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t A ~ t t k A €* MICROFILMEE TELLE QUE

NOUS L'AVONS RECUE

THtS D t S S E R T M O M HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED

Nat~onal Library Bibl i o t h w e ttationale CANADIAN THFSES ~ ~ S E S CANADIC NNFS of Canada du Canada ON MlCROFlCHF SUR M ~ R O ~ I C H C

The F a l l and Rise of Labour Dues: The 13th Century THESIS/ 11 TRE DE L A IMESE

-Manor i n t he Shadow of t he in$ +

--- -

DEGREE FOH WHICH THESlS WAS mESENTED/ Ph.D., GRADE POUR L~OUEL CETTE THESE F l I 7 P R ~ S E N T ~ E .r-

Permission IS hereby granted to the NATIONAL LIBRARY 01 1 ' a u l o ~ r ~ a t r ~ ~ r r r l : f , pill 7.) prCserrtf:, orcoritPr! B / ;I HlHl IOT -

CANADA to mtcrofilm t h ~ s t h e S ~ s and to lend or sell cop1c~5 Q I I E N4l IONAl . t IUl CANADA tie rn~crol11nr~:r ( t ! l r r ! f t ~ C s (

Victoria , B.C. V ~ T 1 ~ 6

Name :

' APPROVAL

Degree : Ph.D. t

T i t l e of Thesis : The Fa l l and R i s e of Labour Dues : The 1 3th: Century -Manor i n t h e Shadow of the-King -

7 f

Examining Cormittee :

Chairman : 'James W. Dean

Mickiael- Lebowitz Senior Supervisor

Jack Wtsch

~ e r r y Anderson External Examiner Professor Department of Economics Montana Sta te University

1

Date Approved: April 9, 1985

t( t

r-

dt

PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE

. - w /

I hereby g ran t t o ~ i m j n Frsser Unlvsrs l t y the r i g h t t o lend

4 my thes is , p ro jec t o r extended essay ( t h e t i t l e o f which i s s h o 9 below)

t o users o f t he Simon Fraser Un i ve rs i t y L ibrary , and t o make p a r t i a l o r

s i n g l e copies on ly f o r such users o r - in response t o a request from the

l i b r a r y o f any o ther un i ve rs i t y , o r o ther educational lns t , i tu t ion, on

,its own behalf o r f o r one o f I t s users. I f u r t h e r agree That permission

f o r m u l t i p l e copying of tMcnQrk f o r scho la r l y purposes may be granted .-

by me o r the Dean o f Graduate Studies. I t i s understood t h a t copying

sr pub1 i c a t i o n o f t h i s work f o r . f i nanc ia l ga in sha l l not - A 1 be al lowed

wi thout my w r i t t e n permission. \

T i t l e o f Thesis/Project/Extended Essay i

The FaH and Rise of Labour kes : The 13th Century Manor i n t h e b

Shadow of the King 9 . .

Author: G (s igna tu re )

Elma A. Drosso

A p r i l ' 9 , 1985

--. ABSTRACT

F & t h a t has e n g a g e d the a t t e n t f o n P o f e & n o r @ h i s t o r i - -

an3 is t h e E n g l i s h t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v e r s i o n .;o l a b o # r dues . t

E x p l a n a t i o n of wha t a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a t e m p o r a r y r e v e r s a l o r

a b e r r a t i o n i n t h e s u p p o s e d l y n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y fo r l a b o u r t o

become ' f reer* w i t h t h e s p r e a d of m a r k e t s a n d a money economy is

a m a t t e r of c o n t r o v e r s y among some t h e o r i s t s . '

The r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d i n t h i s . d i s s e r t a t i o n a d d r e s s e s t h i s

q u e s t i o n a n d bas t h e f o l l o u l n g f a c e t s :

i. i t e x a m i n e s t h e aa jor t h e o r i e s a n d ' d a t a b a s e s a n d

p r e s e n t s a s h a r p e r d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e , ext&$ 2 ', a n d l i m i k a t i o n s of t h e r e v e r s i o n t h a t o c c u r r e d i n

L

E n g l a n d - ,

ii. It e x a m i n e s t h e s i t u a t i o n i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s wh ich

c o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s c l o s e t o t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t a %

f, C

E n g l a n d 3n ' c o m p a r a t i v e h i s t o r y 8 terms, I n p a r t i c u - ' 2F

d

la r , it s e e k s t o e s t a b l i s h w h e t h e r t $ e 4 e x p l a n a t i o n s

o f f e r e d f o r t h e phenomenon i n E n g l a n d c a n a c c o u n t

f o r d e v e l o p m e n t s i n F r a n c e , Germany, and o t h e r coun-

tries.

c o n t r i b u t i o n which I h o p e t h i s r e s e a r c h h a s made t o tie '

o f t h i s q u e s t i o n is t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1

a , a t i g h t e r f o c u s o n t h e ' p r o b l e m as an a i d , t o f u r t h e r a n a l y -

sis, as raen t ioned u n d e r i) above . E

b. Rhen c a r e f u l l y examined,

fl e x p l a i n t h e a b s e n c e of

c o u n t r i e s - thus l e a v i n g

PAGE i v

e x i s t i n g t h e o r i e s d o not a d e q u a t e l y . a n Eng l i sh - type8 morrement i n st h e r .

u s v i t h unanswered q n s s €ions.

c. * T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n a d v a n c e s t h e hypothesis t h a t a way t o

a p p r o a c h ' t h e s e q u e s t i o n s is to t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n a

factor t h a t has been neglected in these Qheories, T h i s f a c -

tor is t h e difference i n t h e p o l i t i c a l and f i s c a l ties

existiag between Crown and lords in England as c o n t r a s t e d

v i t h t h e other c o u n t r i e s , C h a p t e r VII a d v a n c e s t h e d e t a i l e d

a r g u m e n t s s h o v i n g how c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h i s factor sheds

light on the thirteenth-century t u r n o f events

E n g l i s h manors,

o b s e r v e d on P

. ?

t

The d e b t I owe P r o f e s s o r 8. L e b o w i t z a n d P r o f e s s o r C. Reed

goes muck beyond t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e y s t e e r e d me a n d k e p t

me on t h e r i g h t c o u r s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o c e s s of u r i t i p g t h e

d i s s e r t a t i o n , W i t h o u t t h e i r g e n t l e p r o d d i n g a n d o v e r a l l s u p p o r t

,--- - t h e task undertaken would have been very l o n e l ~ . I a l s o v i k h t o /'

t h a n k Professor J, K n e t s c h 'for s e r v i n g O R . t h e coamittee , As f o r

my f r i e n d R , Bharath, h e knows best how much h i s concer&'and

sense o f humour h a v e sustained me, during t h i s last y e a r . I t e -

was a l s o my goud f o r t u n e to have, first T r i s h G l a n f i e l d , then C

D o r o t h y S a i t h t y p e t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n . B a t h e r d i f f e r e n t i n s ty te ,

' b o t h have b e e n most h e l p f u l a n d c o n v i v i a l co -worke r s . >

T I T L E PAGE . 0 o o 0

APPROVAL PAGE o o r o

ABSTRACT 0 o - 0 - o o iii ........

TABLE OF COBTEEITS . I - 0, 0 0 0 v i a

I#TBODfJCTIOH r a o r : 0 0 . - r r - o 9 - .- 1 -.

THE METHOD OF COHP1BATIVE A N A L Y S I S . g o . . 4

CHAPTER I: A P B E L I I I I N % E Y D X S C U S S I O I O F P O S T A U @ S CRBOHOLOGY O F LABQBB S E R V I C E S ' 9 -

-- .........

CHAPTER 11: THE B E V E R S I O N TO LABOUR D U E S T E E O B I Z E D . 20

H POST'AH 01 THE EBBS BID FLOUS OF DEBESHE C U L T I V A T I O N AND,, p&IOBE EEBIPHEBALLP,

............... OH L A B O U B D U E S 2 1

BORE O N THE A B A N D O N M E N T A N D THE BESUHPTIOH , I . . . . . . . . b~ Q I R E C T D E H E S N E C U L T I V A T I O I . 26 *

THE HOBTH A N D THOHAS -PBBBEUOBK OF A N A L Y S I S 29 , I

BNOTHEB MODEL IN TERflS OF T R A N S A C T I O N S 5

............ COSTS: S; PEIOALTEA'S 40 d

- THE .ROLE OF I N F L A T I O N I N PODr A , H A R V E ~ ' " . . 48

B- B I L T 0 8 ON THE R E V E R S I O N TO LABOUR DOES - . . 53

C. REED OP THE S Y a B O L I C VALUE CF LABOUR DUES a~~ YET ANOTHER T B A B S A C T I O B $ COST MODEL , . , 55

-

C H A P T E R I I I :TBIBTEE~&-CENTURY E N G L I S H VILLEIIAGE: TESTS ........... ABD LEGAL IEPLICATIOPS 5 9 -

- Old THE D E F I H I T I O N OF P E R S O N A L FREEDOH . . . 60

01 THE D E P I I I T I O H OF VILLI?%@ TEHURE , - - . . 65 - \

\,

LABOUB DUES AS A TEST OF UNFREE V I L L E I N A G E 6 8

PAGE vii

UNFREE VILLEIWAGE: P D B F C S E A W I CCBSEQUEHCES . 6 8 i j' \ 8

A PREIMELE 10 THE F O B I H C O l I l l G C B A P T W 7 3 : \ i+

, I,\,<

CHAPTER IV: A GLANCE AT PREBCH 8 A B O F I A L DEVELOPHEITS . . 74

b I B

CHAPTER Vt f l I S C E L L A I E O U S D A T A CB I T A L Y , G E B E A I P AND THE LOW C O U N T R I E S , . , . , , , , . , . , , , 100

G 3 X i i A B Y . . . - , . - . . , . . - , - , . 107

_ THE DEVELOPHEBIT OF T E E IQii C C U H T B I E S AS SEEN AID . I N T E B P R E P E D E Y B B P C E LION . . , . , - . 118

S U M H A B Y , . . , ,. - . - . . . . - . -,. 123

L '5 \:

CHAPTEE VI: A C R I T I C A L E X A H I I A T I C I CF SOME OF THE HYPOTBBSBS ABOUT T B B BEVEBSICN TO LAB003 -'-J . DUES A10 TO D I B E C T . D E l l E S I E CUL2XVATIOI; C% HOU THESE HYPOTBBSES STABD IN L I G H T OF :

e C O ~ P B B A T I V E DATA . . . , , , , , , . , , .- , 125

, HARVEY'S A B G U l • ÷ E t 4 ! I S BEVIEUEC A N C E X T E N D E D . - 146

k/--'

s

& $ A F T E R PIX: I B T E G B A I I I G THE- EPPBC'IS OP S!IA?E F O R I I A T I C N IHTO STUDIES CP MAl4061AL , D E B E L C E B E B T 0 0 - - 166

VILLEIBAGB AS LIEIN TO M E C B A B ' I E B S AND TO , THE H E I S T U B E R . , , . , , , , , . - , , - . . 167

8 e

a V I L L E I N A G E , A S I N C U J A B EVENT, AS BELATED TO THE C B O U B ~ S J U B ~ D I C A L M D F I S C A L A D V A N C E IB T B E - T Y E L P T H - A I D I B Z B S E E B Z H CEITUBIES . . , 184

- a

SCME DATA CB *PEUCAL8 fEVELOFBEITS C+ TRE C G I T f B E I T , IN P A f T I f U L A Z XR F B A I C P . . , . 1 9 5

PAGE v i i i

, t - U= I I T R O D U C T I O I

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fSb -Should be u n d e r s t o o d a s d e n o t i n g two. d - i s t i n c t i n s t i t u t i o n s is r

- - " P * - ,- -4 a o t n e v . narc B l o c h p u t it f o r t h in s e v e r a l o f h i s w r i t i n g s . 1 - =

7 - - - ?

a H40r" r e c e n t l y , GUY. P o u r g u i n d i s c u s s e d . this n o t i o n a n d its i s p l i -

c a t i o n s i n L o r d s h i p and F e u d a l i s m 1s Hiddle Ages.* ' ~ t t h e - -

h e a c t of this d i s c u s s i o n is t h e n a t u r e of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e two i n s t i t u t i o n s ; n e i t h e r Bloch n o r F o u r q u i n e v e r

i n t i m a tea t h a t , 9 i n b e i n g d i s t i n c t , f e u d a l i s r e a n d m a n o r i a l i s m

w e n a l s o w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i o n s . As p o i n t e d " o u t by F o n r q u i n , -

Blozh d i d c o n c l u d e i n f e u d a l S o c i e t y : t fLo rdsh&p i n i t s e l f h a s .

n o t i t l e t o a p l a c e i n t h e s u c c e s s i o n of i n s t i t u t i o n s which w e

c a l l f e u d a 1 , " J ~ B u t t h i s s t a t e m e n t is t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n d i -

cative o n l y of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of manorialism pre- a .

1

cedsd a n d s u r v i v e d f e u d a l i s m , 4 Bloch u n d o u b t e d l y b e l i e v e d t h a t

1 Sae, for i n s t a n c e , P e u d a l S o c i e t y t r . by L I B - nanyon ( C h i c a g o , a

1964) ; a l s o , f lEu ropean F e u d a l i s m * sand " t h e R i s e o f D e p e n d e n t C u l t i v a t i o n a n d S e i g n i ~ r i a l I n s t i t u t i o n s f * i n ! • ÷ e l a n = H i s t o - r_rLguus, Tome I { P a r i s , 1963) ,

2 G I F o u r q u i n , L o r d s h i p F e o d a l i s g the niddg t r I by , Iris and A.L. L y t t o n Sells (London, 1 9 7 6 ) -

' 3 I n F o u r q u i n t s L o r d s h i p @ ... t h e q u o t e is on p , t 4 . In - B l o c h t s F e u d a l S o c i e t y t h e s t a t e m e n t i s t o be f o u n d i n vol I, p. 279; k h e w o r d i n g t h e r e is slightly different b e d a u s e of v a r i a t i o n s in t r a n s l a t i o n . &

* --

4 This is h i n t e d a t i n F o u r q u i n , L o r d s h i p - -. pp. 13-14. A l s o , c a n s i d e r B l o c h @ s s t a t e m e n t i n . F e u d a l S o c i e t y v o l , I , p 442: "Though a n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t i n f e u d a l s o c i e t y , t h e mknor was i n itself a n o l d e r i n s t i t u t i o n , and was d e s t i n e d t o l a s t much longer.

I? v ' PAGE 2 :

r - 0 - , II

the manor a s 5ts a a i n - s o u r c e of i n c o a e - hence, h is , s t a t e m e n t 8 7 4 -

- Y - ;za&

t h a t t h e o s e i g n i o r y , o r manor, was t h e f ondamen t a l u n i t of tpe 1

f e u 3 a l regiaie. F e u & l i z e & s o c i e t i e s , h~ - 5wmciaMr . * .

r p s t e g orj some f ocm of n p n o r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n thougbS t h e & u e r e v, . .

certainly i n s t a n c e s o f manoria-lized'soc,ieties d e v o i d of the f e y

, . f

If n e c e s s a r y f o r f e u d a l i s m , * a n d : y e t n o t c o n s t i t u t i , v e bf it, c -

c a n m a n o r i a l i s n be s t u d i e d in i s o l a t i o n ? I c o n s i d e r t h i s to be,

t h e more, d e l i c a t e dnd t h e more c o n t e n t i o u s q u e s t i o n a s opposed

t o t h e q u e s t i o n of whe the r f e u d a l i s f a c a n be u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t

ref ' / e n c e t o manor ia l i sm. P o u r g u i n g s v i e r is t h a t , wb&p m i q h j

c o n s i d e r t h e q u e s t i o n 4f f o r d s l i i ~ w i t h o u t s a y i s a u c h a b o u t feu- ---- - d a l ' i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t t h e o p p o s i t e would be f a r more d i f f i c u l t -- [emphasis added]".? S h o u l d we s u b s c r i b e t o t h i s v i e u ? To

d i z e , as loch-did, t h a t m a n o r i a l i s m was a l u k y s n p r o f o u n d l y ---, '

i n f l u e n c e d by s u r r o u n d i n g c o n d i t i p n s m e brings t o mind t h e p o s s i -

u n d e r s t a n d t h e e y o l p t i o n of t h e manor - i n o t h e r words, ' t h a t a . . < * d

closer l o o k a t p o l i t i c a l a n d fiscal arrangements, a t t h e l e v e l I '

o f the r u l i n g class, c o u l d * p a r t l y e x p l a i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between. l o r d and m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s : -

5 ~ l p c h , nEuropean F e u d a l i s P i n H e l a n w . . . Tome I , - . p. + 182.

