C 28 The civil rights movement

(1945-1966)

Al Gore’s father was for the Southern Manifesto

Rosa Parks Mini Bio http://youtu.be/v8A9gvb5Fh0

Dr. Martin Luther Kings home while a pastor at the Dexter Parish in Montgomery, Alabama. King used St.Paul’s, Vedas, St. Thomas More, Socrates and Ghandi’s ideas of non violence,

Montgomery Improvement Association wanted to stop desegregation and was lead by Martin Luther King

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Origins of the Movement

The NAACP mushroomed from 50,000 to 500,000. The NAACP was able to gain leadership under lawyers. Lawyers such as Thurgood Marshall who graduated from Black Law School. The Morgan vs Virginia declared interstate commerce clause as unconstitutional a victory for the blacks.

Law Schools were desegregated first:

University of Missouri and Maryland University allowed blacks to be admitted.

Also black schools such as Howard and Fisk Universities upgraded their program. Thurgood Marshall Supreme Court Justice was a product of this system

Students who were arrested for traveling on the Greyhound lines. These students wanted to prove the Virginia vs. Morgan ruling for desegregation of busing.

In 1947 the “Freedom Ride” was established by CORE Congress of Racial Equality. The freedom rides were used by the support of the Morgan vs Virginia.

SNCC Freedom Riders

MFDC (Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party was to try to take seats of the states all white officials of 1964 Democratic National Convention

Between 1961 and 1965 an estimated twenty-five black civil rights workers paid with their lives. Two of the deaths were white students from Mississippi and the inability of federal government to protect citizens seeking to enjoy their constitutional rights. In 2005 forty one years after the Freedom Rides a member of the Ku Klux Klan was charged with manslaughter .

Noble Prize winner Ralph Bunche would not met with the undersecretary of state in Washington DC because he would not want his family humiliated by segregation laws.

Bebop was more sophisticated knowledge of harmony and melody and featured more complex rhymes and extended improvisation than did previous jazz style. The boppers insisted on independence from the white defined norms of show business Serious about both their music and the way it was presented they refused to cater to white stereotypes of grinning, easygoing black performers

The Segregated South

Literacy and poll taxes were used to minimize the amount of votes the blacks could receive in the South

Jet Magazine and African American Newspaper was the only newspaper to print Emmitt Till photos.

Give Me Liberty!: An American history, 3rd EditionCopyright © 2011 W.W. Norton & CompanyDemonstrators in downtown

Poor education in southern United States

Only 15% of southerners lived on farms. There was need for education for the blacks. Yet there were little opportunities.

Brown vs. Board of Education

African American Oliver Brown went to court because her third grade daughter was forced walk across dangerous railroad tracks each morning rather than being allowed to a attend a nearby school. This resulted in Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, Kansan

Crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas

Arkansas governor Orval Faubus would not allow nine African Americans to integrate at Little Rock Arkansas. One of the none students could see the school Little Rock Central but not allowed to attend.

President Eisenhower sent in the 101st Airborne paratroopers to allow these nine students to attend Little Rock Central

Gov. Faubus overiden by Eisenhower

No Easy Road to Freedom (1957-62)

Martin Luther King

Martin Luther received a Doctorate in Theology. He was influenced by Walter Rauschenbusch, Gandhi, Socrates, Vedas (India),Thomas More and Thoreau with principles of Civil Disobedience.

Six lessons from the Montgomery Bus Strike”1)We can stick together for a common cause2)Our leaders do not have to sell out3)Threats and violence do not always intimidate4)Our church is now becoming a Social Gospel5)We gained a new sense of destiny6)Nonviolence resistance works.

SCLC was governed by an elected Board, and established as an organization of affiliates, most of which were either individual churches or community organizations such as the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) and Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR). This organizational form differed from the NAACP and CORE who recruited individuals and formed them into local chapters.During its early years, SCLC struggled to gain footholds in black churches and communities across the South. Social activism in favor of racial equality faced fierce repression from police, White Citizens' Council and the Ku Klux Klan. Only a few churches had the courage to defy the white-dominated status-quo by affiliating with SCLC, and those that did risked economic retaliation against pastors and other church leaders, arson, and bombings.SCLC's advocacy of boycotts and other forms of nonviolent protest was controversial among both whites and blacks. Many black community leaders believed that segregation should be challenged in the courts and that direct action excited white resistance, hostility, and violence. Traditionally, leadership in black communities came from the educated elite—ministers, professionals, teachers, etc.—who spoke for and on behalf of the laborers, maids, farm-hands, and working poor who made up the bulk of the black population. Many of these traditional leaders were uneasy at involving ordinary blacks in mass activity such as boycotts and marches.SCLC's belief that churches should be involved in political activism against social ills was also deeply controversial. Many ministers and religious leaders—both black and white—thought that the role of the church was to focus on the spiritual needs of the congregation and perform charitable works to aid the needy. To some of them, the social-political activity of Dr. King and SCLC amounted to dangerous radicalism which they strongly opposed.

