LECTURE 01 NATURE OF CONFLICT

1.1DEFINITION OF CONFLICTThe term conflict has no single clear meaning. Much of the confusion has been created by scholars in different disciplines who are interested in studying conflict.

Conflict is the perception of differences of interests among people - Thompson,1998

A process of social interaction involving a struggle over claims to resources, power and status, beliefs, and other preferences and desires. The aims of the parties in conflict may extend from simply attempting to gain acceptance of a preference, or securing a resource advantage, to the extremes of injuring or eliminating opponents - Bisno,1988 & Coser,1968

Conflict is defined as an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement, or dissonance within or between social entities (i.e., individual, group, organization, etc.).

1.2APPROACHES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICTRobbins (1974) presented three philosophies of organizational conflict:1) Traditional View: The philosophy of conflict of the classicists, or traditionalists, is based on the assumption that conflict is detrimental to an organization and, as such, must be reduced or eliminated.2) The Human Relations view/ Behavioralist view: The classical stage was followed by the behavior lists philosophy, who accept the presence of conflict and even occasionally advocate the enhancement of conflict for increasing organizational effectiveness. 3) The Interactionist view: The philosophy of conflict of the interactionists is the third philosophy, which differs significantly from the previous two. It is characterized by the following:A. Recognition of the absolute necessity of conflict;B. Explicit encouragement of opposition;C. Defining conflict management to include stimulation as well as resolution methods; andD. Considering the management of conflict as a major responsibility of all administratorsThe interactionist approach is similar to the pluralist theory, which looks upon conflict as a means of generating agreements and of creating agreed upon terms of collaboration.

1.3FUNCTIONAL & DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICTTwo opposing viewpoints on the outcome of conflict were presented. The functional and dysfunctional outcomes of conflict in organizations are as follows: Functional Outcomes Conflict may stimulate innovation, creativity, and growth. Organizational decision making may be improved. Alternative solutions to a problem may be found. Conflict may lead to synergistic solutions to common problems. Individual and group performance may be enhanced. Individuals and groups may be forced to search for new approaches. Individuals and groups may be required to articulate and clarify their positions.

Dysfunctional Outcomes Conflict may cause job stress, burnout, and dissatisfaction. Communication between individuals and groups may be reduced. A climate of distrust and suspicion can be developed. Relationships may be damaged. Job performance may be reduced. Resistance to change can increase. Organizational commitment and loyalty may be affected.Social conflict has both positive and negative consequences. If a social system is to benefit from conflict, the negative effects of conflict must be reduced and positive effects must be enhanced.

1.4CLASSIFICATION OF CONFLICTThe literature of organizational behavior and management has highlighted different types of conflict. Conflict may be classified on the basis of at which it may originate. Such as- Sources of Conflict Organizational levels (individual, group, etc.)

Sources of ConflictConflict may originate from a number of sources, such as tasks, values, goals, and so on. It has been found appropriate to classify conflict on the basis of these sources for proper understanding of its nature and implications. Following is a brief description of this classification.1) Affective Conflict2) Substantive Conflict3) Conflict of Interest4) Conflict of Values5) Goal Conflict

Levels of AnalysisOrganizational conflict may be classified on the basis of levels (individual, group, etc.) at which it occurs. On this basis intra-organizational conflict, four types of conflict may be described as follows:1. Intrapersonal Conflict2. Interpersonal Conflict3. Intragroup Conflict4. Intergroup Conflict

1.5CONFLICT PROCESSThe conflict process can be seen as comprising five stages. These stages are described below:

Figure: 5 Stages of Conflict Process

Stage 1: Potential Opposition or IncompatibilityThe first step in the conflict process is the presence on conditions that create opportunities for conflict to develop. These cause or create opportunities for organizational conflict to rise. Stage 2: Cognition and PersonalizationConflict must be perceived by the parties to it whether or not conflict exists is a perception issue. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict exists. Because conflict is perceives does not mean that is personalized. Stage 3: IntentionsIntentions are decisions to act in a given way intentions intervene between peoples perception and emotions and their overt behavior.Stage 4: BehaviorThis is a stage where conflict becomes visible. The behavior stage includes the statements, actions and reactions made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviors are usually overt attempt to implement each partys intentions.Stage 5: OutcomesThe action reaction interplay between the conflicting parties result in consequences. These outcomes may be functional in that the conflict results in an improvement in the groups performance, or dysfunctional in that it hinders group performance.

Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions simulates creativity and innovations encourages interest and curiosity among group members provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released and fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change. Conflict is dysfunctional when uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads to the destruction of the group. LECTURE 02CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

2.1DEFINITION OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT:

Conflict management implies reduction, elimination or termination of conflict. A large number of studies on negotiation, bargaining, mediation and arbitration fall into the conflict resolution category. Conflict management does not necessarily imply avoidance, reduction or termination of conflict. It involves designing effective strategies to minimize the dysfunctions of conflict and enhancing the constructive functions of conflict in order to enhance learning and effectiveness of an organization.

2.2 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES:

Conflict StylesSituation Where AppropriateSituations Where Inappropriate

Integrating1. Issues are complex.2. Synthesis of ideas is needed to come up with better solutions.3. Commitment is needed from other parties for successful implementation.4. Time is available for problem solving.5. One party alone cannot solve the problem.6. Resources possessed by different parties are needed to solve their common problems.1. Task or problem is simple.2. Immediate decisions are required.3. Other parties are unconcerned about outcome.4. Other parties do not have problem-solving skills.

Obliging1. You believe that you may be wrong.2. Issue is more important to other party.3. You are willing to give up something in exchange for something from the other party in the future.4. You are dealing from a position of weakness.5. Preserving relationship is important.1. Issue is important to you.2. You believe that you are right.3. The other party is wrong.

Dominating1. Issue is trivial.2. Speedy decisions is needed.3. Unpopular course of action is implemented.4. Necessary to overcome assertive subordinates.5. Unfavorable decisions by the other party may be costly to you.6. Subordinates lack expertise to make technical decisions.7. Issue is important to you.1. Issue is complex.2. Issue is not important to you.3. Both parties are equally powerful.4. Decisions do not have to be made quickly.5. Subordinates possess high degree of competence.

Avoiding1. Issue is trivial.2. Potential dysfunction effect of confronting the other party outweighs benefits of resolution.3. Cooling-off period is needed.1. Issue is important to you.2. It is responsible to make decisions.3. Parties are unwilling to defer, issue must be resolved.4. Prompt attention is needed.

Compromising1. Goals of parties are mutually exclusive.2. Parties are equally powerful.3. Consensus cannot be reached.4. Integrating or dominating style is not successful.5. Temporary solution to a complex problem is needed.1. One party is more powerful.2. Problem is complex enough.

LECTURE 03INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT

Intrapersonal conflict is a situation in which a person is motivated to engage in two or more mutually exclusive activities. An individual is in an intrapersonal conflict if he or she has difficulty making a decision because of uncertainty or if he or she is pushed or pulled in opposite directions; that is, the alternatives are both attractive and unattractive.

3.1TYPES OF INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT

According to Lewin (1948) there are three types of intrapersonal conflict. Following is a discussion of these three types:

I. Approach Approach ConflictThis occurs when a person has to choose between two attractive alternatives.

II. ApproachAvoidance ConflictThis occurs when a person has to deal with a situation that possesses both positive as well as negative aspects, that is, when a person feels similar degrees of attraction and repulsion toward a goal or competing goals.

III. Avoidance Avoidance ConflictThis conflict occurs when each of the competing alternatives possesses negative consequences, that is, they are equally repulsive.

3.2 ROLE CONFLICT

This type of conflict occurs when a role occupant is required to perform two or more roles that present incongruent, contradictory, or even mutually exclusive activities.

Intrasender ConflictThis type of conflict occurs when a role sender requires a role receiver to perform contradictory or inconsistent roles.

Intersender ConflictA role receiver experiences this type of conflict if the role behavior demanded by one role sender is incongruent with the role behavior demanded by another role sender(s).

Interrole ConflictThis type of conflict occurs when an individual occupies two or more roles whose expectations are inconsistent.

Intrarole (Person-Role) ConflictThis type of role conflict occurs when the role requirements are incongruent with the focal persons attitudes, values, and professional behavior.

3.3ROLE AMBIGUITY

A concept closely related to role conflict is role ambiguity. It refers to the lack of clarity in understanding what expectations or prescriptions exist for a given role. Role ambiguity occurs when the information either does not exist or is not properly communicated if it does exist.

Sources: The sources of intrapersonal conflict are mainly structural; they are situation-ally imposed.

Misassignment and Goal Incongruence: If a person is assigned to do a task for which he or she does not have the appropriate expertise, aptitude, and commitment, then the person may experience qualitative role overload.

Inappropriate Demand on Capacity: If a person cannot properly satisfy all the demands of his or her position even by working at the maximum capacity, then this leads to quantitative role overload. If a persons capacity (skill, commitment, role expectation) significantly exceeds the demands of the position, the person will not find his or her work challenging.

Organization Structure: Organizations generate a high degree of role conflict by creating conflicting goals, policies, and decisions. A number of earlier studies found multiple lines of authority to be associated with role conflict and loss of organizational effectiveness.