6 B l o c h , F e u d a l ~ o c i e t ~ ~ pol . I, p. 247. -

8 B l o c h , F e u d a l Society v o l . I, p. 279,

* PAGE 3

t C -. " I p r o p o s e t o weigh t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e f e u d a l v a r i a b l e o n - r

- - -

man3 r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s 6y s t u d y i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e a p p a r e n t -

r e v 2 r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y England. I n

t e n s of w h a t v q r i a b l e s has t h i s seeming r e t r o g r e s s i o n b e e n

e x p l a i n e d ? D o t h e d i f f e r e n t a r g u m e n t s p r e s e n t e d i n c o r p o r a t e t h e

f e u d a l v a r i a b l e ? T o what e x t e n t , o r i n what s e n s e , would a c o u -

s i d e r a t i o n of 'changes and v a r i a t i o n s i n f e u d a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .- -.

f u r t h e r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h i s s p e c i f i c phenomenon? S u c h a r e b 8

the q u e s t i o n s underlying- t h i s t h e s i s w h i c h w i l l f o c u s / o n t h e

form of m a n o r i a l e x t r a c t i o n s i n t w e l f t h - a n d t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

Z n g l a n d . H a v i n g s a i d t h i s , I shou l i l , a d d t h a t t h e issue of' t h e

f o r a of t h e p a y a e n t s e x t r a c t e d o n t h e manor i s b o u n d t o i n v o l v e

t h e i n t e r r e l a t e d issues o f c h a n g e k i n demesne c u l t i v a t i o n and i n

the size of t h e paymen t s . C o n c e p t u a U y , h o w e v e r , t h e s e i s s u e s

shoul3 ?- be r e g a r d e d a s d i s t i n c t , n o r e o v e r , woven i n t o s o ~ e of t

d~ed arguarenks a b o u t tne forms'of t n e p a y m e n t s e x t r a c t e d a r e p e r - -- -

c e g t i o n s concerning c h a n g e s i n t h e d e g r e e a n d i n t h e q u a l i t y of

the f r e e d o m e n j o y e d b y m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s , T o s e p a r a t e t h e

, 3 i f f e r e n t t h r e a d s i n a r g u m e n t s t h a t i m p l i c a t e iaeas a i o u t free- *

d o n , a s well a s c o n j e c t u r e s a s regards i n c o m e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n k

' E f s c t s is d i f f i c u l t b u t will be a t t e m p t e d whenever p o s s i b l e . P e

A s f o r the t e ~ p o r a l f r a a e v o r k of t h e r e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n , 1

iiou1.i like to specify t h a t , vhile f o c u s i n g on a t h i r t e e n t h - c e n -

t i l r y S n g l i s h pheaontenon, the t h e s i s w i l l i n c l d d e disc u s s i c m s -

t h e s p e c u l a t i o n aboi l t t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y is p . a r t o f b r o a d e r

zaod;.ls s e e k i n g to e x 2 l a i n the E n g l i s h chronology of i a ~ o u r d u e s 0

i r o a a r o u n d t n e t e n t n t o t h e i o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; a n d t n e l o g i c -

o f s e v e r a l of the a r g u m e n t s a b o u t t h e b h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y is /

c l o s e l - y i n t e g r a t e d with e x p l a n a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g e a r l i e r p e r i o d s . I

THE BETBOD OF COBPABATIVE A N A L Y S I S

7 7 i p q u i r y w i l l e x t e n d ' beyond Z n g l a n d . S x p o u n d e d by -3.-

3 1 o z h , ;het%ethod of' c o a p a s e a n a l y s i s l e n d s i t s e l f wel l , I -. f

b e l i e v e , t o m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n , I n t e n d i n g n e i t h e r t o d w e l l on, 9

n o r t o e x t o l l , t h e v i r t u e s of t h i s me thod I w i s h , n e v e r t h e l e s s , L.

t o i n d i & t & ' w h Y I c o n s i d e r i t a s a i t a b l e a p p r o a c h t o t h e g u e s - r ?

t i o n s p o s e d %hove. T o b e g i n w i t h , it c a n h e l p u s e s t a b l i s h

w h e t h e r t h e r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r - d u e s - i f i n d e e d a r e v e r s i o n

t h e r e uas - was u n i q u e t o T n g l a n d ; o r w h e t h e r i t was p a r t of a

a o v a m e n t e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e g l o b a l Z u r o p e a n m e d i e v a l economy. I n

t h e l a t t e r case, t h e s e a r c h f o r p u r e l y l o c a l c a u s e s w o y l d p r o v e

f u t i l e , 9 F u r t h e r m o r e , c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s is a way of . t e s t i n g

the v a r i o u s h y p o t h e s e s a t t e ~ p t i n g t o e x p l a i n t h e p r e s u m e d r e v e r -

s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s ; t h e t e s t w o u l d c o n s i s t i n t r y i n g t o dis-

z o v = r c o n t r a d i c t o r y e v i d e n c e ' i n c o m p a r a k l e e c o n o m i e s . T h i s

ra ises the q u e s t i o n s of what c o n s t i t u t e s a s o c i e t y c o m p a r a b l e t o

t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h economy, a n d wha t k i n d of e v i -

d e n s e is b o t h a v a i l a b l e a n d r e l i a b l e .

i n t r y i n g t o p r o v i d e g u i d e l i n e s f o r the p r o c e s s of c o m p a r i -

s o n , 8 l o c h s u g g e s t e d a s a p o s s i b l e r o u t e "to c o m p a r e ., , societies tha t are c o n t e m p o r a r y , t h a t l i v e close t o one a n o t h e r ,

and t h a t g o b a c k i f n o t t o o n e co$on o r i g i n , a t a n y r a t e t o ---- -

9 Y. 9. Seilell, Jr., "Hart a l o c h a n d t h e l o g i c o f t h e c o n p a r & i v e E i i s t o r y n , History! T h e o r x , VI, 2 (1967), p. (270)-

s e v ~ r a l . " J 0 ~ e i o p m u l a t - i n ~ % l o c h ' s t h o u g h t , M Sewell d e s c r i b e s

the s u g g e s t e d a p p r o a c h a s a n a t t e m p t a t achieving a s n e a r l y as " P

p o s s i b l e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l condition ef 'all o t h e r f a c t s ~ s - b e i n g

e l ; b u t h e a l so p o i n t s o u t t h a t s i m i l a r i t y is n o t i n h e r - .. e n t i n " t e m p o r a l and s p a t i a l p r o x i m i t y . " 1 2 A c c o r d i n g t o S e w e l l ,

unetcer close o r a•’ a r , societ ies d i s p l a y i n g s i a i l a r i t i e s , o r - P

counec t i o n s ,

t o r y p r o b l e m --- -L

S i v e n t h e

position t o

/

can b e usefully compared ak l o n g a s "some explana- Z

is b e i q g addressed, *# 1 3 -- p r o b l e m a t h a n d , i t is a p p r o p r i a t e t o p u t i n j u x t a - .

E n g l a n d a number?. of c o u r t t r i e s (or r a t h e r r e g i o n s

u i t h i n c o u n t r i e s ) known t o h a v e b e e n h e a v i l y m a n o r i a l i z e d , h

r e g i o n s with moist and h e a v y s o i l s , w i t h o p e n fields a n d w i t h

so@? f o r m of communa l a g r i c u l t u r e , = r e g i o n s t h a t were, t o a

g r e a t e r or lesser e x t e n t , f e u d a l i z e 3 i n t h e i r political o r y a n i -

z a t i o n . Parts of m e d i e v a l F r a n c e , Germauy , Northern I t . a l y a n d

t h e L o u C o u n t r i e s appear t o h a v e s h a r e d these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

1 a n d , i n p r i n c i p l e a t l eas t , f i t i n t o t h e f r a i n e u o r k of a cmvpa-ra-

t i v 3 a n a l y s i s vhose o b j e c t is t o p u t t h e a p p a r e n t E n g l i s h rever- 2

s i o r t o l a b o u r d u e s i n b e t t e r p e r s p e c t i v e , T h e d i s c u s s i o n s t o

corn? w i l l draw upon i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s i n each

of t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , n i t h F r a n c e being i n t h e l i m e l i g h t - h

10 B l o c h , L a n d and Uork i~ Hedieaegl Europe_ S e l e c t e d g a p e r s t r . ~y J . E . A n d e r s o n (London , 1967) , p. 47,

I I 6 i - H , Sewell, Jr., l'#arc B f o c h a n d t h e L o g i c of C m p a r a t i v e H i s t o r y n , p. 215.

12 i b i d .

1 3 i b i d . , p . 214.

I c h o i c e t h a t was d i c t a t e d b y t h e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o me. T h i s

b r i n g s up t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e n a t u r e of t h e d a t a h a n d l e d : . t h e

thesis is b a s e d e x c l u s i v e l y o n s e c o n d a r y A s a r e s u l t ,

the d i s t i n c t i o n between f a c t s a n d t h e o r y (a d i s t i n c t i o n t h a t i s

o f t 2 n h a r d t o d r a u ) w i l l a p p e a r t o rest, a t times, on ra ther

f r a ~ i l e g r o u n d s . B u t t h e d i v e r s . i t y o f t h e t e x t s c o n s u l t e d w i l l

somewhat ensute t h a t 1 h a n d l e t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d w i t h c a u -

t i o n . ,

E r o a d l y , the t h e s i s c o n s i s t s o f f o u r p a r t s . I b e g i n 0 w i t h a n

e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d

r e v s r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s a n d t h e n p r o c e e d w i t h a n o v e r v i e w of

soma r e l e v a n t d a t a on E n g l a n d , F r a n c e , Germany, 1taa .y . a n d t h e

LOW c o u n t r i e s . T h e r e u p o n , I a d h r e s s t h e q u e s t i o n of how t h e -

reviewed t h e o r i e s s t a n d i n l & h t o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d a n d , ' i n

t h e , c o n c l u d i n g p a r t - o f t h e t h e s i s , 1 u n d e r t a k e an a n a l y s i s i n

terms of t h e s o - c a l l e d H f e u d a l v a r l a b l e W ,

#f c o n c l u d i n g a n a l y s i s , - i n f a c t , t h e w h o l e e f f o r t under - - t a k e n i n t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n - can b e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a p e r s p e c t i v e

f o c u s i n g o n t h e s t r u c t u r e of p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . From t h i s p e r - , .

s p e c t i v e ( a s o u t l i n e d by D o n g l a s s Nor th) t h e m a n o r i a l l o r d c o u l d $1

b e v i ewed a s a r u l e r - l a n d l o r d who, i n h i ~ , ~ a t t e m p t s a t e x t r a c t i n g , -1

m a x i ~ n m e c o n o n i c r e n t s , , was s u b j e c t t o t v o c o n s t r a i n t s : (1) a

c o m p e t i t i v e c o k t r a i n t e m a n a t i n g from t h e t h r e a t p o s e d b y a l ter-

n a ' t i v e r u l e r s - t h a t is, p o t e n t i a l r i v a l s a n d (2) a t r a n s a c t i o n - 1 . -

fk?+ -

c o s t c o n s t r a i n t , l 4 Changes i n e i t h e r o n e o f t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s

1 4 2onglass R o r t h , S t r n c t u f e and C h a n s Q Econortlic H i s t o r y (New P o r k , 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 28.

would l e a d t o r e n t - e x t r a c t i n g a z r a n g e n e n t s -- d i f f e r -

e n t i n s i z e a n form, Uorded somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y , the,

l o r d ' s b e h a ~ i o u r c a n be a n a l y z e d h c l d i n g c c n s t a n t a g i v e n set o f

property t i g h t s - The p r e s u ~ p o s i t i o n h e r e would be a form of

economic o r g a n i z a t i c n i n which c l a i m s t c inccme are, i f not

% + f u l l y specified, a t least t a k e n f o r g r a n t ~ d , And, i n this c a s e , J*.

c h a n g e s a f f e c t i n g n e g o t i a t i c n c c s t z (as a art of t r a a s a c t i o n

costs) could e x p l a i n changes i n t h e f o r m cf t h e r e n t - e x t r a c t i n g

a r r a n g e s e n t s o b s e r v e d on t h e manor: c h a p t e r s 11 and VI of t h e

d i s s e r t a t i o a o u t l i n e and assess a r g u m e n t s a f o u t t h i r t e e n t h - c e n -

t n r y E n g l a n d which e a p l o y t h i s l o g i c , The c o n c l u s i o n r e a c h e d i n

t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n is t h a t these a r g u r e n t s d c not stand u p a g a i n s t b'

t h e C o n t i n e n t a l d a t a a v a i l a b l e ,

A different c a t e g o r y o f e x ~ l a x a t i a n s acccnnt iag fo r t h e e v o -

l u t i o n of m a n o r i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s b e g i n s t y r ~ l a x i n g the assump-

tion of a given set of well s p z c i f i e d F r c g e r t y r i g h t s - a n d a

g i v e n c o m p e t i t i v e c o n s t r a i r t t , This l ~ a v ~ s the door op& t o two

kinds of h y p o t h e s i s , I n reEponse t o t h e c n s e t of d i m i n i s h i n g

r e t u r n s a n d t h e consequent rise i n l a n d v a l u ~ s i B t h e t h i r t e e n t h t

c e n t n r j , the l o r d could have a c t e d sc a s t c a f f e c t t h e a l l o c a -

t i o n of r i g h t s between himself and h i s d e p e n d a n t s , t h e r e b ~ **i7.

9:' 1 a f f e c t i n g t h e form a n d the size of his rent e x t r a c t i o n s . This

hypothesis is embedded i n t h e v e r y l a s t argument r e v i e w e d i n

chap t e r 11, A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a a x i r n m r e n t e x t r a c t i o n ~ i g h t h a v e

r e q u i r e d t h e l o r d to i n v e s t i n ~ p ~ c i f y i n g h i s r i g h t as a g a i n s t

those of his r i v a l s , This second h p g c t h e s i s i s a t t h e c o r e o f

the d i s s e r t a t i o n . nore s p e c i f i c a l l y , t b ~ a r g u m e n t is t h a t t h e

r o l c of labour o b l i g a t i o n s . o n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h manor s

c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d p r e c i s e l y t h r o u g h a n a n a l y s i s i n terms of t h e

d i s t r i b u t i o n of r i g h t s be tween r u l e r s . Summed up, t h e i d e a p u t

f o r t h is t h a t a s h i f t i n g c o m p e t i t i v e c o n s t r a i n t a f f e c t e d b o t h

t h e s i z e and form of m a n o r i a l e x t r a c t i o n s , I t is i n this sense /

that 1 c o n s i d e r f e u d a l i s m e s s e n t i a l f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

manor: t o g e t h e r , c h a p t e r s 111, I V , V a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e

c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r of t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n s u b s t a n t i a t e this ' i

h y p t h e s i s by d r a w i n g o n r e l e v a n t c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a .

' -- CHAPTB 3

A PRELTHI8ABY DISCUSS103 - POSTAB'S CHROIOLOGI O F LABOUR S B V I C $ S

~ e f c?re e x a m i n i n g t h e h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

E q g l i s h m a n o r i a l s i t u a t i o n , I s h o u l d e x p l a i n why, i n t h e i n t r o -

d u c t i o n , I r e p e a t e d l y 3 u a l i f i e d t h e r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s b y

r e f e r r i n g t o i t a s a "p re sumedm r e v e r s i o n , a n " a p p a r e n t n r e v e r -

s i o n , o r a "seeming" r e t r o g r e s s i o n . I n o t h e r words, whence t h i s

u n c e r t a i n t y ? The q u e s t i o n is c r u c i a l s i n c e , a t i s s u e , a r e t h e

b a s i c d a t a . a r o u n d which t h e t h e s i s r e v o l v e s , The a n s w e r l ies i n

t h e e v o l u t i o n o f f4. P o s t a n ' s t h o u g h t s on t h e s u b j e c t ; t h e man

whose 1937 a r t i c l e l a u n c h e d t h e c o n c e p t o f a n i n t e r r u p t e d t r e n d

i n t h e E n g l i s h c h r o n o l o g y o f l a b o u r d u e s is t h e v e r y s o u r c e of

t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y . a, P o s t a n seems t o h a v e t r a v e l l e d awap f r o m a

r a t h e r s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d view of t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d e v e l o p m e n t s ,

e x p r e s s e d i n h i s s e m i n a l "The C h r o n o l o g y o f L a b o u r ~ e r v i c e s "

t o w a r d s a more complex f o r n u l a t i o n of wha t h e b e l i e v e s t o have

o c c u r r e d i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y England . T o d e s c r i b e (as back-

g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n of the r e l e v a n t t h e o r i e s )

t h e changes t h a t t o o k p l a c e on t h e E n g l i s h manor p r o v e s t o be

q u i t e a n i n v o l v e d t a s k ; P o s t a n ' s f a c t s , on which most of t h e

t h e 3 r i e s draw, are ambiguous , I n g e n e r a l , I would s a y t h a t a n

a n a l y s i s c o n d u c t e d s o l e l y i n terms of P o s t a n t s e a r l y work u o u l d

\ 1 3 . 8 - P o s t a n , *The C h r o n o l o g y o f L a b o u r S e r v i c e s , " E s s a y s on

M e d i e v a l A q r i c u l t u r e p a G e n e r q l P r o b l e m s of &Lie B e d i e v a l --- Econorsly b y i I I H, P o s t a n (Cambr idge , 1973) . ---

l i k s l y be f l a w e d . %hat t h i s work achieved was t o c a s t d o u b t s on B

t h e n o t i o n s t h a t s e r v i l e l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s u o u l d f a d e t i r r e v e r s - - *

i b l p i n the face of g r o w i n g m a r k e t s a n d a money ecopomy, a n d &

t h a t a 'freer p e a s a n t r y ' was a n a t u r a l c o n c o m i t a n t o f t h e s p r e a d

of m a r k e t s , , The E a s t e r n European e x p e r i e n c e w i t h s e r f d o m con-

f i r a e d t h e s e d o u b t s , Now v h a t f o l l o v s from P o s t a n ' s l a t e r v e r -

s i o n s o f e v e n t s a re d o u b t s r e g a r d i n g t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e

r e i m p o s i t i o n of l a b o u r d u e s a c t u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n t h e i r e x t e n s i v e

u s e o n demesne l a n d s . 2

I n a m o s t l y d e s c r i p t i v e p a p e r ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1937 , then

r e v i s e d y e t n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r e d i n 1 9 6 8 ) , P o s t a n c o n c l u d e d

t h a t

" t h e t y p i c a l s e q u e n c e [ i n E n g l a n d ] is f r o m l a b o u r s e r v i c e s t o p a r t i a l o r c o m p l e t e c o w m u t a t i o n , a n d t h e n b a c k aga in t d p a r t i a l o r c o m p l e t e r e t u r n of l a b o u r s e r v i c e s . T o s a y t h a t t h e s e q u e n c e was t y p i c a l i s a l s o t o i n s i s t o n the f a c t t h a t i t was n o t u n i v e r s a l . . e x c e p t i o n s t h e r e were , ., b u t numerous a s t h e y may b e t h e y d o n o t o b s c u r e t h e gen - e r a l t r e n d , which no s t a t i s t i c a l test, however s i m p l e , w i l l f a i l t o e x h i b i t , " 3

E a r l i e r i n t h i s p a p e r , P o s t a n had l i n k e d l a b o u r d u e s t o demesne

c u l t i v a t i o n by s p e c i f y i n g : "of t h e two e l e m e n t s i n t h e e q u a t i o n -. r

-- demesne a n d v i l l e i n a g e - t h e demesne was bound t o e x e r c i s e t h e

s t m n g e r i n f l u e n c e upon t h e e v o l u t i o n of l a b o u r d u e s . When t h e

demand o f t h e d e a e s n e s d e c l i n e d - [ i n t h e 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ] , t h e l o r d s

c o u l d d i s p e n s e w i t h some o f t h e s e r v i c e s p r e v i o u s l y r e q u i r e d ...