SCLC and Dr. King were also sometimes criticized for lack of militancy by younger activists in groups such as Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) who were participating in sit-ins and Freedom Rides

The Reverend Ralph Abernathy treasurer. The SCLC called upon black people to understand that nonviolence is not a symbol of weakness but as Jesus demonstrated transforms weakness into strength and breeds courage.

Sit-ins Greensboro, Nashville, Atlanta

More than 3,000 students were arrested African Americans had discovered a new form of direct-action protest dignified and powerful. White people could not ignore. The sit-in movement also transformed the self-image , empowering them psychologically and emotional. Frank McCain stated his soul was cleansed.

In Nashville, Reverend James Lawson a northern born black minister had led workshops in nonviolence resistance. Lawson had been arrest as a conscientious objector during the Korean war and had become active as the group of Fellowship of Reconciliation. He spent three years as a missionary in India.

The most ambitious sit-in campaign unfolded in Atlanta. On March 15, 1960 200 young black people staged a well-coordinated sit-in at restaurants in City Hall, the State Capitol and other government office. Police arrested and jailed 76 demonstrators that day which only strengthened the activists resolve. Julian Bond and Lonnie King to Morehouse undergraduates. Desegregation came to an end in Atlanta.

SCNN student demonstrators in a sit-in in Atlanta, Led by Julian Bond

Sncc Meeting regarding sit-ins

Televisions influence on the Civil Rights Movement.

During the 1950s the struggle for civil rights came to a head at the same time television began to appear in most Americans' homes. At the beginning of the decade, television was a novelty owned by very few people. By 1960 ninety percent of American homes had television. Television became a catalyst for change on a massive scale. People in the northern states could see what was happening in Selma, Birmingham, and Memphis and vice versa. In addition, television helped Southern blacks unify, for while local Southern media rarely covered news involving racial issues, they now had access to national newscasts that were witnessing and documenting this revolution.March is traditionally the month when students and teachers explore the civil rights movement as part of their studies in American History. The Paley Center's Education Department wanted to share some powerful pieces from the collection that we found when developing our workshop, “Get up! Stand up! The Civil Rights Movement and Television.” With media, and specifically television, being a medium so familiar and immediate to today’s youth, these clips take history off the page and engage you and your students in the struggles, conflict and triumphs of one of the most socially significant movements in history.

Televisions influence of change in 1960’s

SNCC and the Beloved Community

Ella Baker once the executive director of SCLC. Baker encouraged to establish a new group called the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee or Snick. The strong influence of James Lawson gave this Nashville based group confidence.

James Lawson led SNCC to great youth movement for the African American cause. Three-quarters of the first field workers were less than twenty-two years old. Leadership was vested in a nonhierarchical coordinating Committee.

SNCC Leader John Lewis was able to tone down the original Speech of Martin L.King. Original text was “free ourselves of the chais of political and economic slavery”

“through the heart of Dixie the way Sherman did and burn Jim Crow to the ground.

Over 250,000 marchers walked on Washington DC August 28, 1963.

Participants in a sit-in in Raleigh

John Lewis a seminary student in Nashville remembered his mother in rural Alabama pleading with him to “get out of that mess before you get hurt”.

The President of Southern University (all black)in Baton Rouge the nations largest black college suspended 18 sit-in leaders in 1960 and forced the entire student body of 5,000 to reapply so that “agitators could be screened out”.

The Election of 1960 and Civil Rights

Once elected, Kennedy did hire 40 African Americans in high ranking government position including Thurgood Marshall to a federal appellate court. Opportunity chaired by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson to fight discrimination in the federal civil service.

LBJ with MLKing with signing the Equal Employment Opportunity Bill

Freedom Rides

James Farmer national director of CORE announced plans for an interracial freedom Ride throughout the South. The goal was to test compliance with court orders banning segregation in interstate travel and terminal accommodations. Farmer one of the founders of CORE received support form SCLC

James Zwerg Freedom Rider

James Zwerg a white Freedom rider from the University of Wisconsin had his spinal cord severed on one of his freedom rides.

