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Guidance for the Identification of SLD Patterns of Strengths and Weaknesses DRAFT

1 of 17 Updated JBH 8/28/2013

National Model School District Policy

DRAFT 2/2/2013

Guidance for the Identification of Students With Specific Learning Disabilities Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses Methodology and Research

Meeting of the Minds: Learning Disabilities Assoication of America



Basic Reading Skills (BRS)

Development of Working Hypothesis Guiding Statement: Basic reading skills deficits, also known as word-level reading disability or dyslexia, represent approximately 80% of the students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD). SLD in basic reading skills or dyslexia is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition that affects reading decoding and spelling that is often due to poor phonological, orthographic, working memory, and rapid naming abilities (IDA, 2002). Other core basic psychological processes hypothesized to have a strong relationship with basic reading skills include language, long-term memory storage and retrieval, processing speed, attention, and executive functions. When students have SLD in basic reading skills, they have fewer cognitive resources for other academic tasks such as reading fluency, comprehension, and written expression. Basic Reading Skills deficits (dyslexia) may be more phonologically based (phonological dyslexia) or visually based (orthographic, or surface dyslexia) (Feifer, 2007; Mather & Wendling, 2011). Some students have mixed phonological and orthographic deficits. When it is possible to identify the type of basic reading skill deficit (phonological, orthographic, or mixed) the te am may be able to plan for more targeted and effective student instruction.

Generate a picture of the deficits or indicators being experienced by the student and potential strengths by documenting input by various participants (parents, teachers, specialists, etc.) and by checking appropriate boxes below. Formulate hypothesis about the nature of the difficulty and identify potential exclusionary factors to be evaluated.

Hypothesized Academic Indicator descriptions (Check blank box if description applies.) Phonological Orthographic

Difficulty in single-word decoding

Problem naming rapidly all the letters of the alphabet

Problem identifying the sound of a letter

Problems blending two or more sounds

Difficulty identifying that two words rhyme

Overanalyzes phonemes (sounds) within words that slow down word recognition

Failure to identify the starting letters of own name

Failure to identify the initial phoneme of own name

Frequent sight words are not automatically recognized but individual sounds are identified

Makes guesses based on the first letter of unfamiliar words without sounding out

Avoidance or behavior problems when asked to read

Spelling that demonstrates pre-phonetic relationships or no phonetic relationship

Phonologically accurate spelling with few common irregular orthographic patterns (e.g., “-ight”, “-tch”)

Higher skill development in areas that are not dependent on reading

Check One: Primarily phonological type Primarily orthographic type Mixed type

Potential Strengths, Exclusionary Considerations, Educational/Instructional, Family, and Medical History

Hypothesized Basic Psychological Processing Weakness relevant to BRS:

Language Difficulty finding the right word to say or slow, labored, or limited amount of speech

Working Memory Frequently asks for directions to be repeated or gets lost in the middle of a problem

Long Term Memory Does well on daily assignments but doesn’t do well on formative assessment/end of week tests

Processing Speed Takes longer to compete tasks than others the same age

Phonological Difficulty hearing words exactly; makes small mistakes in the sounds of words (e.g., “I thought you said,”)

Attention Mind appears to go blank, gets overwhelmed with difficult tasks, or can’t pay attention for long

Rapid Naming Difficulty naming learned numbers, letters or names quickly, or substitutes the wrong name or word

Orthographic Spells irregular words phonetically rather than by their visual pattern

Executive Functions Difficulty figuring out what is needed for a task, getting started, or sticking to a plan of action

Hypothesized Basic Psychological Processes Strength relevant to BRS:

Visual Spatial Adequate understanding of visually presented materials

Fluid Reasoning Seems to make connections among concepts even when explaining them verbally may be difficult

Sensory Motor Coordination, drawing, and fine-motor skills appear adequate



ACHIEVEMENT AND PERFORMANCE RELATIVE TO AGE BASIC READING SKILLS

ACHIEVEMENT relative to AGE Norm Referenced Assessments

Criteria Administered Strength

YCAT Reading (ages 4 to 7 only) ≤16th %ile; SS≤85 moderate

GORT-IV Accuracy ≤16th %ile; SS≤85 moderate

WJ-III Basic Reading Skills Cluster (LWID + WA) ≤16th %ile; SS≤85 strong

WJ-III Phoneme/Grapheme Cluster (WA + SoS) ≤16th %ile; SS≤85 strong

KTEA-II Sound Symbol (PA + NWD) ≤16th %ile; SS≤85 strong

KTEA-II Decoding (LWR + NWD) ≤16th %ile; SS≤85 strong

WIAT-II Word Reading &/or Pseudoword Decoding ≤16th %ile; SS≤85 moderate

WRMT-R/NU Basic Skills Cluster (LWID + WA) ≤16th %ile; SS≤85 strong

PERFORMANCE relative to AGE Empirically-derived Criterion Assessments

Criteria Administered Value

Phoneme Segmentation Probe <20th %ile moderate

Repeated Phoneme Segmentation Probes (min 5) <20th %ile or slope<aimline strong

Letter/Word ID Probe <20th %ile moderate

Repeated Letter/Word ID Probes (min 5) <20th %ile or slope<aimline strong

ACHIEVEMENT AND PERFORMANCE RELATIVE TO STATE GRADE LEVEL STANDARDS BASIC READING SKILLS

ACHIEVEMENT relative to STATE STANDARDS Curriculum/Grade Leveled Assessments


State Group Assessment – Reading Not Met (current year) ≤16

th %ile previous years

moderate

PERFORMANCE relative to STATE STANDARDS Curriculum/Grade Leveled Assessments


State Standards Matrix (see handout) 4 or 5 on Team Judgment strong

Standards-based report card Not yet, D, F moderate

Teacher-scored reading/vocab from curriculum Not passing or <60% moderate

Graded Reading Activity from Curriculum Not passing or <60% moderate

Anecdotal information such as observations, history, hypothesis statement checklists, and teacher report.