2 Demesne l a n d s were t h e a r a b l e l a n d s whose o u t p u t v a s e n t i r e l y t h e l o r d ' s .

3 P o 3 t a n , "The C h r o n o l o g y o f L a b o u r S e r v i c e s t t , pp. 103-4.

m u t a t i s m u t a n d i s , when a n d whe're the demand g rew [ i n t h e 1 3 t h ---- - c e a t u r y . ] , the l o r d would be i n c l i n e d n o t o n l y t o e x a c t - t h e ser-

v i c e s i n f u l l b u t a l s o t o i m p o s e a d d i t i o n a l 0 b l i g a t i o n s . ~ 4 Thus

f o r m u l a t e d , P o s t a n ' s i d e a s a b o u t t h e s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s a re

s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y - A r e t u r n t o demesne , c u l t i v a t i o n is s u p p o s e d 9

t o h a v e been accompan ied ' by, a n d t o h a v e d e t e r m i n e d , t h e r e v i v a l

of l a b o u r d u e s - l a b o u r d u e s & u s e d p rec ise l l for EM-

2 0 s Of demesne c a l t i v a t i g g .

Some of t h e s e i d e a s a r e r e i t e r a t e d i n P o s t a n ' s g e d i e v a l

Economy _aqd S o c i e t v s but t h e c o n c e r n s of t h i s work t e n d t o be -- '1

more t h e o r e t i c a l . They i n c l u d e , f o r i n s t a n c e , a c o n s i d e r a t i o n

o f t h e reasons behind b o t h t h e r e t r e n c h m e n t and t h e r e s u m p t i o n

of d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n . 6 Also, t h e work c o n t a i n s what I c o n s i d e r

t o b e a n i m p o r t a n t v a r i a t i o n i n . P o s t a n g s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e

r e t u r n t o l a b o u r dues. Uhen d e s c r i b i n g how t h e g e n e r a l aovemen t 9

of z o n m u k a t i o n caae t o a n end and hou labour services were o n c e &

a g a i n b e i n g e x a c t e d i n f u l l , P o s t a n s u g g e s t s t h a t n o t all of t h e

s e r v l ' c e s were * # n e c e s s a r i l y kaken i n k i n d , " 7 I n some i n s t a n c e s * a

p r o p o r t i o n of l a b o u r s e r v i c e s were s o l d f r o m year t o year."B

G e n a r a l l y t h e n , -- T h e f l e d i e v d Economp S o c i e t y c o n v e y s t h e

i m p r e s s i o n of a l o o s e r c o n n e c t i o n between t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f

4 ibid., pp. 92-3,

5 8 . P o s t a n , The H e d i e v a l Economy S o c i e t y ( P e n g u i n ~ o o k s , 1 9 7 2 ) ; see c h a p t e r s 6 and 9..

6 i b i d . , see c h a p t e r 6 and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , pp. 105-111,

7 i b i d . p. 168.

8 i b i d .

d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n a n d t h e u s e of t h e l a b o u r of u n f r e e t e n a n t s , ,

?fore c o n f u s i o n stems f roa P o s t a n ' s t h o u g h t s on t h e s u b j e c t a s

h e p u t them f o r t h i n a c o n f e r e n c e i n 1955, H e t h e n n o t e d t h e

f o l l o w i n g :

#den Barc B l o c h made h i s p l a n s t o c o a e to Eng land* i n 1939 $0 work ' t o g e t h e r w i t h u s on , t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h a g r a r i a n i n s t i t u t i o n s , b o t h h e a n d I were a b s o l u t e l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e r e was a con - t r a s t ; t h a t u h e r e a s i n P r a n c e a n d West Ger- many l a b o u r s e r v i c e s a n d t h e d o n a n i a l e c o n - omy had almost c o m p l e t e l y d i s a p p e a r e d b y t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , i n E n g l a n d t h e y were still i n t a c t . Bow i t is t h i s con- trast t h a t we h a v e n& b e g u n t o h a v e d o u b t s a b o u t , It s o h a p p e n s t h a t t h e m o n a s t i c e s t a t e s for wh ich w e h a v e t h e b e s t e v i d e n c e c o n t r a s t most w i t h t h e e s t a t e s a b r o a d , b u t e p i s c o p a l estates a n d two o r t h r e e s e c u l a r e s t a t e s a b o u t wh ich u e know more, now, a n d e v e n t h e c l o s e r a n a l y s i s o f some m o n a s t i c e s t a t e s , ' s u g g e s t t h a t o v e r a g r e a t e r p a r t o f E n g l a n d , p o s s i b l y i n t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of e s t a t e s , l a b o u r s e r v i c e s d i d n o t p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . 9

What i s o n e t o c o n c l u d e from t h e a b o v e remarks? Can t h e y b e

i n t e g r a t e d w i t h P o s t a n 1 s e a r l i e r a n d l a t e r a c c o u n t s of t h e e v o -

l u t i o n of t h e E n g l i s h manor? It would a p p e a r t h a t P o s t a n f i n d s

h i m s e l f t o b e on firmer g r o u n d s when a s s e r t i n g a ! r e sumpt ion of

d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d t h a n

when p o s i t i n g a r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r s e r v i c e s - And i n f a c t ,

s c a t t e r e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o d a y a r e s t a t e m e n t s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t

t h e movement back t o t h e u s e of l a b o u r d u e s was l i m i t e d b o t h i n

s c o p e a n d time (much more l i m i t e d t h a n was ' i n i t i a l l y - .-

9 A t t i pel $ C o n q r e s s o I n t e r n a z i o n a l g di S c i e n z e Stor ich_e (Rona, 1955), p. 316.

b e l i e v e d ) , l o P o s t a n l s ff The C h r o n o l o g y o f Labour service^^^ was

t h u s p r a b a b l y m i s l e a d i n g a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s not e n t i r e l y so, I t

c o u l d s t i l l be t h a t l a b o u r d u e s p r e v a i l e d i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

E n g l a n d b u t p e r h a p s i n a d i f f e r e n t s e n s e , o r t h r o u g h a d i f f e r e n t

c o n n e c t i o n , - a c o n n e c t i o n o t h e r t h a n a p o s s i b l y weak a s s o c i a t i o n

u i t h demesne c u l t i v a t i o n !

Are t h e r e o t h e r p r o b l e m s w i t h P o s t a n l s c h r o n o l o g y of l a b o u r

s e r v i c e s ? Mas t h e r e i n d e e d a a o v e a e n t away frola t h e d i r e c t - c u l -

t i v a t i o n of demesne l a n d s i n t h e t u e l f t h c e n t u r y ? And were

demasne l a n d s p a r c e l l e d o u t a s well as f a r a e d o u t ? T h e r e c o u l d a

h a v e been a movement t o farm o u t demesne l a n d s , e v e n who le man-

ors, i n c l u s i v e ' o f t h e r e q u i r e d l a b o u r s e r v i c e s . Only t h e c a s e

of p e a s a n t h o l d i n g s c a r v e d o u t o f demesne l a n d s would n e c e s s a r -

i l y e n t a i l a r e d u c t i o n i n l a b o u r s e r v i c e s .

The o v e r a l l p i c t u r e e m e r g i n g o u t of P o s t a n ( a s w e l l a s o u t o f

soine o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s ) i s a s f a l l o w s : t h e u h o l e s a l e

f a r m i n g of manor s t o n i d g l e m e n , f o r a f i x e d r e n t a l o f money a n d

foal ' or a o n e y a l o n e , went b a c k t o t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y a n d p r e -

v a i l e d i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . What was more s p e c i f i c t o t h e

t w e l f t h c e n t u r y was t h a t new h o l d i n g s were b e i n g c r e a t e d o u t of

t h e demesne and t h u s p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f v i l l a g e r s , S er-

v i l e h o l d i n g s vere commuted t o money rents a n d l a b o u r s e r v i c e s

were r e l e a s e d - 1 1 # b e t h e r t h e - t r a n s a c t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e --

1 0 S e e , f o r i n s t a n c e , G, D n b y l s B u r a l Economy and C o u n t r y L i f e && M e d i e v a l B e s t tr. by C y n t h i a P o s t a n (Columbia , S-G,,

1 9 6 8 ) , pp, 261-4, See a l s o P.D.A. H a r v e y ' s "The E n g l i s h I n f l a t i o n of 1180-1220" i n P e a s a n t , K n i g h t s a n d Heretics ed. b y 3.H. H i l t o n (Cambr idge , 1976) -

b

\

r e l s a s e o f - 1 k o u r s e r v i c e s c o n s t i t u t e d j u s t s a l e s of - work or

k3 whether t h e y were c o n s i d e r e d , from t h e s t a r t , t o be o f a more

permanen t n a t u r e ' ( i-e, , w h e t h e r t h e y were a k i n t o pe rmanen t corn-. '

J'

m u t a t i o n ) a p p e a r s t o b e u n c l e a r . 1 2 F i n a l l y , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e of !.

s h o r t - t e r m leases, e v e n of a n n u a l l e a s e s , o n demesne l ands .13

Mhere long- te rm l e a s e s h a d b e e n a g r e e d upon, e n t r y f i n e s o f t e n

acted as a s u b s t i t u t e t o . p e r i o d i c r e n e g o t i a t i o n - 1 4 I n sum,

a s s u m i n g t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s t o b e a c c u r a t e , t h e r e e x i s t e d more

f l e x i b i l i t y t h a n o n e m i g h t be i n c l i n e d to a s s o c i a l e w i t h t h e - I

f a r m i n g o u t df manors a n d of demesnes, 1s

P a s t a n ' s p o r t r a y a l of t h e t v e l f t h c e n t u r y h a s had a s h a r p - ,'

c r i t i c i n A , R , B r i d b u r y who d i s p u t e s t h e e x t e n t t o which l a b o u r

d$&s Mere a t t e n u a t e d i n t h e t w e l f t h : c e n t u r y a n d who s u g g e s t s *

t k p r e b y t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f a t h i 4 t e k n t h - c e n t u r y r e v i v a l o f

l a b a u r d u e s is d e l u s o r y . 1 6 N e i t h e r d o e s B r i d b u r y b e l i e v e t h a t . C

demesae l a n d s were f r e q u e n t l y p a r c e l l e d o h t t o v i l l a g e r s ( an

o c c u r r e n c e e n t a i l i n g t h e commutat ion o f l a b o u r d u e s ) , n o r d o e s

11 P o s t a n , Essays in e d i e v a l h q r i c u l t u r e , p. 38, p- 93, p. 259, p - 277; The H e d i e v a l E c o n o h and S o c i e t j , pp. 106.-7, p - 110-

12 I n R u r a l E c o n o u and C o u n t r y Life &q &h_e H e d i e m l s g , on P I 210, Duby s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e l o r d d i d n o t abandon a l t o g e t h e r h i s r i g h t t o summon h i s t e n a n t s f o r t3ie p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e o b l i g a t i o n s f rom which t h e y were b e i n g r e l e a s e d -

1 3 P.D.A. Harvey, " ~ h ? E n g l i s h I n f l a t i o n of 1180-1220" i n Peas- a n t , K n i q h t s .,,, pp- 61-62.

14 B I B - B r i d b u r p , @The P a r a i n g O u t o f a a n o r ~ , ~ Econogsic . H i s t o r y geviev (xxxx, 19781, p. 5 1 8 ,

1 5 E, H i l l e r and J, H a t c h e r , X e d i e v a l Enqland R u r a l S o c i e t y pcJ E c o n o a i c Change 1086-1348 (London, 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 207. -

16 B r i d b u r y , "The Farming Out o f B a n o r s H g J"

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PAGE 16

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tries t o e x t r a c t c o n t r a r y e v i d e n c e . Is h e s u c c e s s f u l ? B e a d i o g

P o s t a d 1 s r e t o r t s u g g e s t s t h a k h e ' i s n o t , and t h a t , o n the u h o l e ,

h e B-issed t h e mark.+* Some of P o s t a n ' s p o i n t s a r e t h a t B r i d b u r y

d i s t ~ t e d h i s t h o u g h t s b y e x a g g e r a t i n g them a n d t h a t h i s con -

t r a r y o b s e r v a t i o n s a p p l y ' a t ~ o s t t o 6 o r 7% of P o s t a n 1 s s a m p l e r i l

of es ta tes , 2 3

Df i n t e r e s t is how B r i d b u r y c h a l l e n g e s , t h e p r e s u m p t i o n o f

e x t ' e n s i v e c o n a u t a t i o n wi th . a c h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n : . how can we' % ,

r e c o n c i l c i t h e hypo the ; i s of c o m a u t g t i o n w i t h . t h e a t t e m p t s of -

tielf t h - c e n t u r y l a u y e r s t o d e f i n e t h e s e r v i l i t y of v i l l e i n s p r e -

) cisely i n terls of -bbp& s e r r i c e s l z h H e fo~cefully u n d e r l i n e s

u h a t h e sees a s t h e d i l emma f a c i n g l e g a l h i s t o r i a n s - who h a v e

. s u b s c r i b e d t o P o s t a n t s s e q u e n c e a n d h e i n e a t i o n s A,L. PVoole i n

t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . 2 5 However, t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f s e r v i l i t y c o u l d >

hava been i n terms of a past o b l i g a t i o n t o p e r f o r m l aTbour

dues . 2 6 F u r t h e r m o r e , P o o l e * s 0 b l i q a t i o n s of S o c i e t y i n t h e -- PI1 a n d XIII C e n t u r i e s , t h e argument i s no& t h a t l a b o u r s e r v i c e s . -- - --I_

A

c o n s t i t u t e d a s t a n d a r d test of r k l e i n a g e t h r o u g h o u t t h e t v e l f t h

c e n t u r y . The tests of v i l l e i n a g e became clearer onky i n t h e , * -

t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a d d e v e n ' t h e n " t h e p r o o f of v i l l e i n a g e r a s " a .- v e r y i n t r i c a t e matter , , , o n e i n 'which t h e r e was o f t e n * b u c h room-

22 #.a. P o s t a n , "1 Hote o n t h e Fa rming O u t o f Hanors" , g c o n o m i c H i s t o r p Review (1978) , -

23 1 b i d . , see footnote t on p. 523:\ "-\

24 Bridbnry, "The P p i n g O u t of ! f a n o r s n , p- 504- //

25 i b i d , 3

26 see t h e s i s be low .on p, (66) 2-

f o r dbub t s . " z7 H-ute also t h a t , w h e r e a s P o s t a n p l a c e s t h e move-

meat a v a y f r o m d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n m o s t l y d u r i n g S t e p h e n * s r e i g n

I (1135- 1154) , P o o l e p l a c e s t h e l a w y e r s 1 e n d e 8 v o u r s t o d e f i n e ser-

v i l e s t a t u s i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . Commuta-

t i o n i n t h e m i d - t v e l f t h c e n t u r y c o u l d well h a v e b e e n f o l l o w e d by - k - ,=

a t u r n a b o u t later i n T h e c e n t u r y . I fail t o see t h e di lemma :'? . .

p e r p l e x i n g B r i d b a r y .

