrease.Over a person’s lifetime, NREM Stages 3 and 4 gradually decrease.

Bu late adulthood, most average only about 20 minutes in these stages as compared Bu late adulthood, most average only about 20 minutes in these stages as compared to a young child who spends two or more hours in NREM Stages 3 and 4.to a young child who spends two or more hours in NREM Stages 3 and 4.

Sequence of Sleep StagesSequence of Sleep Stages

SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

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SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

Sleep as a Circadian RhythmSleep as a Circadian Rhythm

Cyclical patterns of behavior and physiology that repeat about Cyclical patterns of behavior and physiology that repeat about every 24 hours are called every 24 hours are called circadian rhythmscircadian rhythms. They are linked to . They are linked to light and dark environmental cues.light and dark environmental cues.

Disrupting sleep-wake cycles can cause problems. Disrupting sleep-wake cycles can cause problems. Jet lagJet lag is a is a pattern of fatigue, irritability, inattention, and sleep problems that pattern of fatigue, irritability, inattention, and sleep problems that can last several days when a traveler’s body wants to sleep at the can last several days when a traveler’s body wants to sleep at the wrong time for a new locale.wrong time for a new locale.

Circadian rhythms vary among people. Circadian rhythms vary among people.

The “biological clock” in the brain that keeps track of time is in a The “biological clock” in the brain that keeps track of time is in a part of the hypothalamus called the part of the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)(SCN)..

SCN neurons regulate the release of the hormone SCN neurons regulate the release of the hormone melatoninmelatonin which is important in maintaining circadian rhythms.which is important in maintaining circadian rhythms.

Why Do We Sleep?Why Do We Sleep?

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SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

The Functions of SleepThe Functions of Sleep

Sleep deprivation leads to fatigue, irritability, inattention, and Sleep deprivation leads to fatigue, irritability, inattention, and has been implicated in many accidents.has been implicated in many accidents.

Sleep helps restore the body and the brain for future activity and Sleep helps restore the body and the brain for future activity and helps to consolidate memories of newly learned facts.helps to consolidate memories of newly learned facts.

Restorative functions are especially associated with non-REM Restorative functions are especially associated with non-REM sleep.sleep.

People spend more time compensating for lost REM sleep when People spend more time compensating for lost REM sleep when they have been deprived of it. This suggests that REM sleep has they have been deprived of it. This suggests that REM sleep has special functions.special functions.

REM sleep may improve the functioning of neurons that use REM sleep may improve the functioning of neurons that use norepinephrine, which affects waking alertness and mood.norepinephrine, which affects waking alertness and mood.

REM sleep may may also be a time for creating and solidifying REM sleep may may also be a time for creating and solidifying connections between neurons.connections between neurons.

REM sleep may help solidify the day’s experiences, including REM sleep may help solidify the day’s experiences, including newly learned skills.newly learned skills.

Why Do We Sleep?Why Do We Sleep?

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SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

INSOMNIAINSOMNIA

NARCOLEPSYNARCOLEPSY

SLEEP APNEASLEEP APNEA

SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS)SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS)

NIGHTMARESNIGHTMARES

NIGHT TERRORSNIGHT TERRORS

SLEEPWALKING (SOMNAMBULISM)SLEEPWALKING (SOMNAMBULISM)

BEDWETTING (NOCTURNAL ENURESIS)BEDWETTING (NOCTURNAL ENURESIS)

REM SLEEP BEHAVIOR DISORDERREM SLEEP BEHAVIOR DISORDER

SLEEP BRUXISMSLEEP BRUXISM

Sleep DisordersSleep Disorders

SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

What are dreams?What are dreams?

DreamsDreams are story-like sensations and perceptions. are story-like sensations and perceptions.

Dreams occur every night of Dreams occur every night of normal sleepnormal sleep..

Most dreams (and the most vivid and bizarre dreams) occur during Most dreams (and the most vivid and bizarre dreams) occur during REM sleep.REM sleep.

Daytime activities and experiences may influence the content of Daytime activities and experiences may influence the content of dreams to some degree.dreams to some degree.

During During lucid dreaminglucid dreaming, the dreamer is aware he/she is dreaming and , the dreamer is aware he/she is dreaming and may intentionally direct the dream’s storyline.may intentionally direct the dream’s storyline.

Some people have difficulty remembering dreams when awakened Some people have difficulty remembering dreams when awakened during REM sleep:during REM sleep:

During REM sleep, the frontal lobe is inactive making it hard to During REM sleep, the frontal lobe is inactive making it hard to form new memories.form new memories.

Neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin) Neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin) needed for new memory formation are also reduced during sleep.needed for new memory formation are also reduced during sleep.