Considerations for evaluation of ELL students (see PPS SLD-ELL guidelines and resources document for complete guidelines): Do chosen assessment instruments account for degree of cultural and/or linguistic demand? Has the student’s level of second language acquisition been obtained? Are errors in basic reading skills reflective of phonological or letter-sound correspondence differences between languages? 2. This list is not exhaustive. Additional assessments may supplement those listed here when consistent with domain of assessment.



Reading Fluency (RF) Development of Working Hypothesis

Guiding Statement: Reading fluency is the most recent addition to the classification model in the federal language around Specific Learning Disabilities. Although the measurement of reading fluency is relatively straightforward, it involves a number of processes that are highly correlated. Poor reading fluency may also be primarily caused by word-level reading and phonological deficits, although evidence for a fluency-only subtype of learning disability does exist. Basic psychological processes primarily involved in reading fluency include language, working memory long-term memory storage and retrieval, processing speed, attention, rapid naming, orthographic processing, and executive functions.

General Steps: 1. Generate a picture of the deficits or indicators being experienced by the student. 2. Gather information about potential strengths. 3. Allow and document input by various participants (parents, teachers, specialists, etc.). 4. Formulate hypothesis about the nature of the difficulty and identify potential exclusionary factors to be evaluated.

Hypothesized Indicator descriptions (check to right if description applies) Accuracy* Fluency

Problems accurately identifying individual letters

Problems quickly associating a letter with a sound

Increased effort when naming letters

Substitution of words

Difficulty using context to correctly identify words

Frequent pauses in between words in connected text

Frequently guesses at words

Makes careless errors that

Difficulty reading simple connecting or function words such as that, an, in, the, etc.

Oral reading that is choppy, not fluent, or not in rhythm with normal speech patterns (poor prosody)

Missing phonemes in the middle or end of words

Problems with reading words in isolation

Inability to finish reading tasks or tests in a reasonable amount of time *If accuracy issues are the primary problem, consider Basic Reading Skills (BRS) domain PPS thanks Eugene 4J for its help generating this hypothesis statement

Potential Strengths, Exclusionary Considerations, Educational/Instructional, Family, and Medical History

1. When accuracy may be impacting fluency, consider effects of poor phonological awareness on decoding first (see Basic Reading Skills).

Hypothesized Cognitive Indicator with moderate to strong research-based link to BRS (Check if description applies. These are possible deficits; deficits in any of these areas may be relevant to the identification of a specific learning disability in BRS)

Difficulty finding the right word to say or slow, labored, or limited amount of speech Language

Frequently asks for directions to be repeated or gets lost in the middle of a problem Working Memory

Does well on daily assignments but doesn’t do well on formative assessment/end of week tests Long Term Memory

Takes longer to compete tasks than others the same age Processing Speed

Mind appears to go blank, gets overwhelmed with difficult tasks, or can’t pay attention for long Attention

Difficulty naming learned numbers, letters or names quickly, or substitutes the wrong name or word Rapid Naming

Spells irregular words phonetically rather than by their visual pattern Orthographic

Difficulty figuring out what is needed for a task, getting started, or sticking to a plan of action Executive Functions

Hypothesized Basic Psychological Processes without research-based links to BRS (check if description applies; students may have strengths in these areas; however, they may have deficits in these areas and still have a specific learning disability in BRS)

Adequate understanding of visually presented materials Visual Spatial

Seems to make connections among concepts even when explaining them verbally may be difficult Fluid Reasoning

Difficulty hearing words exactly; makes small mistakes in the sounds of words (e.g., “I thought you said,”) Phonological

Coordination, drawing, and fine-motor skills appear adequate Sensory Motor



Reading Comprehension (RC)

Development of Working Hypothesis Guiding Statement: For the majority of students, reading comprehension problems are related fundamentally to decoding problems at the individual word level. For example, many students age six to eight, phonemic awareness deficits may impact basic reading skills and therefore affect reading comprehension. In later teen years, students with auditory processing problems may also experience difficulty with subject area vocabulary and reading comprehension. Nevertheless, there is evidence that a percentage of students demonstrate poor comprehension despite adequate decoding ability (Catts, 2003). Students with poor reading comprehension may lack not only poor decoding, but also comprehension in oral listening tasks and/or written language (Berninger, 2007). Poor fluency with reading tasks can also negatively impact overall comprehension. Therefore, it is unlikely that any single underlying source may be solely attributed to poor reading comprehension (Cain, 2006). Core basic psychological processes contributing to reading comprehension may include attention, language use (including listening comprehension and vocabulary development), memory and learning (e.g., working memory), metacognition, problem-solving/judgment (including making inferences and deductions), and processing speed.