#ere B r i d b u r y l s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o c o n v i n c e u s , i t would s e e n t o

c lose t h e d o o r t o a n y f u r t h e r i n ~ u i r y i n t o t h e b r o a d i s s u e o f a

s p e c i f i c a l l y E n g l i s h c h r o n o l o g y of l a b o u r a s i t h a s been con-

ceived thos fa r . I n v i e s o f t h i s , a p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e would be

- t o d i s r e g a r d B c i d b n r y ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n a l t o g e t h e r a n d t o p r o c e e d

on the b a s i s o f t h e e x i s t i n g c o n s e n s u s ; t h a t is, t h a t t h i r -

t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d w i t n e s s e d some r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s

- . a r e v e r s i o n whose n a t u r e would have- t o be s p e c i f i e d . A l t e r n a -

t i v l l y , a s s u m i n g B r i d b n r y t o h a v e b e e n c o r r e c t i n h i s b e l i e f

t h a t l a b o u r s e r v i c e s c o n t r a c t e d v e r y l i t t l e i n t h e t w e l f t h cen-

t u r y , a n i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n would be w h e t h e r l a b o u r s e r v i c e s I

as sumed a new s i g n i f i c a n c e in t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; ' and if so, - +

t h e n i n what c o n n e c t i o n o r f o r what p u r p o s e ? I n * t h i s s e n s e ,

B r i A b u r p ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n need n o t d e t r a c t , I t h i n k , from an

inquiry i n t o t h e f u r t h e r role of l a b o u r s e r v i c e s i n t h e t h i r -

t e e n t h c e n t n r y .

2 7 h - L I P o o l e , O b l i q a t i o n s r i e s (Oxfo rd , 7 9 4 6 ) , p, P

of Soci- she 111 and XI11 Cen tu - - 14.

P A G E 18

A d i g r e s s i o n .on ,the qaestioa of commutation and freeborn

, *he q u e s t i o n of hov t h e . c o a m u t a t i o n o f l a b o n r d u e s m i g h t have

a f f e c t e d the f r e e d o m o f m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s is r a t h e r complex.

Thus , i n comment ing bn a mode l of m a n o r i a l i s m t h a t w i l l b e ,

e x , t z n s . i v e l p r e v i e w e d $n t h e t h e s i s ( t h e North-Thomas model) , *

A,J, F i e l d s g u a r d s a g a i n s t t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t H i n c r e a s e d free-

dom n e c e s s a r i l y g o e s hand i n hand w i t h a n improvemen t i n t h e

s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g o f p e a s a n t s n , 2 a H a v i n g n o t e d t h i s , F i e l d s

s u g g e s t s f u r t h e r t h a t n c o m ~ u t a t i o n , , . i n c r e a s e s t h e c h o i c e set /

of p e a ~ a n t s , ~ l * 9 T h i s is t r u e , ceter ls p a r i b u s , Y e t t o t h e

e x t z n t t h a t c o m m u t a t i o n c o u l d l e a d t o a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e w e a l t h

( o r i n t h e s e c u r i t y of t e n u r e ) of m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s , i t c o u l d L

a l s o p u t n e v r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e i r - c h o i c e set - i n o t h e r words,

'on t h e i r f r e e d o m , if f r e e d o m is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d indeed i n terms

of p o s s i b l e c h o i c e s , Hou t o a s s e s s t h e n e t effect of commuta-

t i o n i n t h i s b y p o t h e t i c a i b u t ~ l a u s i b l e ' s i t u a t i o n is u n c l e a r ,

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , f r e e d o m could b e . d e f i n e d i n terns of< l e g a l r i g h t s

s u c h a s t h e r i g h t t o m a r r y a t w i l l , t o bequeath o n e ' s i n h e r i -

t a n c e a t v j l l , etc.. Fiouever, t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e s e r i g h t s

was n o t i n h e r e n t i n t h e c o m m u t a t i o n o f l a b o u r d u e s , Note t h a t

t h e d e p e n d a n t s * w e a l t h f u n c t i o n v o u l d a l s o p l a y a r o l e h e r e ,

since t k s e r i g h t s were b o u g h t and s o l d , B r i e f l y then, i f free-

don is v iewed i n t e r a s o f t h e c c n c e p t o f a c h o i c e set , a n d i f '

2 8 A. J. F i e l d s , *The Prob lem w i t h N e o c l a s s i c a l I n s t i t u t i o n a l Econumics , B C r i t i q u e w i t h S p e c i a l R e f e r e n c e t o t h e Eor&h/ Thomas Hode l of Pre-1500 E u r o p e m , E x p l o r a t i o n s E_conomic E i i s t o r p 18 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p, 189.

29 Ibid.

9

. t h e q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n s the i n m e d i a t e effects of commuta.tion on

t h e d e p e n d a n t s t r a n g e of choices, then commutation i n r e l a t i o n

t o f reedom c a n b e a thorny, s u b j e c t . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f s e e n

a s p a r t of @'the arovement of the p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i e t y . . . f r o n # B

s t a t u s to c o n t r a c t w = t h e n it becomes o n l y natural to regard t h e * - - commutation of labour d u e s a s u l t i m a t e l y l i b e r a t i n g ,

30 S i r Henry f ia ine , Ancien$ (London, 193 I ) , p, 141,

CHAPTER II

PAGE 20

THE REVERSIOli LABOUR, DUES TEBORIZED - ---

B l t h o n g h t h e f o c u s of t h i s c h a p t e r is o n t h e p r e s u m e d r e v e r -

s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s , t h e d i s c u s s i o n w i l l i n e v i t a b l y b r a n c h off

i n t ~ a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f the p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s b e h i n d t h e e x p a n s i o n

a l ~ d t h e c o n t r a c t i o n of direct d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n s i n c e , i n s e v -

e r a l of t h e a r g u ~ e n t s c o n s i d e r e d below, t h i s i s s u e o v e r l a p s w i t h

t h e l a b o u r d u e s i s s u e . I n p a r t , my t a s k w i l l b e t o i n d i c a t e

w h e r e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o n i g h t h a v e b e e n t o o r e a d i l y

a s s u m e d , U n d e r l y i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of p t e r is a r a t h e r

s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n w i t h w h i c h t h e r e a d e r b e a c q u a i n t e d :

t o w h a t e x t e n t d o t h e a r g u m e n t s r e v i e w e d a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s t o

t h e i s s u e of a r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s &_n rise on apaesne l a n d s ?

T h i s q u e s t i o n s h o u l d s e r v e a s a g u i d i n g t h r e a d t h r o u g h a r g u m e n t s

that a r e b o t h l e n g t h y a n d c o n v o l u t e d a t times,

T o c o m p l e t e t h e material c o v e r e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , t h e L

d i s c u s s i o n opens w i t h P o s t a n ' s r e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e t w e l f t h a n d

t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y i e s , Appended t o this is a q u i c k summing up

o f t u o e x p l a n a t i o n s o f d i r e c t deraesne c u l t i v a i n t h e t h i r -

t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t b e a r u p o n P o s t a n , ' S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e

s e y e n c e of arguments e x a m i n e d p r o c e e d s from a r g u m e n t s i n terms

o f l a b o u r d u e s i n u s e o n d e m e s n e . l a n d s t o a r g u m e n t s t h a t r e v e a l

o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s , a n d t h a t a re , t h e r e f o r e , more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

c u r r e a t d o u b t s a s t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of l a b o u r d u e s i n u s e o n

t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d e m e s n e s . 1

1

Me POSTAS OI THE EBBS A I D PJlOPS OF DEBESBE CULTIVATION A I D , BORE PERIPHERALLY OI LABOUR DUES

I

I n The ~ e d i e v a l Economx and Societp,L a. P o s t a n n s e x p l a n a -

t i o n s of the e v o l u t i o n of t h e manor t e n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e

r e a s o n s b e h i n d t , h e d i s e n g a g e m e n t f r o m , , and the r e s u m p t i o n o f ,

t h e d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e demesne r a t h e r t h a n on t h e r e a s o n s

b e h i n d t h e c o m m u t a t i o n a n d t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f l a b o u r d u e s , The

l a t t e r r e a s o n s a r e t o u c h e d upon b u t m o s t l y as t h e y r e l a t e t o

c h a n g e s i n t h e management of t h e demesne l a n d s i n t h e t w e l f t h

a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ,

I n t r y i n g t o e x p l a i n t h e t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y t r e n d t o w a r d s r e n t ,

P o s t a n looks a t a number o f possible c a u s e s . T h e f i r s t s u c h

c a u s e h e d e s c r i b e s as m a n a g e r i a l : a s t h e l o r d s n estates grew,

s u p a r v i s i o n became i n c r e a s i n g l y c o s t l y . 2 The s o l u t i o n to t h i s

problem of s u p e r v i s i o n c o n s i s t e d e i t h e r i n f a r m i n g o u t t h e

demesne l a n d s i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y , o r i n carving them and r e n t i n g

t h e e as p e a s a n t t e n a n c i e s . P o s t a n a l s o c o n s i d e r s t h e p o s s i b i l -

i t y t h a t t h e c l a s s i ca l m a n o r i a l s t r u c t u r e (based on d e n e s n e a n d

l a b ~ u r d o e s ) was e r o d e ? t h r o u g h piecemeal, u n p r e m e d i t a t e d con-

c e s s i o n s by t h e l o r d s . 3 The p rob lem with e i t h e r of t h e s e c a u s e s

is t h a t they would n o t f i t e a s i l y i n t o a more g l o b a l e x p l a n a t i o n

attempting t o a c c o u n t f OF. b o t h t h e t w e l f t h - a n d t h e t h i r t e e n t h - ..*: - .*

c e n t u r y c h a n g e s . I t i o u l d b e d i f f i c u l t f o r . Postan t o e x p l a i n

1 f 4 . H . P o s t a n , The B e d i e v a l Economy S o c i e t y , P e n g u i n Books (1972 ) .

2 i b i d , , p. 105.

3 ' i b i d . , p, 106.

t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n

i n terms of t h e s e v e r y same reasons unless h - e - c h ~ s e t o a r g u e ,

f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t t h e l o r d s a l t e r e d t h e i r - c o u r s e of a c t i o n upon 5. > -

r e a l i z i n g how f a r t h e i r c o n c e s s i o n s h a d gong, An i n t e r e s t i n g

s i d e l i n e : i t has b e e n a r g u e d that t o i n v o k e m a n a g e r i a l d i f f i c u l - I

ties ( o r d e c l i n i n g p r o f i t a b i l i t y ) i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h e l o r d s '

d e c i s i o n t o lease de.&Sne -, l a n d s i m p l i e s t h a t , i n farming t h e ++;$

demesne , t h e p r o s p e c t i v e lessees would ( a n d were known t o ) be

more e f f i c i e n t t h a n t h e l o r d s , Only t h e n would it g g c l e a r l y pay

both parties t o n e g o t i a t e a l e a s e and t h e r e b y t o s h a r e t h e gains

o f s p e c i a l i z a t i ~ n . ~ * I n t h e o p i n i o n of t h e p r o p o n e n t s of t h i s

a r g n ~ i e n t , t h i s c o n d i t i o n was p r o b a b l y B e t i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y

when " s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of t h e l a n d h o l d i n g a n d t h e m a n a g e r i a l

c lasses was e x p a n d i n g w i t h t h e g r o w t h o f marke t . " s Hoveve r , t h e

e x p l a n a t i o n " b r e a k s down i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y when, i n

spite o f a g r o w i n g m a r k e t , t h e l a n d l o r d s resume t h e i r role-*-as

e s t a t e ntanagers . " 6 S o t e t h a t a t u e l f t h - c e n t u r y interprets t i o n o f

events i n terms of c h a n g i n g r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y would h a v e t o

rest o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f w e a l t h - m a x i m i z i n g l o r d s . N o t e , also;

that. i t h y p o t h e s i z e s a n d u e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g m a r k e t s i n t h e

t w e l f t h c e n t u r y - a n a s s u ~ p t i o n t h a t i s a t o d d s v i t h P o s t a n ' s

4 Clyde G I Beed a n d T e r r y L. Ander son , E c o n o ~ i c E x p l a n a t i o n of English A g r i c u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n I n The T w e l f t h a n d T h i r - t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s m , Economic H i s t o r y Review ( F e b r u a r y , 1973) , p. 135.

5 i b i d ,

3

p o r t r a y a l o f t h i s c e n t u r y . 7 Finally, t h e l e a s i n g of demesne ,

l a n d s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e t h e c o m m u t a t i o n o f l a b o u r

d u e s s i n c e a l o r d c o u l d elect t o l e a s e t h e demesne l a n d s w i t h

t h e r e q u i s i t e l a b o u r dues . I n o t h e r w o r d s , m a n a g e r i a l d i f f i c u l -

t ies r e l a t e d t o t h e s i z e of t h e d e m e s n e d o n o t c o n s t i t u t e ,

u n a m b i g u o u s l y , a n e x p l a n a t i o n d f o r t h e p r o c e s s of l a b o u r d u e s

c o m m u t a t i o n . A s f a r a s t h i s p r o c e s s was c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e l e v a n t

q u e s t i o n s are: was t h e d e m e s n e c o n t r a c t i n g ? P o s t a n s u g g e s t s

t h a t i t was i n d e e d c o n t r a c t i n g , Did i t become p a r t i c u l a r l y

c o s t l y t o e n f o r c e l a b o u r d u e s i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y ? If rt

d i d , t h e n why t h e h i g h e r e n f o r c e a e n t c o s t s ?

This b r i n g s u s t o t h e t h i r d a r g u m e n t p r o v i d e d by P o s t a n - a n

a r g u m e n t t h a t c o v e r s b o t h t h e t w e l f t h a n d t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u -

ries, The a r g u m e n t is a g a i n i n terms of t h e c h a n g i n g p r o i i t -

a b i l i t y o f d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n ; i ts stress i s on p o l i t i - I

c a l c i r c u a s ~ a n c e s ' a n d o n movements i n p r i c e s a n d c o s t s of -

p r o d u c t i o n a s d e t e r m i n a n t s *._this ~ r o f i t a b i l i t y ; c h a o t i c p o l i t - \

i c a l c i r c u m s t a n & + s a n d a d v e r s e movements i n c o s t s o f p r o d u c t i o n

# c a u s e d 8 t h e l o r d s t o a b a n d o n d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n a n d t o

c o m a u t e l a b o u r d u e s . T h a t t h e l o r d s were a c t i n g u n d e r p r e s s u r e

( i , d e f e n s i v e l y ) s e e a s t o b e v e r y much a p a r t of t h i s a r g u -

ment. Upon r e a d i n g P o s t a u , n e d e f i n i t e l y g e t s t h e i m p r e s s i o n rjl t h a t t h e t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y m a n o r i a l economy was, from t h e p o i n t o f

view of t h e l o r d s , v e r y t r o u b l e d : " p r i c e s and costs moved s o a s *

t o r e d u c e t h e p r o f i t s of e x p l o i t a t i o n ... l a v a n d o r d e r s o d e t e -

7 See p, 21 o f t h e t h e s i s ,

r i o r a t e d a s t o . i m p e d e t h e e x e r c i s e of t h e l o r d ' s a u t h o r ' i t y o v e r

h i s a g e n t s a n d t e n a n t s - " 8 In P o s t a n ' s words, n f a r m i n g was o f t e n

t h e c h o i c e o f a lesser e v i l : t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f waste b y farm-

ers f o r t h e p e c u i a t i o n s of l o r d s v b a i l i f f s , " Q (However, a n

i n c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h i s p i c t u r e o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y

o c c a r s i n P o s t a n t s work when h e c o n t r a s t s t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y *

w i t h t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H e t h e n s t a t e s t h a t , # * [ u ] h e r e a s i n

t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d [ the twelf t h c e n t u r y ] t h e l ; a n d l g r d 1 s di lemma

- t o l e t o r c u l t i v a t e - was hou t o c h o o s e be tween a l t e r n a t i v e -

r o a d s s t i l l h i q h e r ggofi ts , t h e same di lemma i n t h e four-

t e e n t h a n d f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s was how b e s t t o e s c a p e from

t h r e a t e n i n g lo s ses [ e m p h a s i s a d d e d . ] , ~ ) 10 I n s h o r t , f o r P o s t a n ,

the t u e l f t h c e n t u q y u a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by low a g r i c u l t u r a l

p r i c e s , h i g h c o s t s of p r o d u c t i o n , c i v i l war, p o o r l y f u n c t i o n i n g

m a r k e t s , a n d u n c e r t a i n a n d f l u c t u a t i n g r e v e n u e s f o r t h e l o r d s , 11

? lo reove r , "so u n e n f o r c e a b l e - was t h e l a n d l o r d s ' a u t h o r i t y o v e r

soma o f t h e i r es ta tes , t h a t t h e r e was a p p a r e n t l y l i t t l e t o p r e -

v e n t some v i l l e i n t e n a n t s f r o m t a k i n g t h e law i n t o t h e i r ' h a n d s '

- . . o r e l se i n d u c i n g t h e l o r d s t o commute t h e i r l a b o u r s e r v i c e s , ''12 >

.)-

- * 5

1 - .= 7

.-. I

Z **' - 4 -

8 P o s t a n , Thg k d i e v a l , . ,' 106.

9 i b i d . , p - 110-

10 i b i d . , pp. 116-117.