The Kennedy Administration prepared for the presidents first summit meeting with Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev saw the as a threat to the nations' global prestige. On May 21 an angry mob threatened to invade a support rally at Montgomery First Baptist Church. 400 United States Marshall was able to keep the peace. Farmer still had 27 freedom riders to leave Montgomery and land in Jackson Mississippi.

First Baptist Church of Montgomery, Alabama. Farmer started on of his Freedom Rides here.

Dexter Avenue Baptist Church is a Baptist church in Montgomery, Alabama. The church was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1974.[2][3] In 1978 the official name was changed to the Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church, in memory of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who helped to organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott in the church's basement. The church is located steps away from the Alabama State Capitol

Jail no bail was the theme of the Freedom Riders. They clogged the Jails especially in Jackson Mississippi.

Martin Luther King will right is heart found “Letter from a Birmingham Jail”

The Albany Movement: The Limits of Protest

The Albany, Georgia movement did not work for the Civil Rights groups. Laurie Pritchett the police chief would not allow any cruelness or mistreatment to the demonstrators. Whites were not allowed to mock demonstrators. Jail cells were well kept and he used the high school football field as a jail. Little TV effect.

Laurie Pritchett Albany, Georgia Police Chief keeps the peace with the ministers.

Arrested for trying to read a book in one of the segregated libraries in Albany.

The Movement at High Tide1963-65

ML King failed in Albany, Georgia, took SCLC to Birmingham, Alabama. They need a victory in the most segregated city in the United States. Although the blacks made up 40% of the population only 10% of the blacks voted. Bull Connor the Birmingham police chief wanted no part of King’s segregation. Unlike Pritchett Connor will use violence. A violence of dogs and fire hoses which the world will see.

Bull Connor of Birmingham, Alabama placed the hoses on the black demonstrators

President Kennedy ordered 3,000 Army troops into the city and prepared to nationalize the Alabama National Guard. In September a bomb killed four black girls in Birmingham Baptist church reminding the city ant the world that racial harmony was still a long way away

New York Times won their case against Sullivan and Montgomery Police You can criticize if accurate and not be sued

This clip was seen throughout the world on NBC/ABC/CBS coverage 1961 Birmingham

JFK and the March on Washington

Martin Luther King and the pillars of the March on Washington with John F. Kennedy.

A. Phillip Randolph and Bayard Rustin began planning the march in December 1962. They envisioned two days of protest, including sit-ins and lobbying followed by a mass rally at the Lincoln Memorial. They wanted to focus on joblessness and to call for a public works program that would employ blacks. In early 1963 they called publicly for "a massive March on Washington for jobs".[26] They received help from Amalgamated Clothing Workers unionist Stanley Aronowitz, who gathered support from radical organizers who could be trusted not to report their plans to the Kennedy administration. The unionists offered tentative support for a march that would be focused on jobs.[27]

On May 15, 1963, without securing the cooperation of the NAACP or the Urban League, Randolph announced an "October Emancipation March on Washington for Jobs".[28] He reached out to union leaders, winning the support of the UAW's Walter Reuther, but not of AFL–CIO president George Meany.[29] Randolph and Rustin intended to focus the March on economic inequality, stating in their original plan that “integration in the fields of education, housing, transportation and public accommodations will be of limited extent and duration so long as fundamental economic inequality along racial lines persists.”[30] As they negotiated with other leaders, they expanded their stated objectives to "Jobs and Freedom" to acknowledge the agenda of groups that focused more on civil rights.[31]

In June 1963, leaders from several different organizations formed the Council for United Civil Rights Leadership, an umbrella group which would coordinate funds and messaging.[32][33] This coalition of leaders, who became known as the "Big Six", included: Randolph who was chosen as the titular head of the march, James Farmer (president of the Congress of Racial Equality), John Lewis (chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), Martin Luther King, Jr. (president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference),[6] Roy Wilkins (president of the NAACP),[6] and Whitney Young (president of the National Urban League). King in particular had become well known for his role in the Birmingham campaign and for his Letter from Birmingham Jail.[34] Wilkins and Young initially objected to Rustin as a leader for the march, because he was a homosexual, a Communist, and a draft resistor.[29] They eventually accepted Rustin as deputy organizer, on the condition that Randolph act as lead organizer and manage any political fallout