General Steps: 5. Generate a picture of the deficits or indicators being experienced by the student. 6. Gather information about potential strengths. 7. Allow and document input by various participants (parents, teachers, specialists, etc.). 8. Formulate hypothesis about the nature of the difficulty and identify potential exclusionary factors to be evaluated.

Hypothesized Indicator descriptions (check to right if description applies) Check

Difficulty understanding oral directions at an age/grade appropriate level

Uses imprecise vocabulary

Trouble remembering what was read

Difficulty retelling a story

Problems defining vocabulary

Trouble recalling relevant detail from a passage

Difficulty retelling a sequence of consecutive actions

Problems drawing an accurate picture from an age appropriate orally presented story

Problems with cloze or maze reading tasks

Difficulty providing possible outcomes in a given unfinished story

Problems identifying inconsistencies in a contrived story

Problems sorting and sequencing randomized sentences from the same story (story anagram)

Difficulty with inference tasks (providing missing elements, elaboration on detail, etc.)

Hypothesized Cognitive Indicator with moderate to strong research-based link to BRS (Check if description applies. These are possible deficits; deficits in any of these areas may be relevant to the identification of a specific learning disability in BRS)

Language Difficulty finding the right word to say or slow, labored, or limited amount of speech

Working Memory Frequently asks for directions to be repeated or gets lost in the middle of a problem

Long Term Memory Does well on daily assignments but doesn’t do well on formative assessment/end of week tests

Processing Speed Takes longer to compete tasks than others the same age

Phonological Difficulty hearing words exactly; makes small mistakes in the sounds of words (e.g., “I thought you said,”)

Attention Mind appears to go blank, gets overwhelmed with difficult tasks, or can’t pay attention for long

Rapid Naming Difficulty naming learned numbers, letters or names quickly, or substitutes the wrong name or word

Orthographic Spells irregular words phonetically rather than by their visual pattern

Executive Functions Difficulty figuring out what is needed for a task, getting started, or sticking to a plan of action

Hypothesized Basic Psychological Processes strength-no research-based link to BRS (check if description applies; students may have strengths in these areas; however, they may have deficits and still have a specific learning disability in BRS)

Visual Spatial Adequate understanding of visually presented materials

Fluid Reasoning Seems to make connections among concepts even when explaining them verbally may be difficult

Sensory Motor Coordination, drawing, and fine-motor skills appear adequate



Math Calculation (MC) Development of Working Hypothesis

Math calculation skills have generally been conceptualized and evaluated as paper-and-pencil math computations. However, brain-based math calculation skill development is somewhat more complex. Researchers have examined developmental elements such as number sense (immediately apprehending exact quantities of small collections of objects and the approximate magnitudes of larger collections, estimation, and making small adjustments in numbers of items relatively automatically) and counting knowledge and strategies (1:1 correspondence, stable order, cardinality, abstraction, etc.). There are three subtypes of brain-based math disabilities: procedural, semantic, and visuospatial (Geary et al. 2011). Math calculation activities may be affected by any of these. These distinctions become important in both assessment and intervention for math calculation and math reasoning problems. Their characteristics are listed below. The type of math instruction in schools may also play a role in diagnosis and intervention. Nearly a decade of math instruction has emphasized conceptual problem solving which may have resulted in a reduced emphasis on instruction in basic number skills (Geary, 2004). Cognitive correlates of calculation skills have been centered on executive functions (particularly inhibiting irrelevant items), attention, memory and learning (working memory, long-term storage and retrieval, and rapid naming), meta-cognition (sequential reasoning), problem solving (particularly quantitative reasoning), and speed of cognitive processing.

General Steps: 9. Generate a picture of the deficits or indicators being experienced by the student. 10. Gather information about potential strengths. 11. Allow and document input by various stakeholders (parents, teachers, specialists, etc.). 12. Formulate hypothesis about the nature of the problem and identify potential exclusionary factors to be evaluated.

Hypothesized Symptom descriptions (check if description applies) Semantic Visual Procedural

Difficulty understanding geometric concepts and relationships

Problems with rapid number identification

Early delays in counting objects or object sets

Errors in regrouping process including column alignment, 0’s, decrementing

Require excessive repetition of math facts for learning

Difficulty retrieving math facts such as answers to simple math problems

Difficulty making charts or visuals from equations

When facts are retrieved, there is a high error rate

Uses inefficient or ineffective strategies when solving simple problems

Errors are often “neighbors” of the numbers in the problem (e.g., 2 + 5 = 6)

Lack of understanding of concepts underlying use of certain procedures

Gets the same problem wrong after solving it correctly earlier

Uses less mature procedures for computations (finger counting, counting all)

Problems with sequence or order in computations

Delayed response times on simple counting or computations

Difficulty with graphs, charts, and other visual math

Hypothesized Basic Psychological Processes moderate to strong research-based link to MC:

Hypothesized Basic Psychological Processes moderate to weak research-based link to MC:

Working Memory

Long-Term Memory Storage & Retrieval

Fluid Reasoning

Processing Speed

Sensory-Motor Functions

Attention

Rapid Automatic Naming

Orthographic Processing

Executive Functions

Visual Spatial2

Language1

Phonological Awareness3

Academic Strengths:

