concepts of teaching and learning

8/12/2019 Concepts of Teaching and Learning

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CONCEPTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

1. Teachinga) Teaching as a process

b) Teaching as a form of communication

c) Teaching as a scientific activity

d) Teaching as an artistic activity

1. Learninga) Model of Gagne

1. Motivation2. Apprehension3. Acquisition4. Retention5. Recall6. Generalization7. Performance8. Feedback

b) Gagnes taxonomy of learning

1. Signal learningthe individual learns to make a general response to a signal2. Stimulus-response learningthe learner acquires a precise response to a discriminated

stimulus

3. Learning through chaininga chain of two or more stimulus-response connections isacquired

4. Learning through verbal associationthe learning of chains that are verbal5. Learning through multiple discriminationsthe individual learns to make different responses

to different stimuli

6. Concept learningthe learner makes a common response to a class of stimuli7. Principle learninga rule of chain of two or more concepts8. Problem-solving learningrequires thinking

c) Ewells Principles of Learning

1. Active involvement the learner is not a receptacle of knowledge, but rather creates hits orher learning actively and uniquely

2. Patterns & Connections the cognitive process of creating linkages among concepts, skillelements, people and experiences

3. Informal learning implicit learning. Learning is derived from direct interaction and a rangeof cues given by peers and instructors

4. Direct experience built-in opportunities for active engagement in a learning environmentwhich shape individual understandings


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5. Reflection a mental process which challenges students to use critical thinking to examinepresented information

6. Compelling situation combines elements from direct experience and motivational readiness7. Frequent feedback provides opportunities for students to practice what they have

previously learned

8. Enjoyable setting a cultural and interpersonal context that provides interactions, individualpersonal support and creates learning opportunities

THEORIES OF LEARNING

Behaviourism

1. Pavlovs Classical Conditioninga) Acquisition

b) Extinction

c) Spontaneous recovery

d) Stimulus generalization

e) Stimulus discrimination

f) Higher-order conditioning

1. Watsons Conditioning Theory people normally inherit three different kinds of emotions(fear, anger and love). Human emotions can be learned through the process of conditioning

2. B.F. Skinners Operant Conditioninga) The behaviour is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence

modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behaviour in the future

b) Dependent Variables (measure of learning)

1. Acquisition Ratehow rapidly an animal can be trained to a new operant behaviour as afunction of reinforcement

2. Rate of Responsea measure of correct responses throughout a testing schedule includingthe times when reinforcement is not provided after a correct response

3. Extinction Ratethe rate at which an operant response disappears following the withdrawalof reinforcement

c) Types of reinforcement

1. Primary reinforcementinstinctive behaviours lead to satisfaction of basic survival needssuch as food, water, sex, shelter. No learning takes place because the behaviours emerge

spontaneously

2. Second reinforcementthe reinforce is not reinforcing by itself, but becomes reinforcingwhen paired with a primary reinforce (pairing a sound or a light with food)

3. Generalized reinforcementstimuli become reinforcing through repeated pairing withprimary or secondary reinforcers (wealth, power, fame and intelligence are valued in many

cultures)


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4. Pleasant (positive reinforcement)Reward. Increases the probability of the same responseoccurring again

5. Noxious (punishment)administering a painful or unpleasant reinforce after an unwantedresponse. Decreases the probability of the same response occurring again

6. Pleasant (punishment)decreases the probability of the same response occurring again(punishing a teenager by taking away his cell phone)

7. Noxious (negative reinforcement)removing or decreasing an unpleasant situation after adesirable response is produced

d) Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Continuous reinforcementgiven every time the animal gives the desired response2. Intermittent reinforcementgiven only part of the times3. Ratio reinforcementa pre-determined proportion of responses will be reinforced4. Fixed ratio reinforcementgiven on a regular ratio (every fifth time the desired behaviour is

produced)

5. Variable (random) fixed reinforcementgiven for a predetermined proportion of responses,but randomly instead of on a fixed schedule