The plans for the rally included speakers from SCLC, NAACP, SNCC, Urban League and CORE. John Lewis’s speech enraged UAW leader Walter Reuther (who financed the march). Threatened to turn off the speakers believing the speak would embarrass the Kennedy’s

At 23 years old John Lewis enraged the crowd attacking the many problems of society and indirectly the Kennedy’s

LBJ and the Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Civil Rights Bill passed because of the lobbying power that was present with the NAACP, AFL-CIO, National Council of Churches and the American Jewish Congress made the case for a strong civil rights bill. The house passed the bill in February by a 290-130 vote. The more difficult fight would being the Senate where a southern filibuster promised to block or weaken the Bill. However Johnson’s persistence paid off.

On July 2, 1964 Johnson signed the Civil Rights Acts of 1964. This land maker law represented the most significant civil rights legislation. It prohibited discrimination in most public accommodations, it banned discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color religion, sex or nation ital. origin It outlawed bias in federal assisted programs.

It created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to investigate and litigate cases of job discrimination

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, Pub. L. No. 90-202Code, 29 U.S.C. § 621 through 29 U.S.C. § 634 (ADEA), forbids employment discrimination against anyone at least 40 years of age in the United States (see 29 U.S.C. § 631(a)). The bill was signed into law in 1967 by President Lyndon B. Johnson.

In his book The Economics of Discrimination (University of Chicago Press, 1957) the Nobel Prize–winning economist Gary Becker asserts that markets automatically punish the companies that discriminate.[96] According to Becker, the profitability of the company that discriminates is decreased, and the loss is "directly proportional to how much the employer's decision was based on prejudice, rather than on merit." Indeed, choosing a worker with lower performance (in comparison to salary) causes losses proportional to the difference in performance. Similarly, the customers who discriminate against certain kinds of workers in favor of less effective ones have to pay more for their services, on average.[96]

If a company discriminates, it typically loses profitability and market share to the companies that do not discriminate, unless the state limits free competition protecting the discriminators

Civil Rights of 1963 1964

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Part of the crowd that gathered at theLincoln Memorial

Mississippi Freedom Summer

Mississippi was a dangerous place for a black during the 1950-60’s. NAACP leader Medgar Evers was assassinated only for the reason for being black.

Freedom summer was lead by Bob Moses of SNCC and Dave Dennis of CORE. The projected recruited over 900 volunteers mostly white college students to aid in voter registration , teach in Freedom Schools, and help build a Freedom Party

On June 21, 1960, three activists disappeared in Neshoba County, Mississippi when they went to investigate the burning of a black church. FBI agents found the bodies of Michael Schwerner and Andrew Good and a local activist buried. Over the summer at least three other civil rights workers died violently. 1,000 arrest, 35 shootings, 30 bombings and 80 beating attributed to Freedom Summer

Some 60,000 black voters signed up to join the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). In August 1964 the MFDP sent a slate of delegated to the democratic National Convention looking to challenge the credential of the all-white regular state delegation.

MFDP leaders (Fannie Lou Hamer) Hubert Humphrey vice president offered a two toke seats on the floor of the Democratic Convention of 1964. Bitter over what they saw as betrayal, the MFDP delegates turned down the offer. Within SNCC the defeat of MFDP intensified the African American disillusionment with the Democratic Party and liberal establishment.

Fannie Lou Hamer testifying

James Meredith an Air Force vet, highly intelligent went to Jackson State (all black) and wanted to transfer to University of Mississippi in Oxford. Mississippi Governor vowed not to let Meredith in the school. Some 160 soldiers were injured from the violence. Meredith did graduate with a Political Science Degree from University if Mississippi.

James Meredith statue at the University of Mississippi. Illustrating the mistakes of bias and prejudice.

Malcolm X and the Black Consciousness

Malcolm X led the group NOI which is the Nation of Islam. Like Marcus Garvey, Malcolm X wanted to create a proud self-sufficient group of African Americans. The X symbolized the original African family name lost through slavery. Malcolm X spoke on campus and lived in Harlem explain the importance of black to break their chains. Violence if necessary.

Elijah Muhammad leader of NOI, Malcolm X was his right hand man. Elijah was found with paternity scandals with two young females he employed. The party was hurt and Malcolm X went to Mecca.