Cognitive Strengths

Exclusionary Considerations, Instructional/Educational History, Family History, Medical History



Written Expression (WE) Development of Working Hypothesis

Guiding Statement: Written language disabilities co-occur with reading disabilities about 75% of the time (Katusic et. al, 2009) but they may exist separately. Current research tends to group written language disorders into three brain-based categories. The first two categories are dysgraphia (poor handwriting related to impaired orthographic memory and processing) and dyslexia (see Basic Reading Skills) (Mather & Wendling, 2011). Dysgraphia and dyslexia can be caused by deficits in phonological, orthographic, or morphological memory. Both conditions affect basic writing skills (i.e., spelling and editing). They may also affect writing speed. The third category of written language disorders is Oral and Written Language Disorder (OWL-LD) (Berninger, 2011). Students with OWL LD are sometimes made eligible for special education services under the category of Communication Disordered (CD) because their disability may affect the primary areas of language: semantics, syntax, and morphology. OWL LD students may also have difficulty with basic writing skills. Teams should be aware that other disabilities in executive functions (e.g., ADHD, ASD) might also impair students’ written expression achievement. Current federal guidelines require teams to examine only written expression as an eligibility category. However, teams are encouraged to be mindful of the components of brain-based written language categories because of their relevance to academic intervention. The basic psychological processes of written expression are language, working memory, fluid reasoning, processing speed, sensory motor, attention, and executive functions.

Hypothesized Indicator descriptions (check to right if description applies) Dysgraphia, Dyslexia OWL LD

Poor narrative (consistent style, point of view, etc.)

Poor spelling (phonological, additional syllables, etc.)

Limited use of punctuation, incorrect punctuation

Demonstrates poor grammatical structure (verb tense, subject verb agreement, etc.)

Uses poor semantics (words with wrong meaning)

Poor letter formation

Poor descriptive quality

Poor organization

Poor visual format (spacing, paragraphs, indentation, margins, etc.)

Incorrect or missing capitalizations

Does not correct mistakes (revising for content, mechanics, etc.)

Problems with vocabulary (age appropriate words, descriptive, imaginative)

Poor decoding/reading skills

Type 1:Primarily handwriting and spelling (dysgraphia, dyslexia) Type 2: Primarily written expression (OWL LD) Combination of both types

Hypothesized Basic Psychological Processes moderate to strong research-based link to WE:

Hypothesized Basic Psychological Processes moderate to weak research-based link to WE:

Language

Working Memory

Fluid Reasoning

Processing Speed

Sensory Motor Functions

Attention

Executive Functions

Visual Spatial

Long Term Memory Storage & Retrieval

Phonological Awareness

Rapid Automatic Naming


Academic Strengths:

Cognitive Strengths

Exclusionary Considerations, Instructional/Educational History, Family History, Medical History



Assessments Alternative Assessments

Cognitive to Achievement Grid

Vis

ua

l-S

patia

l

Lang

uag

e

Work

ing M

em

ory

Long-T

erm

Sto

rag

e-

Retr

ieva

l (L

earn

ing)

Flu

id R

eason

ing

Pro

cessin

g S

peed

Pho

no

log

ical

Aw

are

ness

Sensory

-Moto

r

Functio

ns

Atte

ntion

Rapid

Auto

matic

Nam

ing

Ort

hogra

phic

Pro

cessin

g

Executive F

unctions

Basic Reading Skills

Reading Fluency

Reading Comprehen-sion

Math Calculation

Math Problem Solving

Written Expression

Directions: This grid is designed as an overview of the most likely basic psychological processes involved in each federally defined area of academic achievement skill. As with all basic psychological events, there is overlap between processes as well as across/among academic domains.

= Relationship between cognitive process and academic achievement area.