6. Interval reinforcementgiven after a predetermined period of time7. Fixed interval reinforcementgiven on a regular schedule (every five minutes)8. Variable interval reinforcementgiven after random amounts of time have passed9. E.L. Thorndike

a) Law of effectif an association is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, it will be

strengthened. If it is followed by annoying state of affairs, it will be weakened

b) Law of exercise

1. Law of usethe more often an association is used the stronger it becomes2. Law of disusethe longer an association is unused the weaker it becomes

c) Law of readinessa quality in responses and connections that results in readiness to

act (eating has a higher degree of readiness than vomiting). Learning is influenced by the

readiness of responses

Socialism

1. Banduras Social Cognitive Theorya) Individuals knowledge acquisition is related to observing others within the context of

social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences (replication of the action of

others)

b) Identificationlearning will most likely occur if there is a close identification between

the observer and the model

c) Self-efficacya set of proximal determinants of human motivation, affect and action

through intervening processes

d) Vicarious learningwith the achievement of simple tasks, more complex objectives

are introduced


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e) Moral competencethe ability to perform a moral behaviour

f) Moral performancefollowing ones idea of moral behaviour in a specific situation

g) Learning process through observation

1. Attention2. Retention3. Reproduction4. Motivation

h) Types of modeling

1. Direct imitationthe same act is reproduced2. Indirect imitationthe same class of acts is reproduced3. Direct counter-imitationimitation that is reproduced when necessary in certain situations

(yelling in the field VS yelling in the classroom)

4. Indirect counter-imitationimitation of acts which are applicable in all situations (beingpolite to teachers)

5. Eliciting effectthe observer performs a behaviour to the model but still somewhat different6. Vygotsky Theory

a) Cultural mediation and internalization

1. Internalizationthe knowing how. The mastery of skills occurs through the activity of thechild within society. Guided participation takes place when thinkers interact with a

knowledgeable person

2. Psychology of Playthrough play, the child develops abstract meaning separate from theobjects in the worlda critical feature in developing higher mental functions

3. Thought and Languagespeaking develops along the line of social communication and theline of inner speech (semioticsthe meaningful signs)

4. Zone of Proximal Developmentthe range of tasks that a child can complete. The lowerlimitthe child works independently. The upper limitthe child works with the assistance

of a more capable instructor

Humanism

1. Carl Rogers Personality Theorya) Actualizing tendencythe human organism aims to develop all capacities in ways that

maintain or enhance it towards autonomy (tension, need, drive reductions, pleasure-

seeking). Each person wants to fulfill their potential

b) Self - develops through interactions with others and involves awareness of being and

functioning

c) Self-Actualizing tendencythe need for positive regard from others and the need for

positive self-regard

1. Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs


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a) Physiologicalhealth, food, sleep

b) Safetyshelter, removal from danger

c) Belonginglove, affection, being part of groups

d) Esteemself-esteem and esteem from others

e) Self-actualizationachieving individual potential

Cognitivism

1. Kohlerinsight helps individuals solve their problem2. Tolmanlearning is not a reckless action but a desire to achieve a certain objective3. Piaget1. Schemainformation used to represent a certain concept2. Adaptation and Equilibrationuse schemas as basic form of action3. Assimilation and Accommodationthe use of experiences that complements the new

experience. The changing of cognitive structure

4. Jerome Brunerconjunctive concept, disjunctive concept, relational concept5. David Ausubelderivative subsumption, correlative subsumption, deductive learning,

inductive learning

Constructivism

1. Piagets Cognitive Constructivism Theorya) Adaptation

b) Assimilation

c) Accommodation

d) Operation

e) Conservation

f) Classification

g) Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

1. Skills and knowledge are meaningfully constructed by individuals own effort


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concept of learning envrnmnt

1. physical-condusive classromm, teaching-learning aids, facilities insede & outside

classroom

2. Psychosocial-safety, cleanliness, sense of belonging, ppls need to feel secured-away from

danger

-classroom managment concern all aspect of life in school-ppls personalities

-tcr craft & attitude

-physical facilities in classroom

condusive learning envrnment

1.physical factor-physical arrangement in the classroom

-ppls seating arrangement

-functional arrangement which provides comfortable space for activities & movement