Malcolm X first came to the notice of the American public in 1957, after Johnson Hinton, a Nation of Islam member, was beaten by two New York City police officers.[66][67] On April 26, Hinton and two other passersby— also Nation of Islam members— saw the police officers beating an African-American man with nightsticks.[66] They attempted to intervene, shouting "You're not in Alabama or Georgia. This is New York!"[67] One of the officers turned on Hinton, beating him so severely that he suffered brain contusions and subdural hemorrhaging. All four men were then arrested.[66]

Alerted by a witness, Malcolm X and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Hinton.[66] Police initially denied that any Muslims were being held, but when the crowd grew to about five hundred they allowed Malcolm X to speak with Hinton,[68] after which, at Malcolm X's insistence, an ambulance took Hinton to Harlem Hospital.[69]

Hinton's injuries were treated and by the time he was returned to the police station, some four thousand people had gathered outside.[68] Inside the station, Malcolm X and an attorney were making bail arrangements for two of the Muslims. Hinton was not bailed, and police said he could not go back to the hospital until his arraignment the following day.[69] Considering the situation to be at an impasse, Malcolm X stepped outside the stationhouse and gave a hand signal to the crowd. Nation members silently left, after which the rest of the crowd also dispersed.[69] One police officer told the New York Amsterdam News: "No one man should have that much power."[69][70] Within a month Malcolm X was under surveillance by the New York City Police Department, which also made inquiries with authorities in other cities in which he had lived, and prisons in which he had served time.[71]

A grand jury declined to indict the officers who beat Hinton, and in October, Malcolm X sent an angry telegram to the police commissioner. Soon undercover officers were assigned to infiltrate the Nation of Islam

Malcolm X went to Mecca where he saw interracial cooperation for radical change like King he was also assassinated

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Selma and the Voting Rights Act

The three 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches led to the passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act, a landmark achievement of the 1960s American Civil Rights Movement. All three protest marches were promoted as attempts to walk the 54-mile highway from Selma to the Alabama state capital of Montgomery in defiance of segregationist repression.

The voting rights movement in Selma was launched by local African-Americans, who formed the Dallas County Voters League (DCVL). Joined by organizers from the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), they began registering black voters in 1963. When white resistance to their work proved intractable, the DCVL turned to Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, who eventually brought many prominent civil rights and civic leaders to Selma in January 1965.The following month Jimmie Lee Jackson, a voting-rights activist, was mortally wounded by a state trooper during a march in Marion, Alabama, inflaming community passions. To defuse and refocus the anger, SCLC Director of Direct Action James Bevel, who was directing SCLC's Selma Campaign and had been working on his Alabama Project for voting rights since late 1963, called for a march of dramatic length, from Selma to Montgomery.[1][2]The first march took place on March 7, 1965; it gained the nickname "Bloody Sunday" after its 600 marchers were attacked by state and local police with billy clubs and tear gas. The second march took place March 9; police and marchers stood off against one another, but when the troopers stepped aside to let them pass, King led the marchers back to the church.[3] That night, a lynch mob in Selma murdered civil rights activist James Reeb.The violence led to a national outcry and wave of civil disobedience targeting both the Alabama state and federal governments. The protests demanded protection for the Selma marchers and a new voting rights law. President Lyndon Johnson introduced both that month.

The third march started March 21. Protected by 2,000 soldiers of the U.S. Army, 1,900 members of the Alabama National Guard under Federal command, and many FBI agents and Federal Marshals, the marchers averaged 10 miles (16 km) a day along U.S. Route 80, known in Alabama as the "Jefferson Davis Highway". The marchers arrived in Montgomery on March 24 and at the Alabama State Capitol on March 25.[4]

The route is memorialized as the Selma To Montgomery Voting Rights Trail, and is a U.S. National Historic Trail.

In August 1965 President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law. Between 1964 and 1968 black registrants in Mississippi leaped from 7% to 59% of the statewide black population in Alabama, up from 24% to 57%. For the first time in their lives black southerner in hundred of small towns and rural communities could enjoy full participation in American politics.