Basic Psychological Processes

Required Initial Assessments Visual-Spatial Visual-Spatial abilities help generate, perceive, analyze, synthesize, manipulate, transform and think with visual patterns and stimuli. These abilities should not be confused as measures of sight (vision), but rather as indicators of more complex cognitive activities after visual perception has occurred. “Narrow,” or specific, visual-spatial abilities include spatial relations, visual-perceptual organization and reasoning, visual memory, visualization, spatial scanning, and visual planning. Current measures for “broad” or general visual-spatial abilities are not highly correlated to most academic achievement areas. However, some narrow abilities may be related to other basic psychological processes/abilities that are critical to academic achievement (e.g., memory and learning, orthographic processing, and executive functions). Teams must use measures of visual-spatial abilities upon initial evaluation when determining if a student has an “otherwise normal cognitive ability profile.” Language Language abilities involve using verbal information to define concepts and solve problems. They refer to the breadth and depth of a person’s acquired knowledge of a culture and the effective application of that knowledge. Language abilities include declarative (static, “what”) knowledge, procedural (dynamic, “how to”) knowledge, understanding and production of meaningful speech, and interpersonal communication. Aspects of the language abilities have been measured by tests of verbal reasoning and crystallized intelligence. Other aspects include oral receptive language, oral expressive language, listening comprehension, vocabulary development, and general knowledge. Language abilities include semantics (word knowledge), syntax (sentence structure), morphology (word parts: base words and affixes that signal meaning or grammar), and pragmatics (using language in social situations). Language abilities vary, and they differ in their impact upon student learning. Their importance generally increases with student age. Therefore, teams must be sensitive to developmental factors and use appropriate language measures when determining a “pattern of strengths and weaknesses” (PSW). Working Memory Working memory is the capacity to hold information in mind for the purpose of 1) temporarily maintaining and 2) simultaneously processing information. Working memory is required to efficiently analyze, reconfigure, and encode information that must be stored into long-term memory. Working memory may be represented by auditory means (e.g., phonological loop) or by visual means (e.g., visual-spatial sketchpad). Working memory is required when planning and completing sequential steps to solve a problem or achieve a goal. Working memory is essential for the acquisition of skill mastery that leads to automatic reading, writing and math processes, and to following complex directions. Teams may also consider other aspects of memory as basic psychological abilities. This includes short-term memory, memory span, and meaningful memory. Long-Term Memory Storage and Retrieval (Learning) Long-term memory storage and retrieval is the ability to 1) store information in long-term memory and 2) quickly and accurately retrieve previously learned information from long-term memory. Long-term storage includes associative memory (also known as paired-associate learning or sound/symbol encoding). Long-term retrieval begins within a few minutes or hours of learning a task. Retrieval includes ideational fluency, word fluency (quickly producing words that have specific phonemic, structural, or orthographic characteristics), and rapid automatic naming. Fluid Reasoning Fluid reasoning refers to the mental operations used when faced with a novel task that cannot be performed automatically. These metal operations may include forming and recognizing concepts, perceiving relationships among patterns, drawing inferences, comprehending implications, using inductive reasoning, problem solving, and extrapolating.



Fluid reasoning also includes general sequential reasoning: hypothesizing, planning, initiating, monitoring performance, and analyzing results. Fluid reasoning may also be involved in motivation, creativity, social awareness, emotional control, and behavioral regulation. If a student displays difficulty with either emotional control or behavioral regulation, the educational team may complete further assessment to ascertain the student’s social and emotional learning status. Processing Speed Processing speed is the ability to make fast and accurate decisions on relatively familiar tasks under timed conditions. Sometimes referred to as “attentive speediness,” processing speed includes perceptual speed, number facility, reaction time, speed in generating solutions, etc. Processing speed shares variance with some memory and learning processes such as rapid automatic naming. Phonological Awareness Auditory Processing is the underlying cognitive mechanism involved in using auditory information for the purpose of learning. It is the ability to perceive, analyze, and synthesize patterns among auditory stimuli. Narrow abilities that comprise auditory processing include phonological awareness (including rhyming, phoneme segmentation, deletion, elision, isolation, blending, matching and substitution), sound discrimination, and auditory attention (ability to detect differences in speech sounds under conditions of distraction or distortion). Phonological awareness is even more highly predictive of deficits in basic reading skills than auditory processing.

Optional Assessments Because of the extensive research literature regarding the following processes, teams may use them when determining PSW. Sensory-Motor Functions Sensory-Motor functions are not defined as basic psychological processes and may not be used as a factor when determining a “pattern of strengths and weaknesses: (PSW). Instead teams must consider that sensory-motor functions serve as a base for all of the higher order psychological processes. For example, if a child’s vision is poor, then his/her higher-order process of visual memory may be compromised. Sensory (input) problems include stimulus detection, sensory discrimination, over- or under-stimulation, and sensory-motor integration. Motor (output) problems include both gross motor (large movements) and fine motor (small movements, particularly eye-to-hand) control deficits. Therefore, when evaluation teams suspect sensory-motor deficits, they must review health information, assess sensory and/or motor functions, and integrate the assessment information with other test results. Attention Attention involves the ability to attend to stimuli in a systematic and effective manner. Types of attention include selective/focused attention (including inhibiting responses when necessary), sustained attention (the ability to stay on task, often measured by tests of continuous performance), shifting attention (refocusing on a new task and/or avoiding “getting stuck” on one task), and divided attention (responding to more than one task simultaneously by means of “rapid automatic switching”). Attention may be influenced by momentary and/or long-term attention capacity (e.g., memory span, behavioral distractibility and poor motivation). Rapid Automatic Naming Ability Rapid automatic naming (RAN) is the ability to rapidly produce names for concepts when presented with a pictorial or verbal cue. RAN is best descried as the fluency or speed of lexical access. In CHC theory, RAN is related to retrieval from long-term memory and to processing speed. Orthographic Processing



Orthographic processing is the rapid and accurate formation of word images in memory. “Individuals with orthographic dyslexia often have difficulty recalling sight words and, subsequently, are slow to develop fluency and automaticity…in decoding (reading) or encoding (spelling) skills. One common characteristic of individuals with orthographic dyslexia is that they have difficulty storing mental representations of phonetically irregular words or gestalts. As a result, they rely primarily on phonic principles for reading and produce misspellings that have good phonetic resemblance to target words.” Roberts, R. & Mather, N. (1997). Orthographic dyslexia: The neglected subtype. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 12, 236-250. Executive Functions/Processes “Executive functions are directive capacities that are responsible for a person’s ability to engage in purposeful, organized, strategic, self-regulated, goal-directed processing of perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and actions. As a collection of directive capacities, executive functions cue the use of other mental capacities such as reasoning, language, and visuospatial representation.” (McCloskey et al., 2009, p.15). Executive functions allow the individual to recognize the nature of a problem, analyze and synthesize multiple elements of a problem, prioritize, plan a sequential and logical course of action, organize necessary materials, initiate each step, and monitor/evaluate his/her performance. Evaluation teams may use measures of executive functions as a factor when determining a “pattern of strengths and weaknesses” (PSW) if these measures are “direct” (individually-administered, norm-referenced assessments). However, many executive function assessments are more indirect (checklists, observations). In such cases teams must use as measures of performance relative to intellectual development. If a student exhibits executive function deficits on direct or indirect measures, teams are encouraged to report on the student’s study skills and how they affect his/her learning.