DreamsDreams

SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

Dream TheoriesDream Theories

1.1. Some theories suggest dreaming helps mammals process and Some theories suggest dreaming helps mammals process and consolidate information of personal significance and value.consolidate information of personal significance and value.

2.2. Sigmund Freud in his Sigmund Freud in his Intepretation of DreamsIntepretation of Dreams called dreams “the called dreams “the royal road to the knowledge of the unconscious mind.” royal road to the knowledge of the unconscious mind.”

He believed dreams are a disguised form of He believed dreams are a disguised form of wish fulfillmentwish fulfillment--a --a way to satisfy unconscious urges or resolve unconscious conflicts way to satisfy unconscious urges or resolve unconscious conflicts that are too upsetting to deal with consciously.that are too upsetting to deal with consciously.

Freud said dreams consisted of two parts:Freud said dreams consisted of two parts:

The The manifest contentmanifest content consisted of the remembered consisted of the remembered meaning of the dream.meaning of the dream.

1.1. The The latent contentlatent content was the symbolized part of the dream. was the symbolized part of the dream.

2.2. These symbols in the latent content were the focus of Freud’s These symbols in the latent content were the focus of Freud’s dream analysis and what he believed represented the deep-dream analysis and what he believed represented the deep-seated wishes of the unconscious.seated wishes of the unconscious.

DreamsDreams

Jung video

SLEEPING & DREAMINGSLEEPING & DREAMING

Dream TheoriesDream Theories (cont.) (cont.)

3.3. The The activation-synthesis theoryactivation-synthesis theory says dreams are meaningless says dreams are meaningless byproducts of REM sleep. byproducts of REM sleep.

Dreams represent efforts of the brain to make sense of random Dreams represent efforts of the brain to make sense of random signals sent to the cortex from the hindbrain and activates other signals sent to the cortex from the hindbrain and activates other areas of the brain including the amygdala and hippocampus. areas of the brain including the amygdala and hippocampus.

As the brain synthesizes these signals, it attempts to provide As the brain synthesizes these signals, it attempts to provide meaning. This could include synthesizing fragments of different meaning. This could include synthesizing fragments of different memories to provide meaning, which might explain why some dreams memories to provide meaning, which might explain why some dreams make no sense.make no sense.

4.4. The The expectation fulfillment theoryexpectation fulfillment theory (Joe Griffin) holds that dreams are (Joe Griffin) holds that dreams are nature’s way of dealing with unresolved emotions and give people a nature’s way of dealing with unresolved emotions and give people a chance to review and address problems from the waking hours.chance to review and address problems from the waking hours.

According to Griffin, According to Griffin, “the prime function of dreams is to metaphorically act out undischarged emotional arousals (expectations) that were not acted out during the previous day. By dreaming we complete the arousal/dearousal circuit so as to wake up with an unstressed autonomic nervous system and our instincts intact.”

DreamsDreams

HYPNOSISHYPNOSIS

HYPNOSISHYPNOSIS is an altered state of consciousness brought on by special is an altered state of consciousness brought on by special techniques, and characterized by responsiveness to suggestions for techniques, and characterized by responsiveness to suggestions for changes in experience and behavior.changes in experience and behavior.

Hypnotized people are Hypnotized people are NOT SLEEPINGNOT SLEEPING..

Experiencing HypnosisExperiencing Hypnosis

Procedures for inducing hypnosis focus on people’s attention on a Procedures for inducing hypnosis focus on people’s attention on a restricted, often monotonous, set of stimuli while asking them to restricted, often monotonous, set of stimuli while asking them to ignore everything else as they imagine certain feelings.ignore everything else as they imagine certain feelings.

People cannot be hypnotized against their will.People cannot be hypnotized against their will.

about 10% of adults are difficult or impossible to hypnotize.about 10% of adults are difficult or impossible to hypnotize.

People with higher levels of People with higher levels of hypnotic susceptibilityhypnotic susceptibility have have differences in certain brain structures, are more imaginative, tend differences in certain brain structures, are more imaginative, tend to fantasize, tend to be suggestible, have a greater ability to focus to fantasize, tend to be suggestible, have a greater ability to focus attention, are able to process information quickly and effortlessly, attention, are able to process information quickly and effortlessly, and have more positive attitudes about hypnosis.and have more positive attitudes about hypnosis.

Experiencing HypnosisExperiencing Hypnosis

HYPNOSISHYPNOSIS

Experiencing Hypnosis (cont.)Experiencing Hypnosis (cont.)