Supervisory Style: Role conflict is lower when supervisors are described as more frequently engaging in emphasizing production under conditions of uncertainty, providing structure and standards, facilitating teamwork, tolerating freedom, and exerting upward influence.

Position: Role conflict is associated with positions that carry greater supervisory responsibility. A classic position that is exposed to more role conflict than others is that of the foreman.

LECTURE 04INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

Interpersonal conict refers to the manifestation of incompatibility, disagreement, or difference between two or more interacting individuals. Here the focus is on the styles of handling conict of an organizational member with his orher superior(s), subordinates, and peers.

4.1A MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTOver the years a number of models have been developed to illustrate the dynamics of different types of organizational conict. Instead of developing a separate model for each type of organizational conict, an integrated model has been developed that can be used to illustrate the dynamics of interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conicts.

Figure 4.1: A theoretical model of organizational conict

This model will enable an organizational interventionist to manage conict effectively.

Antecedent Conditions: The model begins with the antecedent conditions or sources of conict, which can be classied as process and structural.

Behavioral Changes: Conict may affect the behavior and attitudes of parties toward each other. The parties move away from a congenial and trusting relationship and redirect their energies toward the goal of winning. Sometimes interest in the solution of the problem(s) becomes less important

Structure Formation: As the conict intensies, the parties may restrict free communication and interaction. The parties may formulate a structure of interaction that discourages free exchange of information.

Decision Process: When winlose conict is intensied, the parties may be unable to use problem-solving methods to make decisions to deal with their disagreements. Instead, they may establish a medium of negotiation that is generally bargaining.

Conict Aftermath: Usually the resolution of conict leaves a legacy which will affect the future relations of the parties and their attitudes toward each other. Dysfunctional or negative outcomes are most common.

4.2 SOURCES OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

Personalization: People having different personalities interact with each other that create conflict among them.

Bases of Power: Because of various bases of power like Expert, referent, informational or personal bases people misuses power which creates conflict.

Organizational Culture: The organizational culture sometimes promotes culture or sometimes conflict can be minimized because of the structure or working culture of organization.

Referent Role: Sometimes work reference between same skilled persons arise conflict unconsciously.

Gender: Same gender people have more conflict and there are some other demographic issues in this regard.

4.3NEGOTIATION PRINCIPLES OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

Fisher and Ury (1981; see also Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 1993) have forcefully argued that a method called principled negotiation or negotiation on merits can be used that relate to people, interests, options, and criteria. These four methods are as follows:

Separate the People from the Problem: If the parties can concentrate on substantive conict instead of on affective conict, they may be able to engage in the problem-solving process. In other words, the conicting parties should come to work with and not against each other to deal with their common problem effectively.

Focus on Interests, Not Positions: This proposition is designed to overcome the problem of focusing on statedpositions of the parties because the goal of conict management is to satisfytheir interests. A position is what a party wants, that is, a specic solution to an interest. This is especially true in organizations where members are very often concerned about productivity, efciency, cost, and soon.

Invent Options for Mutual Gain: Bargainers rarely see the need for formulating options or alternative solutions so that parties may be beneted. As was mentioned before, during period of intense conict, the parties may have difculty in formulating creative solutions to problems that are acceptable to both parties.

Insist on Using Objective Criteria: To manage conict effectively, a negotiator should insist that results be based on some objective criteria. Examples of objective criteria include market value, attainment of specic goals, scientic judgment, ethical standards, and so on.LECTURE 05INTRAGROUP CONFLICT

5.1DEFINITION OF INTRAGROUP CONFLICT

Intragroup conflict refers to the incompatibility, incongruence, or disagreement among the members of a group or its subgroups regarding goals, functions, or activities of the group.An intragoup problem exists whenever a group member perceives a difference between what is presently occurring between him or her and the group and what he or she desires to occur

5.2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF A GROUP

To make the discussion of conflict within a group meaningful, of a group should include the following: A group must consist of two or more members. A group must possess a stable structure; that is a collection of individuals that changes (e.g. passengers in an airplane) cannot be considered a group. The members should be interdependent. The members should interact with each other. Different kinds of groups are found in organizations. Groups can be broadly classified as formal or informal. Following is a classification and discussion of these groups.