ACHIEVEMENT RELATIVE TO INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT-REQUIRED ASSESSMENTS

Composite Scores are in bold type. Subtest scores are in regular type. Scores used to determine a PSW in basic psychological

process must either be a composite score or a score comprised of two or more subtests from within one process (within a column). BRS: Basic Reading Skills RF: Reading Fluency RC: Reading Comprehension MC: Math Calculation MPS: Math Problem Solving WE: Written Expression

Pro

ces

s

Visual-Spatial

Language

Working Memory

Long-Term Storage & Retrieval (Learning)

Fluid Reasoning

Processing Speed


Are

a

s

BRS, RF, RC BRS, RF, RC BRS, RF, RC RC BRS, RF BRS

MPS MPS MC, MPS MC MC, MPS MC, MPS

WE WE WE WE

WJ I

II WJ III Visual-

Spatial Thinking WJ-III Verbal Comp

WJ-III Working Memory

WJ III Long-Term Memory Storage and Retrieval

WJ III Fluid Reasoning

WJ-III Processing Speed

WJ III Phonemic Awareness 3

WJ I

II WJ-III Short-

Term Memory WJ III Rapid Picture Naming

WJ-III Cognitive Fluency, WJ-III Pair Cancellation

WJ III Auditory Processing

WIIS

C-I

V WISC-IV Block

Design, Picture Completion

WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension

WISC-IV/WAIS-IV Working Memory

Consider WISC-IV Integrated VCI and VCI Multiple Choice Coding Recall

WISC-IV Picture Concepts, Matrix Reasoning

WISC-IV/WAIS-IV Processing Speed

CA

S

CAS Figure Memory

CAS Verbal Spatial Relations

CAS Successive

CAS Expressive Attention

CAS Nonverbal Matrices

CAS Matching #, Receptive Attn. Planned Codes, # Detection

KA

BC

-II

KABC-II Knowledge

KABC-II Knowledge

KABC-II Sequential KABC-II Hand Movements

KABC-II Learning KTEA-II Naming Facility

KABC-II Planning

KTEA-II Oral Fluency

KTEA-II Phonological Awareness

DA

S II DAS-II Spatial DAS-II Verbal DAS-II Working

Memory DAS-II Rapid Naming

DAS-II Nonverbal Reasoning

DAS-II Processing Speed

DAS-II Auditory Processing

CE

LF

CELF-IV Expressive Language

CELF-4 Working Memory

CELF-4 Phonological Awareness

CT

OP

P CTOPP

Phonological Memory

CTOPP Rapid Naming

CTOPP Phonological Awareness

UN

IT UNIT Cube

Design, Mazes UNIT Analogic

Reasoning

SB

5 SB5 Visual-

Spatial Processing

SB5 Verbal and Non-Verbal Knowledge

SB5 Working Memory

SB5 Fluid Reasoning

W-2

WRAML-2 Visual Memory Index

WRAML-2 Working Memory

WRAML-2 Sound Symbol and Delayed Memory

Oth

er

NEPSY-II Visuospatial Processing Tests, PAL-II Spatial WM

NEPSY-II Language Tests PAL-II Morphological Syntactic Code

PAL-II Working Memory

NEPSY-II Memory and Learning Tests PAL-II Numeric Coding

PAL-II Numeral Writing

NEPSY-II Phonological PAL-II Phonological



ACHIEVEMENT RELATIVE TO INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT-OPTIONL ASSESSMENTS

Composite Scores are in bold type. Subtest scores are in regular type. Scores used to determine a PSW in basic psychological

process must either be a composite score or a score comprised of two or more subtests from within one process (within one column). BRS: Basic Reading Skills RF: Reading Fluency RC: Reading Comprehension MC: Math Calculation MPS: Math Problem Solving WE: Written Expression

Pro

cess


Attention Rapid Automatic Naming


Executive Functions

Are

a BRS, RF, RC BRS, RF BRS, RF BRS, RF, RC

MC MC, MPS MC MC MC, MR

WE WE WE

WJ I

II WJ III Handwriting

(Marker, not measure)

WJ-III Broad Attention

WJ III Cognitive Fluency

WJ III Spelling of Sounds (Marker, not measure)

WJ I

II WJ III Rapid Picture

Naming

WIIS

C-I

V WISC-IV Coding

(Marker, not measure), WISC-IV Block Design and Block Design MC

Consider WISC-IV Integrated

Test of Orthographic Competence

CA

S CAS Attention Test of Irregular

Word Competence

KA

BC

-II

KABC-II Hand Movements

KABC-II Word Order Number Recall, Hand Movements

KTEA-II Naming Facility

DA

S II

DAS-II Recall of Designs (Marker, not measure)