2.social factor-classroom rules & regulation

3.Emotional factor-different leadership style of tcr e.g democratic...autocratic...laisez-faire

play

-intrinsically motivated

-must be freely choosen by ppls, not being forced

-must be pleasure & enjoyable

-must be actively engaged by the ppls

-divided into two -social play

-cognitive play

? play-in general, promotes physical, intellectual&social-emotional development

-H.Spencer=to discharge the energy of the body

-Piaget=to facilitate general cognitive development, to consolidate previous learning, while

allowing new learning

-to form abstract concept, laws & principles e.g principles of conservation&floatation,

through 'playing with object games'

-to develop social skills (communication with other childrens)

-to enhance children reading & writing skills through participation in 'language games'

-to consolidate counting skills through 'mathematical games'

Learning through play

-T&L activity which suitable for preschool & primary school children

-children enjoyed to participate, play freely in an organized activity

-no restricted schedule to be followed

-children allowed to play & solve problem according to their own ideas

Social play

1.solitary - the lowest level of social play

- playing in their own respective imaginary world, even when they are

surrounded with other children2.onlooker -children is involves as a spectator, not as an active participant


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3.parallel -children play separately & independently with the same type of activity, same

place & time

-they aware of the presence of other children

4.Associative -similar to parallel play

-except, children engaged a considerable amount of sharing, lending, taking

turns, communicating

-e.g. two children using sand to build their own castle side by side. They may

have discussion & sharing materials or lending a helping hands

5.co-operative -considered as the highest level in social play

-two 0r more children are engaged in a certain play that has a common goal

-e.g. a group of children may use sand to build a villa. Two of them may

assign to construct the building, the others may help to gather building material etc.

Cognitive play

1.games&rules -involves competition between two or more players

-with rules & regulations agreed in advanced by the players

-it can be an outdoor game

-e.g. chess game, checkers, marble, hide & seek, polis sentri

2.constructive -e.g. children play with blocks of various sizes & shapes. With the blocks,

children construct a variety of building project

3.functional -children use motor sensor & body to do the activity e.g. hoop, jump

4.fantasy -children use their imagination & role play to create new activity according to

their creativity & imagination

-e.g. using a box as a car

5.sociodramatic -verbal interaction between the children

STORY TELLING

-the content should be interesting

-suitable to d age & experience

-tcr has to memorize certain important part of the story

-tcr use effective communicative skills especially variation of intonation

-tcr can insert question during ST

-follow up activities e.g. discussion, story-wriitng, role-play

PLANNING&ORGANIZATION-->STORY TELLING SESSION-->CLOSURE

DISCUSSION

-involved conversation between tcr&ppls or among ppls themselves

-exchanging opinions or ideas under tcr supervision

-e.g. debate, seminar, forum

PLANNING-->INTRODUCTION-->DISCUSSION-->WIND UP-->CONCLUSION


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BRAINSTORMING

-useful for problem-solving

-every ppls allowed to express opinion on the issue

-usually organized in the form of buzz session

PRELIMINARY-->DISCUSSION-->EVALUATION&CONCLUSION

DEMONSTRATING

-inform ppls what the aim&focus activity

-demonstrate/show the way or steps to perform certain activity

-tcr face ppls

-use questioning techniques

-request ppls to demonstrate

PROBLEM SOLVING

-reqiures ppls to make use of relevent skills, principles or theories which they have learned

-use cognitive skill

-should be given as soon as they acquired relevent knowledge&skills

-problem should be prepared according to ppls ability

-tcr should avoid 'demonstrating method'

Dewey's

IDENTIFY PROBLEM-->LOOK 4 INFORMATION/CLUES-->SET UP HYPOTHESIS-->TEST

HYPOTHESIS-->ANALYZE/INTERPRET/EVALUATE/RECORD

Polya'sUNDERSTAND PROBLEM-->PLAN THE PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY-->IMPLEMENT

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY-->CHECK THE SOLUTION

concepts of teaching and learning

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