Under hypnosis, people respond to suggestions and can display Under hypnosis, people respond to suggestions and can display age age regressionregression--apparently recalling or reenacting their childhoods.--apparently recalling or reenacting their childhoods.

Instructions about behavior to take place after hypnosis has ended are Instructions about behavior to take place after hypnosis has ended are called called posthypnotic suggestionsposthypnotic suggestions and can last for several hours or and can last for several hours or days.days.

Some people show Some people show hypnotic amnesiahypnotic amnesia, which is an inability to , which is an inability to remember what happened under hypnosis.remember what happened under hypnosis.

Ernest Hilgard described five main changes people display during Ernest Hilgard described five main changes people display during hypnosis:hypnosis:

reduced planfulness reduced planfulness (the ability to initiate action on their own)(the ability to initiate action on their own)

redistributed attention redistributed attention (they ignore all but the hypnotist)(they ignore all but the hypnotist)

increased ability to fantasizeincreased ability to fantasize

increased role takingincreased role taking

reduced reality testingreduced reality testing

Experiencing HypnosisExperiencing Hypnosis

HYPNOSISHYPNOSIS

Three major theories attempt to explain hypnosis:Three major theories attempt to explain hypnosis:

STATE THEORYSTATE THEORY

Hypnotized people experience an altered state of consciousness.Hypnotized people experience an altered state of consciousness.

Support comes from the notable changes in brain activity as well Support comes from the notable changes in brain activity as well as the dramatic effects hypnosis can produce such as as the dramatic effects hypnosis can produce such as insensitivity to paininsensitivity to pain

ROLE THEORYROLE THEORY

People under hypnosis merely act in accordance with the People under hypnosis merely act in accordance with the hypnotized role. hypnotized role.

They are NOT in a special state but rather simply complying with They are NOT in a special state but rather simply complying with the hypnotist’s directions.the hypnotist’s directions.

Role theory is supported by the fact that nonhypnotized people Role theory is supported by the fact that nonhypnotized people sometimes display behaviors that are usually associated with sometimes display behaviors that are usually associated with hypnosis.hypnosis.

Explaining HypnosisExplaining Hypnosis

HYPNOSISHYPNOSIS

Three major theories attempt to explain hypnosis (cont.):Three major theories attempt to explain hypnosis (cont.):

Ernest Hilgard’s Ernest Hilgard’s DISSOCIATION THEORYDISSOCIATION THEORY

This theory blends state and role theories.This theory blends state and role theories.

Hypnotized people Hypnotized people dissociatedissociate, or split, various aspects of their , or split, various aspects of their behavior and perceptions from the “self” that normally controls behavior and perceptions from the “self” that normally controls these functions.these functions.

Body movements normally under voluntary control can occur on Body movements normally under voluntary control can occur on their own, and normally involuntary processes (such as reactions their own, and normally involuntary processes (such as reactions to pain) can be controlled voluntarily.to pain) can be controlled voluntarily.

Relaxation of this central control occurs as part of a Relaxation of this central control occurs as part of a social social agreementagreement to share control with the hypnotist. to share control with the hypnotist.

e.g., Hilgard’s Ice water Immersion/Pain Button study and the e.g., Hilgard’s Ice water Immersion/Pain Button study and the “hidden observer” stream of consciousness“hidden observer” stream of consciousness

Explaining HypnosisExplaining Hypnosis

HYPNOSISHYPNOSIS

can be used to eliminate pain from surgery, childbirth, and burnscan be used to eliminate pain from surgery, childbirth, and burns

relieves chronic pain from arthritis, nerve damage, migraine relieves chronic pain from arthritis, nerve damage, migraine headaches, and cancerheadaches, and cancer

can help eliminate diarrheacan help eliminate diarrhea

reduces nausea and vomiting from chemotherapyreduces nausea and vomiting from chemotherapy

limits surgical bleedinglimits surgical bleeding

speeds postoperative recoveryspeeds postoperative recovery

has been controversially and unsuccessfully used in attempts to has been controversially and unsuccessfully used in attempts to improve memoryimprove memory

Applications of HypnosisApplications of Hypnosis

MEDITATIONMEDITATIONMeditationMeditation is intended to create an altered state of consciousness is intended to create an altered state of consciousness characterized by inner peace and tranquility.characterized by inner peace and tranquility.

Meditators claim it improves physical and mental health and aids in Meditators claim it improves physical and mental health and aids in performance in everything from work to tennis.performance in everything from work to tennis.

In most types of meditation, attention is focused on just one thing until In most types of meditation, attention is focused on just one thing until the person stops thinking about anything and experiences nothing but the person stops thinking about anything and experiences nothing but “pure awareness.”“pure awareness.”