DAS-II Rapid Naming

DAS-II Recall of Designs Marker, not Measure

CT

OP

P CTOPP Rapid

Naming

UNIT Memory (Marker)

N-I

I

NEPSY-II Sensorimotor Tests

NEPSY II Auditory Attention

NEPSY-II Speeded Naming

NEPSY-II Memory for Design

NEPSY-II Executive Function Tests

OT

HE

RS

Bender-Gestalt II PAL-II: Finger Sense, Handwriting, Oral Motor Planning, Fingertip Writing Beery VMI-5 Dean Woodcock Peabody DMS-2

WRAML-2 Attention and Concentration Conners Continuous Performance Test

PAL-II RAN/RAS, RAN Digits and Double Digits

PAL-II Orthographic Coding, Orthographic Spelling

PAL-II RAS Words and Digits



PERFORMANCE RELATIVE TO INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Composite Scores are in bold type. Subtest scores are in regular type. Scores are used to determine corroboration of cognitive test

results. Scores from standardized rating scales are considered strong measures. Scores from non-standardized measures, observations, or task analysis are considered moderate measures. Teams must use professional judgment to determine if there is a corresponding deficit in the “performance relative to intellectual development” domain.

Pro

cess Visual-Spatial

Language

Working Memory

Long-Term Storage & Retrieval (Learning)

Fluid Reasoning

Processing Speed


Are

a

s

BRS, RF, RC BRS, RF, RC BRS, RF, RC RC BRS, RF BRS

MPS MPS MC, MPS MC MC, MPS MC, MPS

WE WE WE WE

CP

PS

Visual Spatial Processing

Oral Language Working Memory

Long-Term Recall

Fluid Reasoning Processing Speed

Phonological Processing, Auditory Processing

BA

SC

BASC-2 Functional Communication

BASC-2 Learning Problems

BR

IEF

BRIEF Working Memory

BRIEF Organization of Materials

BRIEF Behavioral Regulation Index

BRIEF Plan/Organize

Co

nn

Conners CBRS Academic Difficulties – Language Scale

Conners-3 Learning/ Executive

Non-standardized methods of measuring executive functioning and attention that cut across all psychological process areas include semi-structured interviews and observations such as:

Executive Function Student Observation Form, Executive Function Structured Interview, Thinking Skills Inventory, Ziggurat Checklists

Neuropsychological Processing Concerns Checklist

PPS Direct Observation of Psychological Processes Worksheet Required Assessments*

Visual-Spatial Language Working Memory

Long-Term Storage & Retrieval

Fluid Reasoning

Processing Speed


Difficulty remembering shapes, colors or other details

Difficulty handling large amounts of verbal info at one sitting

Inconsistently follows verbal instructions

Forgetting the rules of games or activities played previously

Has difficulty not acting on first impulse

Concentrates on minor or irrelevant details

Difficulty composing words from sounds

Poorly formed letters or numbers not due to fine motor problems

Difficulty perceiving relationships between verbal elements

Problems with initial mastery

Difficulty finding personal possessions that student put away by him/herself

Has difficulty with transitions

Works well only in short intervals

Difficulty rhyming

Requires more extended verbal explanations of visual materials

Problems with abstract terms or figurative language

Tendency to lose track when working on sequential activities

Forgetting words learned on a previous page or material learned the previous day

Does not generate novel solutions to problems, gets stuck

Trouble with word-finding, frequent pauses

Problems breaking words down into their component sounds

Prefers words to pictures

Limited vocabulary development or word finding problems

Solves only one- or two-step problems when most children solve more steps

Forgetting the daily schedule

Does not move fluidly between big and little picture

Passive learning, requires frequent repetition of instruction

Frequent confusion of words due to mistaking sounds



PERFORMANCE RELATIVE TO INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT: OPTIONL ASSESSMENTS

Pro

cess Sensory Motor

Functions Attention Rapid Automatic

Naming Orthographic Processing

Executive Functions

Are

a BRS, RF, RC BRS, RF BRS, RF BRS, RF, RC

MC MC, MPS MC MC MC, MR

WE WE WE

CP

PS

Fine Motor Attention Long-Term Recall Executive Functions

BA

SC

BASC-2 Attention Problems

BR

IEF

BRIEF Metacognition Scale

Co

nn

Connors 3-T Inattention

PP

C PCC-R Attention

Non-standardized methods of measuring executive functioning and attention that cut across all psychological process areas include semi-structured interviews and observations such as:

Executive Function Student Observation Form

Executive Function Structured Interview

Thinking Skills Inventory

Ziggurat Checklists

PPS Direct Observation of Psychological Processes Worksheet-Optional Assessments


Attention Rapid Automatic Naming


Executive Functions

Trouble with areas of self-help skills such as tying shoes or buttoning

Unusual or erratic patterns of error

Has words on “the tip of the tongue” but can’t remember them

Spells many irregular words phonetically or poorly

Has a hard time getting started on an activity despite having skill set

Approaches motor tasks in a haphazard or inefficient way

Easily distracted from relatively mundane tasks

Takes long pauses in speaking

Difficulty writing numbers quickly

Has difficulty sustaining attention

Clumsiness when handling materials

Inattentiveness to errors

Uses the wrong word or “speaks around” a word or someone’s name

Spells the same word inconsistently several times in the same writing activity

Does not anticipate the time or sequence necessary for task completion

Poor handwriting Problems when focusing on more than one thing at a time

Has difficulty recalling known words from a particular category

Cannot predict letters missing from words

Does not check work and/or has difficulty correcting errors



Work Sheet

Strengths/Weaknesses Chart (MofM thanks Eugene 4J School District for their permission to adapt its form.)