5.3TYPES OF GROUPS

Formal groups: The formal groups are formed by the organization for the purpose of attaining certain goals. These groups can be classified as task or project groups. Task groups: Groups that are formed around certain tasks or functions and remain in existence for a long period of time are called task or functional groups.Types of task groups:1. Interacting group 2. Coaching group 3. Counteracting group Project group: Groups formed for the purpose of completing specific projects are called project group. This group remains in existence for a limited period of time. Informal Groups: These groups are formed by the organization members without any direction from management. These groups exist to satisfy certain needs not meet by the formal groups. Two types of informal groups are: 1. Interest groups 2. Friendship groups

5.4 SOURCES OF INTRAGROUP CONFLICT

Groups are formed by the multitude of factors. The diagnosis of intragroup conflict should indicate the factors these are: Leadership style: A leader can virtually all other variables affecting conflict within a group. Leadership style as a source of intragroup conflict has not been exclusively established through empirical studies. It can influence other variables such as task structure, group composition, size and so on. Task structure: This represents the extent to which the task is simple (routine)or complex(non routine). If a task is routine, it is likely to have a clearly defined goals, methods.non routine tasks are not well defined and do not have a verifiably correct solution. Group composition If a group is composed of individuals with too diverse inter personal styles, attitudes, values and interests, the members will have divergent perspectives toward group and organizational goals. In this situation, the members will experience undesirable interpersonal conflict. Size: The size of a group can affect group processes and conflict as a group grows potential for conflict increases. Several earlier studies found a positive relationship between group size and dissatisfaction and tension. Cohesiveness and groupthink: One of the major liabilities of a group is that one or more individuals may be forced to conform to the mode off thinking of their majority group members. Individuals under group pressure will change their opinions about highly objective matters.

5.5INTERVENTION OF INTRAGROUP CONFLICT

The process and structural intervention recommended for managing intragroup conflict follow. Process: An organization development technique such as team buildings has been presented as a process intervention that can be used to manage intragroup conflict. Team building can be viewed as an extension of organization development intervention such as sensitivity training or T-group. Structural: Unlike process intervention such as organization development, systematic structural interventions are not available for the management of intragroup conflict. Some intragroup conflict management strategies are to a manager to generate or intensify conflict is to change group membership, the level of conflict may also be altered by changing the group size, the group leader can change the amount of conflict by altering the reward system.

LECTURE 06INTERGROUP CONFLICT

Intergroup conflict Refers to the collective incompatibility or disagreement between two or more divisions, departments, or subsystems in connection with tasks, resources, information, and so on. Intergroup conflict is inevitable in complex organizations.

6.1 DYNAMICS OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT

Following is a detailed discussion of the process that takes place within and between two conflicting groups in an organization. The process becomes distinct during periods of intense win-lose conflict.

Behavioral and Perceptual Change: When intergroup conflict of win-lose orientation occurs, competition among members within each is reduced, and the groups become more cohesive. The group members tend to conform to the group norm more, and they become loyal to the group.

Structure Formation: Intergroup conflict may result in the emergence of autocratic leaders and the establishment of a new power structure. The new leader may establish a power structure quickly.

Decision Process: Differences among in group members that can lead to better decisions are no longer tolerate. The groups establish the means of negotiation, which are usually bargaining, ultimatums, and nonnegotiable demands.

Conflict Aftermath If bargaining is exclusively utilized as a method of conflict resolution, the possibility exists that both groups will perceive themselves as party losers after the cessation of conflict.

6.2SOURCES OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT

The sources of intergroup conflict are mainly structural.

System Differentiation: Complex organizations develop differentiated subsystems to attain overall objectives effectively. Differentiated subsystems develop distinct functions.

Task Interdependence: Intergroup conflict in an organization results from its structural design, which requires both system differentiation as well as task interdependence.

Dependence on Scarce Resources: The basic causes of intergroup conflict are differentiation and interdependence, the intensity of intergroup conflict is partly a function of the subsystems dependence on scare resources.

Jurisdictional Ambiguity: Jurisdictions over property, authority, and responsibility between two or more subsystems are not always clearly defined. Ambiguities often lead to wasteful use of energy and effort between departments over authority, territory, and so on.

Relationship between Line and Staff: A diagnosis of intergroup conflict should particularly indicate whether there is a moderate amount of this conflict.

6.3INTERVENTION OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT

Process: Process interventions, such as organization development, are designed to help the participants to learn mainly collaborative behavior to find the sources of conflict and to arrive at creative solutions. It should be noted that these interventions are useful when the intergroup conflict is strategic rather than frictional or minor. Two intervention strategies for managing intergroup conflict, problem solving and organizational mirroring, are presented. Problem solving is designed to help the members of two groups to learn the integrating style to handle their differences. The organizational mirroring intervention is appropriate when more than two groups are having problems in working together.

Structural: One of the major sources of intergroup conflict is the significant interdependencies between departments, units, or groups. Structural interventions may be made to deal with these interdependencies effectively.

12