Black Rights (not in text)

The Changing Black Movement

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Riots occurred in Harlem in 1964. A large riot occurred in Watts (Los Angeles) the same year. An estimated 50,000 persons took part in the Watts Rebellion. 15,000 police were used. 35 people died and cost over $30 million dollars

Stokely Carmichael SNCC Leader Howard University Grad and Professor

Mayor Richard Daly was able to slow down the Chicago Freedom Movement of MLK. King wanted more than desegregation. MLK wanted a revolution in values

1956 Autherine Lucy was admitted to Alabama Univerity

A Divided Society: Rich in the suburbs/ poor in the city

Housing project of Brooklyn; Keep the poor in a segregated area

NAACP vs. Alabama outlawed any publicizing NAACP List

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Give Me Liberty!: An American history, 3rd EditionCopyright © 2011 W.W. Norton & CompanySelma offers her support to civil rights demonstrators

Civil Rights beyond Black and White

In Mendez vs. Westminster and Delgado case in Texas the Supreme Court upheld lower court rulings declaring segregation of Mexican Americans unconstitutional.

Some Mexicans migrated to the braceros. Hispanic neighborhoods in cities such as San Antonio, Los Angeles, El Paso and Denver were formed but there was cheap labor.

Another group of postwar Mexican immigrants were the mojados of wetbacks, so called because many swam the Rio Grande to enter the United states illegally.

Operation Wetback was an immigration law enforcement initiative created by Director of the Immigration and Naturalization Service Joseph Swing. The program was implemented in May of 1954 by the U.S. Attorney General Herbert Brownell, and utilized special tactics to combat the problem of illegal border crossing and residence in the United States by Mexican nationals. [1] Ultimately, the program came as a result of pressure from the Mexican government to stop illegal entry of Mexican laborers in the United States based largely on the Bracero Program. After implementation, Operation Wetback was met with allegations of abuse and suspension of certain civil rights of Mexicans that were captured and deported by U.S. Border Patrol

Ernesto Galarza leader of the National Agricultural Workers Union, while one agency of the United States government rounded up the illegal aliens and deported them back t Mexico while another American Group was recruiting Mexicans for cheap labor.

The LULAC wants the United States to give Mexicans full citizenship with the ideas of la raza based on the shared ethnicity and historical experiences of the broader Mexican American community.

Puerto Ricans

The sugar industry had declined and by 1930s unemployment poverty were widespread and the island was forced to import food. Puerto Rico wanted to get its people to the United States. The Puerto Rican population went to Harlem By 1970 there were about 800,000 Puerto Ricans. There was a direct air service line between Puerto Rico and News York.

Japanese Americans

With harsh relocation programs of WW II devastated the Japanese culture in the United States. However, the JACL or the Japanese American Citizens League were able to get the mass of Californian's not to be prejudice. The 1953 Immigration and Nationality removed the old ban against Japanese immigration.

Indian Peoples

Between 1954 and 1962 Congress passed twelve termination bills covering more than sixty tribes, nearly all the western tribes. An example would be the Klamaths of Oregon and the Paiutes of Utah received large cash payments from the division of tribal assets.

The Indian population had been growing since the early years of the century but most reservations had trouble make room for a new generation. Indians suffered increased rates of povery, chronic unemployment, alcoholism and poor heath. The average Indian family in the early 1960’s earned only one-third the income as the other American families. The National Indian Youth Council founded in t1960 tried to united the two causes of equality for individuals and special status for tribes.

The National Indian Youth Council or "NIYC" is considered the nation's second oldest American Indian organization [2] and currently has a membership of more than 15,000 nationwide. It was the first independent Native student organization, and one of the first Native organizations to use direct action as a means to pursue their goals. During the 1960s NIYC acted primarily as a civil rights organization and was very active in the movement to preserve tribal fishing rights in the Northwest.[2] In the 1970s NIYC focused on environmental concerns and aided tribes experiencing problems with coal strip mining and uranium mining. Today the NIYC puts forth effort to improve public education available to Indians, job training, education of the general public on Indian issues, Indian religious freedom, and works to increase Indian political participation

Remaking the Golden Door: The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (Pub.L. 89–236, 79 Stat. 911, enacted June 30, 1968), also known as the Hart–Celler Act,[1] abolished the National Origins Formula that had been in place in the United States since the Emergency Quota Act of 1921. It was proposed by Representative Emanuel Celler of New York, co-sponsored by Senator Philip Hart of Michigan, and promoted by Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts.The Hart-Celler Act abolished the national origins quota system that was American immigration policy since the 1920s, replacing it with a preference system that focused on immigrants' skills and family relationships with citizens or U.S. residents. Numerical restrictions on visas were set at 170,000 per year, with a per-country-of-origin quota, not including immediate relatives of U.S. citizens or "special immigrants" (including those born in "independent" nations in the Western Hemisphere, former citizens, ministers, and employees of the U.S. government abroad).[