1 1 i b i d . , p- 109,

1 2 i b i d . , p. 167 .i

S y m m e t r i c a l a r g u m e n t s , i n P o s t a n , e x p l a i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n -

t u r y course of e v e n t s ; s u p p o s e d l y , t h e d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e

demesne became *easier a n d more p r o f i t a b l e n 1 3 ; law a n d o r d e r

Mere- r e s t o r e d a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r i c e s rose w h i l e Bone1 vaqes I

'< r e m a l n e d stable_, But+ why were n o t f a r m i n g c o n t r a c t s simply ---- r e n e g o t i a t e d t o reflect t h e r i s i n g p r o f i t s ? P o s t a n ' s d i s c u s s i o n

f a i l s t o p r o v i d e u s w i t h i n s i g h t s i n t o t h i s q u e s t i o n . B e s i d e s ,

h i s i n f e r e n c e o f r i s i n g farm p r o f i t a b i l i t y c o u l d be cr i t i -

c i z e d , 1 I n any case w i t h i n P o s t a n ' s f r a m e work of a n a l y s i s , were

l a b o u r d u e s o b v i o n s l y p r e f e r r e d t o wage l a b o u r a n d t h u s r e i n s t i - I

t n t e d o n a l a r g e scale? A s I i n d i c a t e d i n "Some P r e l i m i n a r y

T h o u g h t s on P o s t a n ' s C h r o n o l o g y of L a b o u r S e r v i c e s m P o s t a n 4 s

p o s i t i o n is n o t s i m p l e i n t)is r e s p e c t . Y e s , h e s a y s , t h e pro-

cess of c o m m u t a t i o n d i d come t o a h a l t i n t h e - t h i r t e e n t h c e n -

t u r y . Y e s , n [ u ] h e r e l a b o u r s e r v i c e s s t i l l s u r v i v e d , s u c h s e r v i -

ces a s were d u e n e r e e x a c t e d in f u l l . [ B u t ] n o t a l l of them

vere n e c e s s a r i l y t a k e n i n k i n d ,,. [some J v e r e ' s o l d * from y e a r

t o y e a r .,, Here a n d t h e r e we f i n d them [ t h e l o r d s ] e v e n t r y i n g

t o r a i s e l a b o u r s e r v i c e s , e i t h e r i n o r d e r t o p r o c u r e a d d i t i o n a l

s u p p l i e s of l a b o u r o r a s an i n d i r e c t B e a n s o f r a i s i n g r e n t s , n l s

1 4 C. Reed, " T h e P r o f i t s of C u l t i v a t i o n i n Eng land D u r i n g The L a t e r H i d d l e Ages, ~ ~ r i c u l t n r a l History ( O c t o b e r , 1976) , Vol, 50, pp. 645-9, If t r a n s p o s e d i n t o t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n - t n r y , t h e a c r g u m e a t a t i o n b e h i n d C. R e e d ' s a s s e s s m e n t of farm p r o f i t a b i l i t y i n 1 a T e m e d i e v a l , Eng land would p r e d i c t n e i t h e r i n c r e a s i n g a c c o u n t i n g p r o f i t s n o r i n c r e a s i n g e c o n o m i c p r o f -

ditSf o n t h e b a s i s of t h e a v a i l a ~ l e p r i c e d a t a .

1 5 i b i d - , p. 168,

O v e r a l l , . P o s t a n ' s s t a t e m e n t s s u g g e s t a s h i f t i n i ncome

d i s t r i b u t i n i n f a v o u r of t h e loids - a shift d u e t o c h a n g e s i n 3- t h e l a n f f / l a b o n r r a t i o a s well a s i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g p o l i t i c a l

e n v i r o n m e n t . B u t I f a i l t o see i n _The g e d i e v d E c o n o ~ y and

S o c i e a an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r (o r t h e a s s e r t i o n of) a w i d e s p r e a d -- r e t u r n t o : the u s e of labour d u e s ,

HOBE OH THE ABAEDOBBEEP ABD TEE BESUMPTICOBI OF DIRECT DEHESBE C U L T I V A T I O I

3x1 t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e abandonmen t a n d r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t

d e a e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n , t u o a d d i t i o n a l a n a l y s e s h a v e been a t t e ~ p t e d

- one of which c o u l d c o e x i s t w i t h P o s t a n ' s r i s i n g p r o f i t a b i l i t y

a r g u m e n t f o r t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h i l e t h e o t h e r d i f f e r s i n

i ts e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t u e l f t h - c e n t u r y l o r d ' s b e h a v i o a r . 1 6 Hy

r e v i e w of these a n a l y s e s w i l l be b r i e f s i n c e n e i t h e r p r e t e n d s t o

o f fe r o r i g i n a l i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e l a b o u r d u e s t i s s u e ,

Hiller a n d t h e m e d i e v a l l o r d s * m e n t a m E - - - - -- --- E. B i l l e r q u e s t i o n s t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e t v e l f t h c e n t u r y w i t -

n e s s e d u n u s u a l l y a n a r c h i c a l tiraes,'l7 Be, h i m s e l f , a s s o c i a t e s ' t h e \

t u e l f t - h c e n t u r y u i t h t h r i v i n g markets d u e t o urban g r o w t h , a n

a b u n d a n t l a b o u r s u p p l y , a n d new a n d a c c e s s i b l e o u t l e t s f o r a g r i -

c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , l 8 Hence, t h a t t h e l o r d s c h o s e f i x e d a n d p re -

d i c t a b l e r e v e n u e s o v e r more s p e c u l a t i v e e n d e a v o u r s u a s n o t , 9

a c c o r d i n g t o him, a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f

16 B e e d a n d Ander son , nAn Ecopomic . , . t v ; E, Hiller, "Eng land i n t h e T w e l f t h a n d T h i r t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s : An Economic C o n t r a s t ? " , E c o n o n i c R i s t o r p B e v i e g , ( F e b r u a r y , 1973) .

17 H i l l e r , "Eng land i n ,.-*l, p. 5

18 i b i d . , pp, 6-7, I

s u c h e n t e r p r i s e s , R a t h e r , i t r e f l e c t e d " t h e non-economic men-

t a l i t y g * 1 9 of t h e l o r d s whose g o a l was s i r a p l y n s u f f i c i e n c y n : t o

s a t i s f y a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f c o n s u m p t i o n w i t h o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l manorial f r amework of which f i x e d farms were v e r y 2

a s t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y waned, numerous f a c t o r s c o a b i n e d t o

o c c a s i o n g c h a n q e in t h e a t t i t u d e of fig l o r d s , d r i v i n g them t o

becsme more vef f i c i e n c y - m i n d e d , " Anon-yst t h e s e f ac to r s , Miller

i n c l u d e s t h e l a r g e d e b t s c o n t r a c t e d by s e v e r a l m a n o r i a l l o r d s

(ecclesiast ics a n d o t h e r s ) , the rise i n p r i c e s , new c o n s u m p t i o n 8

p a t t e r n s , a n d a much d i m i n i s h e d . o p p o r t u n i t y for l a t e r a l expan-

s i o n . 2 1 ~ i v e n t h e s e c h a n g e s , t h e d i s a d y a n t a g e s of r e l y i n g o n a

s y s t e m t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s p r e a d o f h e r e d i t a r y leases, t h a t

a l l ~ u e d lessees t o se i ze 'a g r o w i n g s h a r e o f t h e i n f l a t i o n a r y

p r o f i t s , a n d t h a t p r o v i d e d few e f f e c t i v e c h e c k s o n t h e d e p r e d a -

t i o n s of t h e lessees, c o u l d n o l o n g e r e s c a p e n o t i c e ,

" Reed a n d 2. Anderson: an arqurnenz u i t k i n &he g o r t h g& k- - - Thomas t r a n s a c t i o n s cost -roach t o m a n o r i a l i s m

---? *

1 9 i b i d . , p- 3.

20 i b i d , ; Hiller n o t e s t h a t s i n c e f i x e d c a s h f a r m s were i n t r o - d u c e d when u n u s e d r e s o u r c e s were s t i l l a b u n d a n t a n d when m a n o r i a l l o r d s were i n t h e p r o c e s s o f g f c o n s o l i ' d a t i n g t h e i r h o l d o v e r the l a n d o f E w l a n d n (p. 8 ) , t h e y had n o t e n t a i l e d i n i t i a l l y f i x e d t o t a l r e v e n u e s ; i n this s i t u a t i o n , " t h e z x p a n s i o n o f t h e i r r e s o u r c e s a s a w h o l e m i g h t c o m p e n s a t e [: t h e l o r d s ] f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r r e t u r n i r o n a n y p a r t o f them was fixedM ( p . 8 ) .

21 i b i d . , pp. 8-13.

2 . Reed a n d T, A n d e r s o n d e v e l o p a n a p p r o a c h t o the t h i r -

t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n t h a t

d o e s qot require o b s e r v a b l e evidence o n c h a n g e s ia farat p r o f i t s ;

n o r d o e s it a s s u m e c h a n g e s i n t h e l o r d s g m e n t a l i t y , It is c o n - ,'

s i s t e n t w i t h t h e a s s n a p t i o n of w e a l t h - m a x i m i z i n g l o r d s , I t is 'Y

a l s o c o n s i s t e n t wi$h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of ( y e t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r -

i l y hinge on) r i s i n g p r o f its i n the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y 2 2 and, i n

t h i s s e n s e , c o u l d be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h P o s t a n g s a r g u a e n t s - This

a p p r o a c h is e s s e n t i a l l y a n o u t g r o w t h of t h e N o r t h and Thomas

a n a l y s i s of m a n o r i a l i s m t h a t w i l l b e reviewed s h o r t l y . Some of

t h e h a z i e r a r g u m e n t s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e N o r t h and Thomas a r t ic le

a re d e l i n e a t e d m o r e , r i g o r o u s l y i n teras of t h e t h e o r y

t r a c t s ,

Reed and Ander son v i e w t h e c n s t o m s of t h e manor a s terms o f a

c o n t r a c t 2 3 be tween l o r d s and t e n a n t s - terms r e g a r d i n g , i n t h e *

case u n d e r c o n s i d e r n, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the i n c o m e d e r i v - +-

i*

i n g from t h e cultivation of t h e demesne l a n d s a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s \

u n d e r which t h e s e lands were s u p p o s e d t o b e u s e d by t h e lessees. oc

I f , a s Reed a n d Ander son p u t i t , " t h e p r i m e c o n d i t i o n fo r t h e

s t a b i l i t y of a n y c o n t r a c t t h r o u g h time is t h a t t h e terms of t h e

c o n t r a c t c o n t i n n e t o reflect t h e e c o n o m i c v a l u e o f t h e goods or

s e r v i c e t r a n s a c t e d t h r o u g h t h a t c o n t r a c t 9 * , 2 * w h e r e i n l a y , i n t h e

l a t e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , the s o u r c e s of d i s e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n t h i s -

It 22 Reed a n d Anderson , "An Economic -,. , pa 137-

23 i b i d - , p. 135.

24 i b i d - , p- 136-

e c o n o n i c v a l u e a n d t h e c o n t r a c t e d payment? bile t h e c a s h farms

uere being e roded ' b y i n f l a t i o n , l a n d v a l u e s ( i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e

v a l u e of demesne l a n d s ) u e r e i n c r e a s i n q b e c a u s e of d i m i n i s h i n g

r e t u r n s t o l a b o u r . The e q u i l i b r i u m b t v e e n t h e e c o n o m i c v a l u e

of demesne l a n d s a n d t h e t u e l f f h - c e n t u r y c o n t r a c t e d p a y m e n t s

c o u l d , i n p r i n c i p l e , be r e s t o r e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways. A once-and-

f o r - a l l r e n e g o t i a t i o n of t h e c o n t r a c t ( a n upward r e v i s i o n of ' t h e '

level o f r e n t s ) would have sufficed i f t h e r e were no expecta-

t i o n s o f f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s i n prices a n d / o r i n c r e a s e s in l a n d

v a l u e s ; o t h e r w i s e . p e r i o d i c r e n e g o t i a t i o n s of ' t h e c o n t r a c t *

mould have been r e q u i r e d a n d uere, p r e s u m a b l y , a n t i c i p a t e d by --

t h e l o r d s . B u t , a c c o r d i n g t o Beed a n d Anderson , f r e q u e n t r e n e - f

g o t i a t i o n s - w h e t h e r of r e n t s i n money o r i n k i n d - would h a v e I

run g g c o u n t e r t o c e n t u r y - o l d p r a c t i c e s ,.. _ [ a n d ] would h a v e been

c o n t e s t e d i n t h e m a n o r i a l c o u r t s . a 2 5 Thus , t h e y r e a c h t h e con-

c l u s i o n t h a t t h e c h e a p e s t u a y f o r t h e l o r d s t o c a p t u r e t h e

i n c r e a s e i n t h e econora i c v a l u e o f t h e i r demesne l a n d s w a s 0 t o

r e s u m e direct demesne c u l t i v a t i o n uhen l e a s e s came due. 2 6

THE BOBTH ABD THOCIAS .PBAMBUOBK OF AIALYSIS , 4 .

I n a n a r t i c l e e n t * t l e d "The ~ i s e .and Pall of the ~ a n o r i a l

System: A T h e o r e t i c a l l o d e l n , 2 i D. ~ & t h -- a n d B: Thomas p r o v i d e

26 Note t h a t * upon coming across e v i d e n c e t h a t demesne l a n d s u e r e , i n fact, ' l e a s e d on a s h o r t - t e r m - bas is , Beed h a s r e c e n t l y moved away froia t h i s a n a l y s i s ,

27 D o u g l a s s C, 3 o r t h a n d Robert Paul Thoaas , Y h e R i s e and f a l l - of t h e H a n o r i a l S y s t e m : A T h e o r e t i c a l f lode l , J o u r n a l of m- n o n i c H i s t o r y , x x x i ( l g i ' l ) , pp- 777-803. ---

u s w i t h an e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e c h r o n o l o g y of l a b o u r s e r v i c e s - - - -

t h a t is, a n e x p l a n a t i o n of the e v o l u t i o n of what t h e y c o n s i d e r -- k

t o h a v e b e e n t h e t y p i c a l form o f p a y m e j t s e x t r a c t e d by t h e lords *

of c l a s s i ca l manor s - T h e i r v i s i o n of t h e c l a s s i c a l manor i s

b a s e d o n P o s t a n 9 s e v i d e n c e , Even t h o u g h t h e y i n t i m a t e t h a t

t h e i r a p p r o a c h c o u l d b e generalized t o liestern Europe ,28 we

s h o u l d bear. i n mind t h a t , i n e f fect , t h e i r a r g u m e n t s a r e a b o u t a

t h e E n g l i s h s i t u a t i o n a s i t ups r e c o n s t r u c t e d by P o s t a n , I me-

d i a t e l y , t h e q u e s t i o n arises: which P o s t a n ? The a n s w e r is: the

early P o s t a n . Hence, t h e N o r t h a n d Thomas e x p l a n a t i o n c o u l d

e n c ~ u n t e r problems on s e v e r a l f r o n t s , I t c o u l d be f o u n d L a c k i n g

i n terms o f its own l o g i c a l c o h e r e n c e o r i n terms of how w e l l i t

c a p t u r e s P o s t a n ' s e v i d e n c e . A s it is b u i l t o n t h i s e v i d e n c e it

would b e much weakened , or n i g h t e v e n d i s i n t e g r a t e , were t h e

e v i d e n c e i t s e l f v u l n e r a b l e o r m i s c o n s t r u e d . And f i n a l l y , i f

shown t o b e i n c o n s i s t e n t ~ i t h broader aestern European d e v e l o p - x --

merits, i t would c e r t a i n l y l o s e sciue=of its force,

A p o i n t of c l a r i f i c a t i o n r e g a r d i n g *The R i s e and F a l l o f t h e

3 a n o r i a l Sys tem: A T h e o r e t i c a l Hodelm: t h e a r t i c l e p r e s e n t s u s

v i t h more t h a n c o n j e c t u r e s a s t o what m i g h t have d e t e r m i n e d the

fora & p a y a e n t s e x a c t e d by m a n o r i a l lords f o r it a l s o con- -- l ta ins &t i~ i n g r e d i e n t s of a n a n a l y s i s o f what n i g h t h a r e d e t e r -

a i n e d && size of these p a y m e n t s - F u r t h e r m o r e , e n b e d d e d i n a l l

o f t-he arguments i s a specific n o t i o n t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e a r t i - -

cle9s b a s i c a n a l y t i c a l tool; it is the ~ o t i o n that t h e r e l a t i o n -

- f

28 ibid., p. 782-

s h i p b e t w e e n a a n o r i a l l o rd a n d d e p e n d e n t c u l t i v a t o r s c a n b e

g r a s p e d a s a b i l a t e r a l a n d c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t . 2 Q I n -my

i ~ n e d i d t e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e a r t ic le , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g

t o th.e s i z e of t h e p a y ~ e r f t s e x t r a c t e d a n d t o t'he a d e q u a c y of t h e

c o n t r a c t u a l a p p r o a c h w i l l n o t b e f o r e m o s t . T h e d i s c u s s i o n w i l l

r e v ~ l v e r i o s t l y a r o u n d t h e o n e i s s u e of t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e

forms .of payments . Y e t , r e c e n t l y N o r t h has a d m i t t e d his earlier

d e s c r i p t i o n of m a n o r i a l i s m a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n b a s e d on c o n t r a c t s

t o b e p r o b l e m a t i c ; h e sees it a s more v u l n e r a b l e t o criticism

t h a n h j s a r g a m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e c h a n g i n g f o r a s of p a y m e n t s

e x t r a c t e d by t h e l o r d . 3 0 Bu t are the N o r t h a n d Thomas a r g u m e n t s

a b o u t t h e c h r o n o l o g y of l a b o u r d u e s t h l o g i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t

o f t h e i r p o r t r a y a l of t h e s t r u c t u r e o f m a n o r i a l i s m which , i n

N o r t h ' s a p o l o g e t i c words , R looked too much l i k e a n e q u a l & t r a d e