Physiological effects include:Physiological effects include:

decreases in respiration rate, heart rate, muscle tension, blood decreases in respiration rate, heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure, and oxygen consumptionpressure, and oxygen consumption

increases blood flow to the thalamus and frontal lobesincreases blood flow to the thalamus and frontal lobes

increases the level of the neurotransmitter dopamine (which is increases the level of the neurotransmitter dopamine (which is associated with the experience of pleasure) and induces relaxed associated with the experience of pleasure) and induces relaxed alpha-wave EEG activityalpha-wave EEG activity

Much remains unclear about exactly how meditation works. Much remains unclear about exactly how meditation works.

It should be noted, however, that these changes have also been It should be noted, however, that these changes have also been associated with techniques ranging from biofeedback to hypnosis to tai associated with techniques ranging from biofeedback to hypnosis to tai chi to simply relaxing.chi to simply relaxing.

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGSPSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGSPSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS affect the brain, changing consciousness affect the brain, changing consciousness and other psychological processes.and other psychological processes.

PYSCHOPHARMACOLOGYPYSCHOPHARMACOLOGY is the study of psychoactve drugs and is the study of psychoactve drugs and their affect on the brain and the nervous systems.their affect on the brain and the nervous systems.

Most psychoactive drugs or substances influence the interaction Most psychoactive drugs or substances influence the interaction between neurotransmitters and receptors. These drugs get into the between neurotransmitters and receptors. These drugs get into the brain through the blood supply when they pass the brain through the blood supply when they pass the blood-brain blood-brain barrierbarrier..

1.1. AGONISTS AGONISTS drugs that mimic the effects of neurotransmittersdrugs that mimic the effects of neurotransmitters

2.2. ANTAGONISTSANTAGONISTS drugs that prevent neurotransmitters from binding drugs that prevent neurotransmitters from binding with receptors and inhibit neurotransmitter activitywith receptors and inhibit neurotransmitter activity

Other drugs work by increasing or decreasing the release of a Other drugs work by increasing or decreasing the release of a specific transmitter.specific transmitter.

Other drugs work by speeding or slowing the Other drugs work by speeding or slowing the removal removal of a of a neurotransmitter from synapses.neurotransmitter from synapses.

PsychopharmacologyPsychopharmacology

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGSPSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

Predicting a drug’s effects in complicated because most psychoactive drugs Predicting a drug’s effects in complicated because most psychoactive drugs interact with many neurotransmitter systems.interact with many neurotransmitter systems.

Drugs have desirable Drugs have desirable main effectsmain effects but may also have undesirable but may also have undesirable side side effectseffects..

SUBSTANCE ABUSESUBSTANCE ABUSE is the pattern of use that causes serious social, legal, is the pattern of use that causes serious social, legal, and/or interpersonal problems for the user.and/or interpersonal problems for the user.

Psychological dependence Psychological dependence occurs when a person continues to use the drug to gain occurs when a person continues to use the drug to gain a sense of well-being, even when the drug produces adverse consequences. However, a sense of well-being, even when the drug produces adverse consequences. However, the person can still function without the drug.the person can still function without the drug.

Physical dependence Physical dependence or or addictionaddiction is a physiological state in which continued use of is a physiological state in which continued use of the drug is required to prevent the onset of an unpleasant the drug is required to prevent the onset of an unpleasant withdrawal syndromewithdrawal syndrome..

ToleranceTolerance is a condition in which increasingly large drug doses are needed to produce is a condition in which increasingly large drug doses are needed to produce the same effect. It may develop with prolonged drug use.the same effect. It may develop with prolonged drug use.

By affecting the regulation of dopamine and other neurotransmitters in the brain’s By affecting the regulation of dopamine and other neurotransmitters in the brain’s “pleasure centers,” addictive drugs have the capacity to create tremendously “pleasure centers,” addictive drugs have the capacity to create tremendously rewarding effects in most people.rewarding effects in most people.

These changes created in the brain by drug addiction can remain long after drug use These changes created in the brain by drug addiction can remain long after drug use ends, increasing the chance for relapse months or even years later.ends, increasing the chance for relapse months or even years later.

The Varying Effects of DrugsThe Varying Effects of Drugs

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGSPSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

EXPECTATIONS and DRUG EFFECTSEXPECTATIONS and DRUG EFFECTS

Drug effects are not determined by biochemistry alone.Drug effects are not determined by biochemistry alone.

Learned expectationsLearned expectations also play a role in that people who think they also play a role in that people who think they taken a drug but really haven’t may display the effects of the drug taken a drug but really haven’t may display the effects of the drug because they expect to be affected by it.because they expect to be affected by it.