Basic Reading

Reading Fluency

Reading Comprehen

sion

Math Calculation

Math Problem Solving

Written Expression

Oral Expression

Listening Comp.

Norm-referenced Academic Assessment

S W I S W I S W I S W I S W I S W I S W I S W I

Progress Monitoring RTI Data


State Achievement Test or Equivalency


Standards Matrix or Standards Based Report Card


Anecdotal Information (Observation, History


Psychological Processes

Standardized Assessments

Strengths: Weaknesses: Inconclusive:

Visual Spatial Language Working Memory Long-Term Memory Fluid Reasoning Processing Speed Phonological Sensory-Motor Attention Rapid Naming Orthographic Executive Functions

Rating scales Strengths: Weaknesses: Inconclusive:

Semi-Structured Observations or

Interviews


Classroom Observations and/or

Direct Observation of Psychological Processes

Worksheet


Exclusionary Factors: Lack of appropriate instruction Yes No

Lack of English language proficiency (See district ELL guidelines and procedures document) Yes No

Cultural factors Yes No

Environmental factors Yes No

Economic disadvantage Yes No



Research References

EXAMPLE: Gv and Math

Visual-Spatial

Visual-Spatial Abilities and Math

“Assel and colleagues (2003) showed that visuospatial ability related to later executive function but not vice versa, pointing to a developmental trajectory in which spatial skills develop prior to and underlie executive functions but in which both cognitive abilities have separate specific effects on math skills. Other studies also support the existence of spatial and executive function components in math achievement, although this support is evident only after a critical examination of the tests that were utilized.”

Osmon, D.C., Smerz, J.M., Braun, M.M., & Plamback, E. (2006). Processing abilities associated with math skills in adult learning disability. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 23, pp. 84-95.

“Cognitive studies combined with research on arithmetical difficulties associated with brain injury (i.e., dyscalculia) and with behavioral genetic studies of individual differences in mathematical abilities provided clues as to possible sources of the problem-solving characteristics of children with Arithmetic Disorder (AD). The integration of these literatures resulted in a taxonomy of three general subtypes of MD, procedural, semantic memory, and visuospatial…Visuospatial subtype cognitive and performance features (include) difficulties in spatially representing numerical and other forms of mathematical information and relationships (and) frequent misinterpretation or misunderstanding of spatially represented materials. Neuropsychological features appear to be associated with right-hemispheric dysfunction…(However,) the relation between visuospatial competencies and AD has not been fully explored. In theory, visuospatial deficits should affect performance in some mathematical domains, such as certain areas of geometry and the solving of complex word problems, but not other domains, such as fact retrieval or knowledge of geometric theorems.”

Geary, D.C. (2003). Learning disabilities in arithmetic: Problem-solving differences and cognitive deficits. In H. Swanson, K. Harris, & S. Graham, (Eds), Handbook of Learning Disabilities (pp. 199-212). New York: The Guilford Press.

“The third subtype of MD, the visual-spatial subtype, has been researched and described extensively by Byron Rourke at the University of Windsor….Rourke (1994) has provided convincing evidence that children with this subtype of MD have poor visual-spatial organization, psychomotor, tactile-perceptual, and concept formation skills, but adequate rote, automatic verbal skills…They also show semantic problems when verbal information is complex or novel. (p. 214)

Hale, J.B. & Fiorello, C.A. (2004). School Neuropsychology: A Practitioner’s Handbook. New York: The Guilford Press.

For a more extensive review of visual spatial and other abilities on math disabilities, including Geary (2003), Wilson & Dehaene (2007), and Hale, Fiorello, & Miller (2008), please see Maricle, D.E., Psimas-Fraser, L, Muenke, R.C., & Miller, D.C. (2010). Assessing and intervening with children with math disorders. In Miller, D.C. (Ed.). Best Practices in School Neuropsychology: Guidelines for Effective Practice, Assessment, and Evidence-Based Intervention. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Visual-Spatial Abilities and Written Expression

“Although visual processing abilities may contribute to the earliest stages of spelling acquisition, this study indicates primarily negligible effects of Visual-Spatial Thinking on writing achievement throughout the period of analysis. These results replicate the findings from McGrew and Knopik (1993). It is likely that orthographic coding skills, which were not targeted in this study, account for the expected relations between visual processing abilities and writing skills (Berninger, 1994).”

Floyd, R.G., McGrew, K.S., & Evans, J.J. (2008). The relative contributions of the CHC cognitive abilities in explaining writing achievement during childhood and adolescence. Psychology in the Schools, 45(2), 132-144. (WJ III ACH and COG only)

See also: “Orthographic Processing”

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