2 9 i b i d , , p. 778. I would l i k e t o b r i n g t o t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n - t i o n s e v e r a l r e ~ a r k s made by N o r t h and- Thomas - r e m a r k s uhich, when t a k e n t o g e t h e r , s u m m a r i z e t h e i r c o n c e p t of mano- r ia l i sm (a term u h i c h , of t h e i f own a c c o r d , t h e y u s e i n t e r - c h a n g e a b l y w i t h f e u d a l i s m ) . They s t a t e t h a t e s s e n t i a l p a r t of a c o n t r a c t is t h a t i t c a n n o t b e u n i l a t e r a l l y c h a n g e d bp e i t h e r p a r t y m ( f o o t n o t e 4 , - p. ,778), t h a t n C o L l u s i o n b e t w e e n l o r d s c o u l d a n d sordeti~es d i d l i m i t c o n p e t i t i o n a n d , as a r e s u l t , make e x p l o i t a ~ n ~ ~ o s s i b l e , B u t b y its n a t u r e s u c h c o l l u s i o n t e n d e d t o b e u n s t a b l e ,., A c e n t r a l c o e r c i v e a u t h o r i t y was n e c e s s a r y f o r s u s t a i n e d e x p l o i t a t i o n n ( f o o t n o t e 15, p* 778) , t h a t nserf dom i n U e s t e r n E u r o p e was e s s e n t i a l l y n o t an e x p l o i t a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t where l o r d s @owneds l a b o r a s i n H o r t h Amer ica , o r as it d e v e l o ~ a in E a s t e r n Europen (p- 7 7 8 ) , t h a t m t h e ~ K ~ u r o ~ e a n serf ,., was i n fact ,.. gener- a l l y p r o t e c t e d fron a , r b i t r a r y c h a n g e s i n t h e terms of t h e c o n t r a c t by t h e l o r d ,as a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e c u s t o n s of t h e n a n o P (pp. 778-779) , t h a t i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e " t h e serf's status uas i n ef-Wt c h a n g e d t o t h a t o f a & f a c t o s l a v e * (p, - 7791, a n d , f i n a l l y , t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s be tween t h e Eastern Znropean case and the V e s t e r n European c a s e l a y i n t h e f ac t that t h e p o l i t i c $ l power of t h e w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n s t a t e was v e r y l i m i t e d , that its d e c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l st r n c t u r e

of p ~ ~ t e c t i o n a n d j u s t i c e f o r p a y m e n t s i n s e r v i c e a n d i n

k i n d . a? 3% Here, ' I would l i k e t o g o i n t o u t t h a t t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n

o f = o m m u t a t i o n f o r t h e f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s (a

matter w i t h wh ich I s h a l l n o t c o n c e r n myself i n t h e t h e s i s )

p r e s u p p o s e s - - t h e i r c o n c e p t ( o r v i s i o n ) of a ' d e c e n t r a l i z e d 8 mano- . y

rialism. T o a r g u e (as they do) t h a t t h e t h e n o c c u r r i n g . c h a n g e s

i n f a c t o r p ~ o p d r t i o n s s h o u l d h a v e ef f e c t ' i v e l y e n h a n c e d t h e mano- ,'s

r i a l d e p e n d a n t s ' b a r g a i n i n g power a s s u m e s l o r d s who d i d n o t col- Q

l u d e t o a n y s i g n i f i c a n t e x t e n t - - l o r d s lacking t h e means t h r o u g h

v h i c h some c o h e s i v e p r e s s u r e fin m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s ' c o u l d h a v e

been a p p l i e d . It i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s a s s u m p t i o n of i n s i g n i f i c a n t

( o r u n s t a b l e ) c o l l u s i o n a m o n g s t l o r d s a n d o f a n i n e x i s t e n t (or

i n e f f e c t i v e ) c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y t h a t u n d e r l i e s t h e N o r t h a n d

Thomas c o n c e p t of ~ n a n o r i a l i s m a n d t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e j u s t i f i c a -

t i o n of t h e i r c o n t r a c t u a l a p p r o a c h . The a b o v e m e n t i o n e d e x a m p l e

wouLd s u g g e s t t h a t t h e Berth a n d Thomas c o n c e p t of a ' c o n t r a c -

t u a l m a n o r i a l i s m g is a n e c e s s a r y i n g r e d i e n t o f a t l e a s t one o f

t h e i r a r g u m e n t s a b o u t t h e e v o l u t i o n of l a b o u r d u e s , 32 BOY. damag-

ing t o e a c h one-of t h e s e a r g u m e n t s a r e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e i r con-

c e p t of manorialism would b e is n o t , however , a q u e s t i o n I pro-

pose t o se t t le , here, I n s t e a d , I wish t o p r o c e e d now w i t h a

P

I 1 t h u a r t e d e f f e c t i v e c o l l u s i o n b y t h e l o r d , ,. a n d made p o s s i - ble a r u d i m e n t a r y labour r t a r k e t n (p. 779)-

30 H o r t h , S t r u c t u r e sad Chanqe i n Economic H i s t o r y , 2. 133,

3 2 S e e A . 3 . F i e l d s , n T h e P r o b l e m w i t h B e o c l a s s i c a l ,,,ff f o r a 3 i s c n s s i o n of w h a t F i e l d s d e s c r i b e s a s Elorth a n d Thomas8 " two z o a p l e m e n t a r y t h e o r i e s of why t h e l o t o f s u r v i v i n g p e a s a n t s i a p r m e d a f t e r t h e a lack D e a t h M (p. 181) .

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s a s t h e y b u i l d up t o -

of t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s ,

T h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e N o r t h a n d Thomas a rgumen

t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v i v a l o f l a b o u r d u e s forces u s t o l o o k i n t o

t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l h y p o t h e s i s o f why " t h e classic manor [ t h a t is,

t h e Z n g f i s h t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y inanor] m a i n t a i n e d a c o n -

t r a z t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p which m a i n l y t o o k t h e form of l a b o u r o b l i -

g a t i 0 n s , ~ @ 3 3 It a l s o f o r c e s u s t o c o n s i d e r why t h i s b a s i c neon-

t r a c t u a l " azrang 'ement ( a s t h e y r e f e r t o i t ) g a v e way t o f i x e d

r e n t a r r a n g e m e n t s i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , So, w i t h i n t h e f r a a e -

work o f t h e i r a n a l y s i s i n terms o f t r a n s a c t i o n cos ts ( n e g o t i a -

t i o n c o s t s a n d e n f o r c e m e n t cos t s ) , a t h e f i r s t s t e p would b e t o

a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n of why l a b o u r d u e s w e a r e i n i t i a l J y p r e f e r r e d

t o 3 l t e r n a t i v e forms of paymen t s . Why d i d n o t t h e m a n o r i a l l o r d

' relinquish i n s t e a d all of t h e l a n d t o h i s d e p e n d a n t s i n r e t u r n

f o r f i x e d p a y m e n t s i ,n k i n d o r - a s h a r e payment? Why d i d n o t t h e

l o r 3 h i a s e l f c u l t i v a t e a l l o f t h e l a n d by p a y i n g h i r e d labour

wages i n k i n d ? Very b r o a d l y , t h e N o r t h a n d Thomas a n s w e r is

t h a t , up u n t i l t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , t h e p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d s t a t e

of m a r k e t s mean t t h a t t h e l a b o u r d u e s a r r a n g e ~ e n t u a s by f a r t h e

c h e a p e s t t o n e g o t i a t e , The o t h e r p o s s i b l e a r r a n g e m e n t s e n j o y e d

r e l s t i v e l y l o w e r e n f o r c e m e n t c o s t s b u t n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y low t o

c o s l p e n s a t e for h i g h e r n e g o t i a t i o n c o s t s . The a b s e n c e of m a r k e t s

neant r e l a t i v e l y high n e g o t i a t i o n costs f o r t h e s e a r r a n g e m e n t s

b e c a u s e of d i f f i c u l t i e s . of v a l u a t i o n : how would t h e two p a r t i e s

33 g o r t h a n d Thomas, "The Rise ,,.", p. 788.

i n v o l v e d (the l o r d a n d h i s d e p e n d a n t s ) a g r e e o n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n -,

of t h e o u t p u t e n t e r i n g t h e i r ~ e s p e c t i v e c o n s u m p t i o n b u n d l e ?

P r e s u m a b l y , the b a r g a i n i n g p r o c e s s would b e v e r y e x p e n s i v e ,

Fur thermore- , t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s e n t a i l e d b y this kind of b a r g a i n -

i n g wo-uld be a c c e n t u a t e d b y l a r g e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n s ' i n m a n o r i a l

p r o d u c w which would r e q u i r e " t h e n e g o t i a t i o n of a c c e p t a b l e

s u b s t i t u t e s fo r t h e s p e c i f i e d g o o d s [ a n d J t h e r e was a l s o t h e

problera of n e g o t i a t i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e g o o d s t o b e t r a n s -

f e r r e d , m 3 * A s f o r t h e a b s e n c e of m a r k e t s ( o r t h e i r r u d i m e n t a r y

s t a t e ) , N o r t h a-nd Thomas a t t r i b u t e it t o a v e r y s p a r g e p o p u l a -

t i o n 3 5 and t o c h a o t i c c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , F i n a l l y ,

w i t h i n t h i s g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e c u s t o m s of t h e manor a r e

s u p p o s e d t o h a v e h a d a d u a l f u n c t i o n . We a r e t o l d t h a t t h e y

h e l p e d r e d u c e s h i r k i n g costs, and t h u s e n f o r c e m e n t cos ts , b y

s p e c i f y i n g t h e r u l e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e p e n a l t i e s for d e v i -

ations. U e are a l s o t o l d t h a t they c u r b e d e a c h l o r d ' s power of

a r ~ i t r a r y a c t i o n - t h e u l t i m a t e c h e c k on t h i s power b e i n g t h a t

l o r d s v i e d f o r e a c h o t h e r ' s d e p e n d a n t s . 3 6

A b o u t t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y : t h e l e v e l of m a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s

i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y s o t h a t , a f t e r a c e r t a i n p o i n t , " t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l labor a r r a n g e m e n t no l o n g e r e n j o y e d a - . r e l a t i v e

34 Z l y d e P e e d , ~ T o f a r d s a T r a n s a c t i o n s , Cost E n p l a n a t i o ~ of t h e Transition f r o m Se r fdom t o Free L a b o u r , U n p u b l i s h e d P a p e r ( A p r i l , 1980), p. 6.

35 which limited thus p o t e n t i a l g a i n s from t r a d e

36 blor th , S t r u c t u r e ,, p. 1 2 9 ; B o r t h and Thomas, "The B i s e 790. . . r n , p.

. . PAGE 35

a d v a n t a g e i n terms of t r a n s a c t i o n costs , t*3? And, p o p u l a t i o n

g r o w t h e x p l a i n s t h e rise of m a r k e t s ; t h e argument is t h a t i t

- i n c r e a s e d p o t e n t i a l g a i n s from t r a d e w h i c h , i n t u r n , a c t e d as a n

i n c e n t i v e f o r t h e l o r d s t o f i n d ways of s a f e g u a r d i n g t r a d i n g

a c t i v i t i e s and t o l o w e r t h e cos t s of t r a d i n g . 3 8

Hav ing t h u s ' e s t a b l i s h e d ' t h e d e c r e a s i n g a t t r a c t i v e n e s s of

l a b o u r dues c o n t r a c t s over t h e t w e l f t h century, Nor th and Thomas t

d e s c r i b e t h e mos t common a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t s u p e r s e d e d them,

L a b o u r d u e s were commuted f o r a f i x e d money payment a n d much o f

t h e demesne was l e a s e d f o r fixed money r e n t payment. G i v e n t h e

Nor th a n d T h o n a s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e c o m m u t a t i o n p a y m e n t s c o u l d b e

v i ewed as t h e p a y m e n t s i n e x c h a n g e o f the l o r d ' s p r o v i s i o n o f

p u b l i c goods , t h e r e n t s a s t h e p a y m e n t s f o r t h e u s e of h i s

d e ~ e s n e l a n d . One p r o b l e m with t h i s a n a l y s i s is t h a t i t would

b e l e a v i n g t h e s t a t u s o f t h e d e p e n d a n t s g w t o m a r ~ h o l d i n g s i n

t h e d a r k . H o w e z a c t l y Nor th a n d Thomas view t h e s e h o l d i n g s is

ambiguous , Are t h e y a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e l o r d h a d r i g h t s o v e r

t h e s e l a n d s o n l y by v i r t u e o f h i s t t p r o t e c t - i o n w of them, i n which

c a s e the- c o m m u t a t i o n p a y m e n t s ( a n d p r i o r t o t h i s , t h e l a b o u r

o b l i g a t i o n s ) s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s p a y m e n t s i n e x c h a n g e of t h i s

o n e g o v e r n m e n t a l s e r v i c e ? O r , is t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t a l l o f -- t h e m a n o r i a l lands were c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e l o r d ' s a n d t h a t ,

n 37 g o r t h a n d Thomas, n T h e R i s e ,,. , p, -793, I n N o r t h a n d Thom- a s * words # t h e u s e of a m a r k e t economy - when c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s - is s u f f i c i e n t t o s x p l a i n t h e eventual d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t o f the a a n o r i a l s y s t e m : t h e s h a r i n g o f i n p u t s i n t h e form of Labor d u e s n (p. 7 9 4 ) .

c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e d e p e n d a n t s owed him a r e n t f o r o c c u p y i n g some -

o f h i s l a n d s ? I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e c o m a u t a t i o n p a y a e n t s -

would h a v e t o b e r e g a r d e d a s c o n s i s t i n g of p a y m e n t s f o r t h e u s e

o f t h e l o r d 9 s l a n d a s well a s f o r his p r o t e c t i o n . I n t h e i r d i s -

c u s s i o n of t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , N o r t h a n d Thomas seem t o i m p u t e

t o t h e l o r d r i g h t ; o v e r h i s d e p e n d a n t s * l a n d s a s s u c h . 3 9 Bor-

e v e r , within t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e i r ovn l o g i c a l framework of

a n a l y s i s , , t h e i r t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a r g u m e n t s f a i l t o e x p l o r e t h e

r a m i f i c a t i o n s of the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n demesne l a n d s a n d

d e p e n d a n t s s lands4,O

S t i l l i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , North and Thomas

try t o e x p l a i n why f i x e d money paymen t s uere, on b a l a n c e , advan-

t a g e o u s t o t h e l o r d . G iven s t a b l e p r i c e s o v e r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t

of t h e t u e l f t h c e n t u r y , , tne l o r d h a d n o r e a s o n s t o f ea r t h e

d e v a l u a t i b n of f i x e d n o n e y i n c o m e s , n o r e o v e r , s p e c u l a t i n g

what t h e combined effect of f i x e d money p a y m e n t s a n d d i m i n i s h i b g

r e t u r n s 4 1 would mean i n terms of t h e r e l a t i v e v a l u e s of

a n d l a n d , Nor th a n d T h o m a s a r g u e t h e f o l l o u i n g : d i m i n i s g i n c j i i

r e t u r n s u e r e g r a d u a l l y r e d u c i n g t h e v a l u e o f l a b o u r ; - i n / t h a t i

r e g a r d a t l e a s t , f i x e d c o m m u t a t i o n ~ a y m e n t s were a d v a n t a g e $ u s t o /

t h e l o r d . However, t h e v a l u e of t h e c u s t o m a r y h o l d i n g s was ris-

i n g . Eiou d i d t h e l o r d c a p t u r e the i n c r e a s e i n this v a l u e ?

? 4 0 S e e C, Reed, nTowards a T r a n s a c t i o n s C o s t , ,,ia.