Learned expectations regarding drug effects vary from culture to culture.Learned expectations regarding drug effects vary from culture to culture.

The Varying Effects of DrugsThe Varying Effects of Drugs

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGSPSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

DEPRESSANTSDEPRESSANTS

STIMULANTSSTIMULANTS

OPIATESOPIATES

HALLUCINOGENSHALLUCINOGENS

Drug ClassificationsDrug Classifications

Create a skit, poem, or song that includes examples Create a skit, poem, or song that includes examples of your group’s drug classification, the drugs’ physical of your group’s drug classification, the drugs’ physical effects on the body and the brain, and the drugs’ effects on the body and the brain, and the drugs’ psychological effects.psychological effects.

DISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESSDISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Disorders of consciousnessDisorders of consciousness occur when problems in the brain impair occur when problems in the brain impair people’s ability to be conscious or to be accurately aware of the world around people’s ability to be conscious or to be accurately aware of the world around them.them.

1.1. Damage to the Damage to the reticular formation reticular formation or or reticular activating system reticular activating system (RAS)(RAS) which normally serves to increase and decrease arousal in the rest which normally serves to increase and decrease arousal in the rest of the brain and help create daily cyles of wakefulness and sleep.of the brain and help create daily cyles of wakefulness and sleep.

Severe damage to the RAS results in an unconscious state known as a Severe damage to the RAS results in an unconscious state known as a comacoma..

Lesser amounts of RAS damage may result in a Lesser amounts of RAS damage may result in a persistent vegetative state (PVSpersistent vegetative state (PVS) ) during which wake and sleep cycles may be intact and automatic movements occur. during which wake and sleep cycles may be intact and automatic movements occur. In this state, though brain activity may be evident, patients remain unaware of their In this state, though brain activity may be evident, patients remain unaware of their environment.environment.

1.1. Chances for recovery are poor when there is significant damage to the RAS.Chances for recovery are poor when there is significant damage to the RAS.

2.2. Disruptions in the functioning of both sides of the Disruptions in the functioning of both sides of the cerebral cortexcerebral cortex can can affect consciousness.affect consciousness.

1.1. The most common cause is drug abuse (alcohol or sleeping pills) but fever, seizures, The most common cause is drug abuse (alcohol or sleeping pills) but fever, seizures, chemical imbalances in the blood, hormonal disorders, and infections that have spread chemical imbalances in the blood, hormonal disorders, and infections that have spread to the blood can also affect the cerebral cortex.to the blood can also affect the cerebral cortex.

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DISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESSDISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

3.3. A key feature of A key feature of deliriumdelirium is the rise and fall of consciousness--the alternation is the rise and fall of consciousness--the alternation between impaired and abnormally elevated levels of consciousness over time.between impaired and abnormally elevated levels of consciousness over time.

These people display impairments in many mental functions, including poor memory, poor These people display impairments in many mental functions, including poor memory, poor attention, and disorientation. Elevated consciousness may appear as hallucinations and mental attention, and disorientation. Elevated consciousness may appear as hallucinations and mental agitation.agitation.

Common causes include fever, poisons, infections that have reached the bloodstream, and side Common causes include fever, poisons, infections that have reached the bloodstream, and side effects of medication.effects of medication.

Delirium is usually not permanent and goes away when the underlying medical cause is corrected.Delirium is usually not permanent and goes away when the underlying medical cause is corrected.

Neuropsychological testing is difficult as there are great differences among individuals and Neuropsychological testing is difficult as there are great differences among individuals and differences in the same individual at different times. Often no pattern is apparent--everything differences in the same individual at different times. Often no pattern is apparent--everything may look impaired.may look impaired.

4.4. Some disorders of consciousness involve the nature or content of consciousness.Some disorders of consciousness involve the nature or content of consciousness.

3.3. In In anosognosiaanosognosia (which means absence of knowledge of disease), a person may have no (which means absence of knowledge of disease), a person may have no awareness that there is anything wrong with him or her. It appears that brain damage causes not awareness that there is anything wrong with him or her. It appears that brain damage causes not only an impairment in functioning, but an impairment in the ability to know about that impairment.only an impairment in functioning, but an impairment in the ability to know about that impairment.

4.4. It is likely after damage to the right side of the brain and occurs in more than 25% of stroke It is likely after damage to the right side of the brain and occurs in more than 25% of stroke victims.victims.

Anosognosia may fade or persist over time. When it persists, it impairs patients’ cooperation with Anosognosia may fade or persist over time. When it persists, it impairs patients’ cooperation with rehabilitative treatments.rehabilitative treatments.

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