4 1 B o r t h a n d Thomas f a i l t o i n d i c a t e why t h e y b e l i e v e , a g g r e g a t e d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s t o h a v e been o p e r a t i v e i n the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y ,

Given f i x e d c o m m u t a t i o n p a y m e n t s , i n N o r t h a n d Thomass w o r d s , . .

t h e l o r d n g a i n e d a s t h e real v a l u e . of t h e p e a s a n t s 8 l a b o u r ser- . . . ~

vices d e c l i n e d , i n ef fect c o l l e c t i n g p a r t of t h e r ise i n v a l u e

of t h e p e a s a n t s ' l a n d . " * 2 O n t h e o t h e r . h a n d , t o c a p t u r e t h e

i n c r e a s e i n t h e v a l u e o f t h e d e m e s n e l a n d s , t h e l o r d c o u l d , a n d

a p p r e n t l y d i d , c i r c u n v e n t f i x e d r e n t s t h r o u g h e n t r y f i n e s - a

p r o z e d u r e t h a t was s a n c t i o n e d by t h e cus tor t l of t h e manor , 4 3 N o t e

t h a t t h i s a n a l y s i s of t h e t v e l f t h c e n t u r y d o e s n o t r e a l l y make 3

o u t a case a g a i n s t t h e u s e of wage l a b o u r . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,

N o r t h a n d Thomas o f f e r a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f why t h e c o m m u t a t i o n of

l a b o u r dues t u o k p l a c e , b u t t h e y d o gof explain why direct

d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n was a l s o a b a n d o n e d ,

As t h e tuelfth.century waned , . . - t h e l o r d h a d t o a d j u s t t o a neu , .5

s i t u a t i o n of r a p i d l y r i s i n g p r i c e s ; t h e a d j u s t m e n t mas t o b e

niade w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s of c u s t o m , H e r e i n l i e s t h e c r u x of t h e

N o r t h a n d Thomas e x p l a n a t i o n o f b o t h t h e r e v i v a l of l a b o u r d u e s

a n d t h e r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n , Somehow

d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s , i n f l a t i o n a n d t h e c o n s t r a i n t s se t by c u s t o i ~

made t h e r e t u r n t o l a b o u r d u e s t h e most a f f o r d a b l e s o l u t i o n t o

the l o r d . The v a l u e o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o l a b o u r o n t h e l o r d ' s

l a n d c o n t i n u e d t o d e c r e a s e i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A t the I

s a a o time, t h e f i x e d c o m a u t a t i o n p a y m e n t s were b e i n g e r o d e d by -

142 i b i d . , p, 295,

. 4 3 i b i d , ; It is n o t c l ea r w h e t h e r e n t r y f i n e s were p a y m e n t s e x a c t e d f r o m t e n a n t u p o n t h e i r b e i n g a d m i t t e d t o c u s t o m a r y h o l d i n g s a s well a s t o d e m e s n e l a n d s o r w h e t h e r t h e term is r e s e r v e d f o r t h e p a y m e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d a i s s i o n t o custom- ar y h o l d i n g s .

i n f l a t i o n s o t h a t t h e l o r d c o u l d n o l o n g e r c o u n t on n c o l l e c t i n g i

p a r t o f t h e rise i n v a l u e of t h e p e a s a n t s ' land.fl** H i t h r e g a r d

t o t h e demesne l a n d s , t h e e n t r y f i n e s were becoming less ade-

q u a t e i n making u p for t h e f i x e d r e n t s , On f i x e d c r o p - or s h a - '=-L

r e c r o p p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s a s a s o l u t i o n t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s , N o r t h

a n d Thomas comment t h a t s u c h a r r a n g e m e n t s which nwould have

d e a l t w i t h t h e p rob lem of i n f l a t i o n ,,. would n o t o n l y h a v e

p r o v e d c o s t l y o r i m p o s s i b l e t o a d o p t w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

e n v i r o n m e n t b u t would a l s o h a v e r e q u i r e d c o s t l y p e r i o d i c r e n e g o -

t i a t i o n s t o a d a p t t o the c h a n g i n g l a n d - l a b o r r a t i 0 - ~ * 4 s

I n sum, t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y l o r d i s d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g

c o n f r o n t e d two p r o b l e m s : how t o d e a l w i t h i n f l a t i o n a n d how t o

r e s p o n d t o t h e c h a n g i n g l a n d - l a b o r r a t i o , It t u r n s o a t t h a t

w h i c h e v e r way o n e l o o k s a t t h e Nor th a n d Thomas a r g u a e n t s ( and

t h e r e is more t h a n o n e way t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s e a r g u m e n t s 4 6 )

t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f i n f l a t i o n were more

s e v e r e t h a n t h e e f f e c t s of d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s . T h i s l a s t p o i n t

r e y u i r s f u r t h e r e l u c i d a t i o n . 4 3 n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e a r g u m e n t s would h a v e t h e l o r d s

r e v e r t t o t h e d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e i r demesne l a n d s when

e n t r y f i n e s c e a s e d t o c o m p e n s a t e t h e a a d e q u a t e l y f o r t h e f i x i t y

i n the r e n t 4 t h e y c o l l e c t e d . 4 7 But why d i d t h e l o r d s resort t o

4 4 i b i d . , p- 795 ,

4 5 i b i d . , p. 796.

4 6 For a d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , see C, Reed, nTovards a T r a n s a c t i o n s C o s t ,..",

4 7 B o r t h a n d T h o ~ a s , "The Rise , , ,H, p. 797,

1% PAGE 39 *p.i

.?

l a b a u r d u e s a s o p p o s e d t o wage l a b o u r t o c u l t i v a t e t h e i r newly

r e c l a i m e d demesne l a n d s ? I n a c r u c i a l f o o t n o t e o n p , 797, N o r t h

a n d Thomas a r g u e t h a t , f rom t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e l o r d c h o s e

l a b u r d u e s , we c a n - o n l y i n f e r t h a t i n f l a t i o n had r a i s e d t h e

-money wage ra te a b o v e t h e l e v e l of t h e f i x e d c o m m u t a t i o n pay-

ments! I n o t h e r words , t h e s e v e r i t y o f i n f l a t i o n is s u p p o s e d t o "

have o u t w e i g h e d i n i ts e f f e c t s t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e m a r g i n a l pbys-

i c a l p r o d u c t o f l a b o u r c a u s e d by d i m i n i s h i n g r e t n r n s . + 8 Ei

A more d i r e c t e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d q e s

would b e t h e f o l l o w i n g : when t h e e r o s i o n of t h e f i x e d coumuta-

t i o n p a y m e n t s ( t h r o u g h i n f l a t i o n ) s t a r t e d t o o u e v e i g h t h e g r a d -

u a l d e c l i n e i n t h e r e a l v a l u e of l a b o u r ( t h r o u g h d i m i n i s h i n g

r e t u r n s ) t h e l o r d d e c i d e d t o reassert h i s r i g h t s o v e r l a b o u r

d u e s , Here a g a i n , i n f l a t i o n a c t s a s t h e d e t e r m i n i n g v a r i a b l e ,

Uote hou B o r t h a n d T h o ~ a s a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t , h a v i n g r e - a s s e r t e d

h i s r i g h t s o v e r l a b o u r d u e s , t h e l o r d was i n a p o s i t i o n t o s p e c -

ify t h e l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s i n d e t a i l s a n d # * i n t h e p r o c e s s t h e

e x t 2 n t of these burdens was g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e d t o c o r r e s p o n d t o

t h e r e d u c e d r ea l v a l u e o f l a b o u r O i 1 4 9

What. we h a v e t h e n w i t h t h i s v e r s i o n of t h e N o r t h a n d Thomas

a r g u m e n t s is a n o v e r a l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t s t r o n g l y i d e n t i f i e s

c l a s s i c a l m a n o r i a l i s m u i t h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of l a b o u r dues, t h a t {

i n t r o d u c e s t h e l o r d .as a d e c i s i o n - m a k e r whose d e c i s i o n s were

49 ibid,, p. 797- B o r t h a n d u h o m a s a c k n o w l e d g e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o b e drawn f r o a P o s t a n (see t h e i r f o o t n o t e 20 , on p- 797) -

bound u l t i m a t e l y by c o m p e t i n g m a n o r s , 5 0 t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

c u s t o m s o f t h e m a n o r were i n c o m ~ a t i b l e w i t h s h o r t - t e r m c o n - --\

tracG, t h a t b r i n g s p r i c e n o v e m e n t s i n t o f o c u s , a n d t h a t s i d e s - -,

t e p s t h e w h o l e i s s u e of f r e e d o m . A s for t h e i r t h i r t e e n t h - c e n -

t u r y a r g u m e n t s , t h e y c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d i n s o n e w h a t d i f f e r e n t

f a s h i o n s . They c o u l d b e s e e n a s h i i ~ t i n g a t a r e t u r n t o d i r e c t

d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n v h i c h ( g i v e n s e v e r e in•’ l a t i o n ) w o u l d l e a d t o . L

t h e r e v i v a l o f 1 - a b o n r d u e s f o r u s e o n i e n e s n e h a n d s . B l t e r n a -

t i v e l y, t h e i r .model c o u l d be s e e n a s p r e d i c t i n g , much more

d i r e c t l y , a r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f d e m e s n e

c u l t i v a t i o n , I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e of

t h e s e l a b o u r d u e s would n o t b e i n t r i n s i c t o t h e a r g u a e n t , s i n c e

l a m u r d u e s c o u l d b e r e i n s t i t u t e d a n d t h e n r e s o l d . H a v i n g s a i d

t h i s , I s h o u l d a d d t h a t N o r t h a n d Thomas s t o p s h o r t o f h i n t i n g

a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l a b o u r d u e s r e q u e s t e d . b u t n o t p u t t o use .

A r e a d i n g o f t h e i r a r t i c l e s u g g e s t s t h a t w h a t t h e y s e t ou,t t o

e x p l a i n was a r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s i n u s e o n d e m e s n e l a n d s

a n d t h a t t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e of P o s t a n ' s 1937 s e c p e n c e is u q q u a l i -

f i e d ,

AIOPEEB MODEL II TEBHS OF TBABSACTION COSTS: S, PEIOALTEA8S

A r a t h e r m e t i c u l o u s c r i t i c of t h e N o r t h and Thomas a r g u m e n t s

o n p o i n t s of a e t h o d , of s u b s t a n c e and o f fac ts ,S l S , P e n o a l t e a --

50 Their n o t i o n o f a * c o n t r a c t u a l m a n o r i a l i s m 1 stems f r o m t h i s v i s i o n , T h i s n o t i o n r e a l l y p r e c l u d e s t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of

- how i n t e r a c t i o n with a c e n t r a l p o l i t i c a l power m i g h t h a v e 3 f f e c t e d m a n o r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n c e its p r e n i s e is t h a t a a n o r i a l i s m i n its c l a s s i c a l f o r m e n t a i l e d a d e c e n t r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e of p o l i t i c a l c o e r c i o n .

-

51 S t e f a n o F e n o a l t e a , # T h e R i s e a n d F a l l of a T h e o r e t i c a l Model:

h a s a d v a n c e d s e p a r a t e h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g c h a n g e s i n a g r i c u l -

t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n in m e d i e v a l Eng land , 5 2 A s t h e y a p p e a r i n

w A a t h o r i t y , E f f i c i e n c y a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n ,., n, t h e s e

h y p o t h e s e s are e s s e n t i a l l y t h r e e f o l d . F e n o a l t e a h a s a n e x p l a n a -

t i o n o f d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n ( f o r t h e e l e v e n t h a n d f o r the

t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ) ; h e p r e s e n t s u s v i t h a r a t h e r g e n e r a l

a r g u m e n t t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e u s e o f l a b o u r d u e s , H e a l s o a n s w e r s

t h e s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n o f w h y E n g l i s h l o r d s r e i n s t a t e d l a b o u r

o b l i g a t i o n s i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

A c c o r d i n g t o P e n o a l t e a , b o t h d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n a n d

t h e u s e of l a b o u r d u e s c o u l d b e l i n k e d t o a d v a n t a g e s d e r i v i n g

from H t h e e x e r c i s e o f a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e l a b o r f o r c e r M 5 3 In h i s

words: "The benefits o f t h a t a u t h o r i t y c o u l d b e f o u n d i n p roduc - .

t i o n i t s e l f - most p l a u s i b l y , I b e l i e v e , i f t h e employer imposed

~ h e ~ r i a l S y s t e r ~ ~ , J o o r n a J of E c o n o e H i s t o r y 35 (1975), pp- 386-409- O n p o i n t s of method: P e n o a l t e a c r i t i c i z e s N o r t h and Thomas f o r r e l y i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , on c u s t o m i e , on i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s ) a s a n e x o g e n o u s v a r i a b l e ; on p o i n t s of s . u b s t a n c e , h e d i s m i s s e s t h e i r c o n c e p t of c o n t r a c - t u a l m a n o r i a l i s m , a r g u e s t h a t j n s t i c e a n d p r o t e c t i o n were n o t p u b l i c g o o d s a n d s u g g e s t s t h a t a m a f i a - t y p e mode l would more a p t l y d e s c r i b e t h e l o r d ' s a c t i v i t i e s t h a n a c o n t r a c t u a l a p p r o a c h , On p o i n t s of f a c t s , h e c h a l l e n g e s t h e N o r t h a n d Thomas a s s u m p t i o n of i n s i g n i f i c a n t m a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s w h i l e a l s o r e v e r s i n g t h e i r r a n k - i n g of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n a n d e n f o r c e m e n t c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d v i t h a l t e r n a t i v e p o s s i b l e a r r a n g e m e n t s , o n t h e i r own g r o u n d s ( t h a t is, a s s u m i n g no o r l i t t l e m a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s ) , F o r a c r i t i - cism o f F e n o a l t e a , see C. Reed, "Towards a T r a n s a c t i o n s C o s t s r r r ".

Ba 52 S. F e n o a l t e a , n A n t h o r i t y , E f f i c i e n c y , a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l Organ-

i z a t i o n i n E e d i e v a l E n g l a n d a n d Beyond: A H y p o t h e s i s f * , J o u r - nal of Econom& H i s t o r y 35, pg. 693-718. A s r e v e a l e d by t h e t i t l e of t h e . a r t i c l e , - F e n o a l t e a w s d i s c u s s i o n is p r e s e n t e d a s h a v i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s +!hat e x t e n d beyond t h e E n g l i s h m e d i e v a l manor.

{. PAGE 42 .

a d i f f e r e n t , a n d s u p e r i o r , t e c h n i q u e ; o r t h e y c o u l d be beyond 4

'mere' p r o d u c t i o n - a o s t p l a u s i b l y t o my mind, i f t h o s e i n power

v a l u e d t h e i m p a c t of s e r v i l e r o l e - p l a y i n g on t h e fo rma a e n t i s of

t h e l a b o u r i n g p o o r , " s * Whi l e t h e f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s stresses t h e

p r o d u c t i v i t y g a i n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l o r d ' s d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n

o f t h e l a b o u r p r o c e s s , t h e s e c o n d w e i g h s t h e p a r t o f 'non-eco-

nomlc c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ' i n t h e l o r d ' s c h o i c e s a n d , w i t h i n t h i s

p e r s p e c t i v e , l o n g - r u n s t a b i l i t y a n d t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f e x i s t i n g

r e l a t i o n s o f d e p e n d e n c e c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y b e a t t h e expense of

N o w , f o r a @ore d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n o f how , t h e s e twor hypo th -

eses c o m b i n e t o e x p l a i n t h e p r e v a ' l e n c e olf d i r e c t demesne c u l t i -

v a t i o n a n d l a b o u r d u e s i n t h e e a r l y H i d d l e Ages: first., why

d i r z c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n ? B e c a u s e of d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r o p '

t y p e s ( t h e l o r d , we a r e t o l d , consu-med a s u p e r i o r a n d a more

d e l i c a t e k i n d o f g r a i n ) a n d a l s o b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e

q u a l i t y o f t h e s o i l .(we are t o l d t h a t t h e demesne l a n d s c o n -

s i s t e d p r o b a b l y of i n f e r i o r q u a l i t y s o i l s ) , s p e c i a l knowledge

6 f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e demesne l a n d s u a s required. 3 n o r i a l

d e p e n d a n t s d i d n o t p o s s e s s , n o r d i d t h e y e a s i l y a c q u i r e , t h i s

knowledge - h e n c e , t h e n e e d t o s u p e r v i s e t h e a . 5 5 By t h e m s e l v e s ,

t h e s e a r g u i n e n t s d o n o t p r o v i d e us with ' i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e spe -

cific i s s u e o f t h e u s 2 of l a b o u r d u e s a n d t h e y r a i s e two f u r t h e r

q u e s t i o n s , T h e f i r s t o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n i s vhy would t h e l o r d

53 i b i d , p. 695.

5 4 i b i d , , p- 698-

55 i b i d , , pp. 702-704.

&J

PAGE 43

c h o o s e t o k e e p , a s demesne l a n d s , t h e p o o r e r s o i l s ? A c c o r d i n g -

t o F e n o a l t e a , b e c a u s e h e knew t h a t t h e m a x i m i z a t i o n of- t h e t o t a l

o u t p u t of m a n o r i a l l a n d s ( e . , o f b o t h d e a e s n e and non-demesne

l a n d s ) c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d o n l y i f soae s p e c i a l know1 e d g e - t h a t

h e , t h e l o r d , h a d - was a p p l i e d t o t h e p o o r e r s o i l s - * 6 Fenoa l -

t e a t s ' e v i d e n c e * f o r p r e s u m i n g t h a t t h e worst - l a n d s were,

i n d e e d , a l l o c a t e d t o t h e l o r d is t h a t demesne l a n d s were o f t e n a

r e c e n t a s s a r t . 5 7 B u t were r e c e n t assarts r e a l l y * more d i f f i c u l t

t o work, a n d l e s s f e r t i l e , than o l d e r l a n d s ? On t h e b a s i s o f

h i s r e a d i n g s of P o s t a n , C, Beed i n d i c a t e s t h a t this may not h a v e .

be-en t h e case; o n t h e c o n t r a r y , " s o i l e x h a u s t i o n on o l d e r l a n d .

o f t e n r e s u l t e d i n i ts becoming less f e r t i l e than new a s s a r t U . 5 *

I n a n y case, F e n o a l t e a h a s t o e x ~ l a i n a h y m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s

f a i l e d jo master t h e t e c h n i q u e s which t h e y i ~ p l e m e n t e d on t h e

l o r d j s l a n d s . H i s a n s w e r is t h a t t h e i r work 6 t h e deuiesne *.

l a n d s was s p o r a d i c : t h e i r e x p o s u 1 e t o t h e s e b c h n i q u e s was

" n e v e r s y s t e m a t i c o r pr .o longed enough"s9

S u c h a r e then t h e a r g u m e n t s * e x p l a i n i n g t d i r e c t demesne c u l -

t i v a t i o n i n t h e t e n t h and e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s . '19 r e g a r d t o t h e P

l o r d s 8 u s e of l a b o u r d n e s , d u r i n g t h i s same p e r i o d , F e n o a l t e a

a d v a n c e s his s e c o n d hypothesis* i n v o l v i n g t h e c o n n e c t i o n s be tween

t h e . e x p 3 i c i t ( t h e v i s i k l e ) e x e r c i s e of 'power o v e r - men a n d t h e

. t

56 i b i d . (See f o o t n o t e 2 9 on p , 704,)

n 57 F e n o a f t e a , # A u t h o r i t y ... , p - 705. C 3: -5

58 C. Beed, R T o u a r d s A .,. H, p. 20.

5 9 F e n o a l t e a , " A u t h o r i t y ,,.", p a 7 0 5

s t a b i l i z a t i o n , of a s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y i n t i ~ e s o f p o l i t i c a l

a n a r c h y , T h e 1ord8s c h o i c e o f l a b o u r d u e s ( a s o p p o s e d to wage

l a b o u r ) is preseited a s some k i n d o f i n v e s t m e n t

i n t h e s t a b i l i t y of s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y ... . By e m p l o y i n g t h e p e a s a n t s a s d e p e n d e n t l a b o r o n e K e e p s t h e m a c t i n g a n d p e r h a p s t h i n k i n g a s s u b o r d i n a t e s ; by e x e r c i s i n g a u t h p r i t y o n e

a=- makes o n e ' s oun power m a n i f e s t . Bhen t h e status 3 n o is c o d i f i e d a n 4 e n f o r c e d by t h e

o f t h e s ta te , s u c h d i s p l a y of power z v e s l i t t l e u l t e r i o r p u r p o s e ; b u t where &he r u l e of l a w iy a b s e n t o r u e a k , o r when i t t e n d s t o d e n . ' p r e r o g a t i v e s t h a t e x i s t & f a c t o power i s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e a p p e a r - - , ance o f power , a n d a u t h o r i t y from t h e v i s i - b l e submission to o t h e r s . [ a s f o r t h e a l t e r n a t i v e of p a y i n g h i r e d l a b o n r a wage, +

i t 3 would t e n d t o u n d e r c u t the s t a t u s - d i f - f e r e n t i a t i o n a c h i e v e d on t h e job, s i n c e i t s m a c k s of b i l a t e r a l e x c h a n g e and t h u s of e g a l i t a r i a n i s m . 6 0

I n q u e s t i o n i n g t h e n o t i o n t h a t l a b o u r dues were u s e d pr ima-

r i l y t o d e ~ a r c a t e social roles a n d t o r e i n f o r c e a g r o u p ' s s a b -

j e c t i o n t o a n o t h e r , C, Beed wonders why o t h e r s y m b o l i c r i tes a n d

u s a g e s were n o t u s e d i n s t e a d - a p o s s i b i l i t y acknowledged by

P e n o a l t e a i n a f o o t n o t e . 6 1 S y m b o l i c r i t e s ( o r payaents), as a n

a l t e r n a t i v e B e a n s of s t a b i l i z i n g t h e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y , would

a p p e a r a l l t h e more a t t r a c t i v e ' s i n c e t h e y would have, h e e n prob-

ably less c o s t l y t h a n t h e e n f o r c e m e n t of l a b o u r d u e s . N e v e r t h e - *

less, f e n o a l t e a is s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e , ~ o t a l t o -

g e t h e r c o n v i n c i n g , h i s r a t i o n a l e is t h a t , a t t h e t i a e , t h e l o r d s

d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h i s a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e . 6 2

60 P e n o a l t e a , f b i d . p. 719. . .

6 1 B e e d , w T o u a r d s A- -..n, p . 2 1 ; F e n o a l t e a , * A u t h o r i t y ..,#,

f o o t n o t e 69, p. 717. < ,

Pros t h e p r o d u c t i o n p o i n t of v iew, s u p e r v i s i o n of - t h e l a b o u r

fo rce mas becoming s u p e r f l u o u s i n t h e t u e l f t h c e n t u r y - a cen- 't

tury c h a r a c t e r i z e d by e c o n o m i c growth which, a c c o r d i n g t o

F e n o a l t e a , was m a i n l y t h e conseqnen 'ce of a d e c r e a s e i n vio-

lence.63 l t o r e of t h e - s u p e r i o r . q u a l i t y g r a i n s were b e i n g p r o - . .

d u c e d ; g e n e r a l l y , m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s were becoming b e t t e r f a r m -

ersb4 and t h i s p rompted t h e l o r d s t o l e a s e t h e i r demesne l a n d s , -

B u t how d o e s P e n o a l t e a t s s e c o n d . h y p o t h e s i s f i t i n t o t h i s *

a c c o u n t ? I would t h i n k t h a t , b y e n t a i l i n g - g r e a t e r stability,

p a c i f i c a t i o n a l s o r e d s c p d t h e i m ~ o r t a n c e df u s i n g l a b o u r d u e s a s

a m a n s of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s t a t u s gpp.6-5

Y i t h t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y c&e new i n c e n t i v e s f o r t h e l o * r d s

t o r e s u m e c o n t r o l o f t h e i r demesne l a n d s , I n c r e a s i n g l y s s v e r e eF -

d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n % g a v e r ise t o ' a s p u r t i n i n n o v a t i o n : more

p r o n e t o i n t r o d u c i n g n e u techniques t h a n t h e i r d e ~ e n d a n t s , t h e 4

l o r d s t o o k c h a r g e o f t h e demesne o n c e agair,, As fo r t h e r e v i v a l A

of labour d u e s , u n l i k e N o r t h ' a n d Thomas, ~ e n o d t e a d i s t i n g u i s h e s

b e t w e e n l a b o u r o b l i q a t i o n s ( t h e fact t h a t a v i l l e i n 'was t o pro-

s i d s his l o r d w i t h a c e r t a i n amount o f l a k o u r t i ~ e every week)

6 2 P e h o a l t e a , " ~ s t h o r i t y ,,. ", i b i d .

63 ibid,, p. 706,

% 6 4 ibid,, pp. 706-707. ,

65_ibid,, p . 716- I an , h o u e v e r , u n c l e a r a s t o w h e t h e r P e n o a l - tea vieus the t u e l f th-century as e s s e n t i a l l y p e a c e f u l o r a n a r c h i c a l s i n c e he:a l s o n e n t i o n s t h a t " i n the a n a r c h y a n d z i v i l ua r of t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y -.. t h e d e s i r e t o k e e p one's , p e a s a n t s s e r v i n g n a y well a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a i l u r e of labour s e r v i c e s t o contract more thoroughly than they d i d , " (p , 7161. -1 an a l s o c o n f u s e d a s t o w h e t h e r h i s two b r o a d hypotheses are t o b e r e g a r d e d a s c o m p e t i n g o r a s coap lemen- tary.

I

PAGE 46

a n d l a b o u r s e r v i c e s ( t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f t h i s o b l i g a t i o n by the

v i l l e i n i n p e r s o n , a s o p p o s e d t o a s i t u a t i o n i n which he , t h e a

v i l l e i n , c o u l d h i r e a s u b s t i t u t e t o f u l f i l t h e o b l i g a t i o n ) , And

his c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t w u h e t h e r l a b o r o b l i g a t i o n s were c o m a u t e d

o r n o t , l a b o u r s e r v i c e s l a r g e l y d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d t h e demesne

came t o b e worked a l m o s t e x c l d s i v e l y by wage -ea rn ing l a b 0 r , * ~ 6 *

I n o t h e r words, e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y ( i -e . , t h r o u g h h i s

v i l l e i n s ' policy of hiring s u b s t i t u t e s ) t h e l o r d came t o depend

on wage l a b o u r . T h i s p l a c e s F e n o a l t e a s s a r g u a e n t a t some dis-

t a n c e from the N o r t h a n d Thomas p e r s p e c t i v e . And y e t a * N o r t h

and Thosas t u i s t ' t o his a n a l y s i s o f the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y 6 7

comas t o n o t i c e i n a f o o t n o t e i n which P e n o a l t e a l i n k s , q u i t e

e x p l i c i t l y , t h e r enewed i n t e r e s t i n l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s t o i n • ’ l a -

t i o n : " i n f l a t i o n c o u l d make l a b o r - t i m e more v a l u a b l e t h a n i ts . c u s t o m a r y money e q u i v a l e n t , and t h e l o r d would h a v e r e a s o n t o

c l a i m i t i f o n l y to s e l l i t f o r more t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sum

. , t h e l o r d might , , , w i s h t o z n c r e a s e l a b o r o b l i g a t i o n s ,

r a t h e r t h a n money r e n t s , a s a uay o f h e d g i n g a g a i n s t i n f l a t i o n

a n d p o s s i b l e l a b o u r s h o r t a g e s u . 6 8 I n f l a t i o n would seem t o b e a t

t h e core o f P e n o a l t e a s s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

r e v e r s i o n t o labour d u e s .

6 6 i b i d , , p. 708,

67 ibid., f o o t n o t e 4 4 on p. 709.

68 i b i d .

P A G E 47

~ o ' c o n c l u d e , i n h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n l a b o u r s e r v i c e s a n d

l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s , a n d i n h i s #stress on ' d i f f e r i n g a s w e l l a s 2

c h a n g i n g t e c h n i c a l a b i l i t i e s , F e n o a l t e a d e p a r t s from t h e H o r t h

a n d ~ h o n a s f r amework o f a n a l y s i s , On t h e o t h e r h a n d , his spe -

c i f i c a n s w e r r e g a r d i n g t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v e r s i o n t o

l a b o u r d u e s (wh ich c l e a r l y t a k e s u p o n l y a smal l p a r t of h i s

d i s c u s s i o n ) is s i n g u l a r l y c l o s e t o N o r t h a n d Thomas. H i s own

h y ? o t h e s e s s * r a i s e t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p a r a t i v e q u e s t i o n s : . Can o n e

e x p l a i n t h e early abandonmen t of d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n i n

o t h e r p a r t s o f W e s t e r n Europe ~p a r g u i n g c o n c l u s i v e l y t h a t t h e

m a n o r i a l l o r d s f ost t h e i r r e l a t i v e ad 'van tage i n a g r i c u l t u r a l

e x p e r t i s e ? B a s t h e r e , i n d e e d , less a n a r c h y i n o t h e r p a r t s o f

~ e s t e r n . E u r o p e t o u a r r a n t t h e abandonmen t o f l a b o u r d u e s ? O r

w i l l we h a v e t o f a l l back on t h e n o t i o n t h a t , i n m e d i e v a l

s y u r ~ p e , t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s e x h i b i t e d * d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s of p e r c e p -

t i o n a s t o u h a t t h e p o s s i b l e B e a n s o f r e i n f o r c i n g s e r v i l i t y c-on-

s i s t e d in? Were a t t e m p t s a t r e s u m i n g d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n

6 9 I n u h a t 1 b e l i e v e t o b e h i s mos t r e c e n t a r t i c l e ( " S l a v e r y a n d S u p e r v i s i o n i n C o m p a r a t i v e P e r s p e c t i v e : A ModelM p u b l i s h e d i n The J o u r n a l of Economic H i s t o r p , S e p t e m b e r 1984)., F e n o a l t e a -- -- e x t e n d s h i s f i rs t model of direct s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e l a b o u r f o r c e t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t p r o d u c t i v i t y l e v e l s i n 'ef f kt- i n t e n s i v e a c t i v i t i e s ' (as o p p o s e d t o J c a r e - i n t e n - -- s i v e l a c t i v i t i e s ) a r e , i n h i s v i ew , a p o s i t i v e f u n c t i o n o f t h e l e v e l of p a i n o r of t h e amount of a n x i e t y e x p e r i e n c e d by

f o r c e . His e x p a n d e d model would p r e d i c t t h a t , i n i t h a b u n d a n t labour s u p p l i e s , t h e t h r e a t of d i s - d enhance a l a b o u r e r ' s p r o d u c t i v i t y s o l o n g a s h e

is e n g a g e d i n e i f o r t - i n t e n s i v e a c t i v i t i e s a n d t h i s c o u l d well ~ u t weigh t h e h i g h s u p e r v i s i o n c o s t s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h 3 i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n of f h e l a b o u r f o r c e , To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s a r g u m e n t applies t o t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y demesne c u l t i v a - t i o n i n E n g l a n d i v is a b o u t t h e d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n of wage l a b o u r ; i t d o e s n o t ( n o r i s meant t o , I t h i n k ) p r o v i d e u s w i t h n e u i n s i g t t s i n t o t h e l a b o u r d u e s i s s u e s .

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n n o v a t i o n ? And why d o e s n o t F e n o a l t e a d i s c u s s ,

a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i c y o p e n t o t h e l o r d , t h e l e a s i n g of t h e

d e m e s n e t o a n a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p e r t i n t imes w h i c h n e c e s s i t a t e d

i n n o v a t i o n ? F i n a l l y , i n a d v a n c i n g t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f l a b o u r d u e s

a s a n i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e f e u d a l - m e d i e v a l h i e r -

a r c h y , F e n o a l t e a l s a r g u m e n t i s c e r t a i n l y more c o n d u c i v e t o a

d i s z u s s i o n o f t h e c o e r c i v e n a t u r e of m a n o r i a l i s m t h a n t h e N o r t h

a n d Thomas f r a m e w o r k of a n a l y s i s is, H i s h y p o t h e s i s raises,

h o u a v e r , t h e l a r g e r i s s u e of t h e v a r i o u s ways i n w h i c h f e u d a l -

a a n o r i a l s o c i e t y r e p r o d u c e d i t s e l f a t t h e l e v e l o f m e n t a l i t i e s - of .hou it aaintairted its t r i p a r t i t e h i e r a r c h y , 70

THE BOLE OF IEPLATIOBI 1% P-D-A H A R V E Y

I n a n a r t i c l e t h a t examines v a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e l a t e

t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y i n f l a t i o n i n E n g l a n d , P - D , A , H a r v e y 7 1 a t t r i -

b u t e s u n a m b i g u o u s l y t h e r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t d e a e s n e c a l t i v a -

t i o n , as well a s t h e r e t u r n t o l a b o u r d u e s , t o t h i s s p e c i f i d

phenomenon; h e a l s o b e l i e v e s t h e rise i n p r i c e s t o h a v e b e e n

r e s t r i c t e d t o England-72 I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n , h e d i s t i n g u i s h e s

b e t w e e n t h e two i s s u e s i n v o l v e d : t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n d i r e c t

d e a e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n v e r s u s l e a s i n g , a n d t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e

u s e of l a b o u r d u e s v e r s u s t h e u s e of wage l a b o u r , N o t e w o r t h y is -

70 G . Duby e x p l o r e s t h i s i n F e u d a l S o c i e t y I m a q i n a [ C h i c a g o , 1980) .

71 P.D. A, Barvey , n T h e E n g l i s h I n f l a t i o n o f 1 180-1220M, P e a s a n t , - -

K n i g h t s a n d Heretics e d . b y R . H . B i l t o n ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 7 6 ) , p, 57-84,

72 i b i d , , p. 80, T h e r e l a t i v e m i l d n e s s of t h e p r i c e i n c r e a s e s e x p e r i e n c e d i n o t h e r parts of E u r o p e i s r e a l l y a n estab- l i s h e d f a c t , ,

9

t h e c a u t i o n e x e r c i s e d by H a r v e y a s r e g a r d s the q u e s t i o n of a

r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s , To t h i s I will come b a c k , u t l e t me

f i rs t s u r v e y t h e a r g n m e n t s a b o u t t h e r e s u ~ p t i o n of d e u e ne c u l -

t i v a t i o n

1 The more i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n tackled h e r e is why w o u l d l o r d s

resJme d e a e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n , g i v e n t h a t f l e x i b l e a n d s h o r t - t e r m -

a r r a n g e m e n t s were a n o p t i o n ? d a r v e y c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e s t h a t

such a r r a n g e m e n t s c o e x i s t e d w i t h l o n g - t e r m leases.73 T h e cost t o

t h e l o r d s i s o b v i o u s e n o u g h : t h e r e a l v a l u e of t h e i r l ease p a y -

a e n t s was d e c l i n i n g . 7 4 ( H a r v e y a a k e s n o m e n t i o n of the N o r t h and

T h o n a s c o n p e n s a t i n g e n t r y f i n e s , h e r e . ) Y h a t is less o b v i o u s is

w h y s h o r t - t e r m l e a s e s w o u l d be v i e w e d a s e q u a l l y d i s a d v a n t a -

g e o u s . 7 5 H a r v e y ' s a r g u m e n t i s i n terms o f t h e rise i n p r i c e s a n d

t h e cos ts of n e g o t i a t i n g a g r e e m e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e n e w l e v e l s o f

r e n t s : t h e s h o r t - t e g g f & h c t u a t i g n s i n h e r e n t i n m n o r i a l a g r a r i a n

p r o d u c t i o n (e -g . , y e a r s o f g o o d h a r v e s t s o r b a d h a r v e s t s e tc , )

c o u e l e d w i t h a l o n q - t e r m t r e n d af i n c r e a s i n g p r i c e s made t h e --- - - - n e g a t i a t i o n of s h o r t - t e r m leases p a r t i c u l a r l y e x p e n s i v e , s u g -

g e s t i n g t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n a l va r i (ab1e o f r i s i n g p r i c e s compounded

t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s of t h e c o n t r a c t i n g p a r t i e s . Hore s p e c i f i-

74 i b i 3 . , pp. 60-61,

75 gate t h a t s u c h l e a s e s were u i d e s p r e a d , I n f a c t , Harvey s n g - g e s t s t h a t t h e m a i o r i t p o f a a n o r s n a y h a v e b e e n f a r m e d u n d e r f l e x i b l e a r r a n g m e n t s ; see p. 61. Note a l s o H a r v e y ' s d i s c u s - s i o n o f t h e d e p r e d a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t by t h e lessees. H e stresses (on p. 62) t h a t this problem c a n n o t e x p l a i n t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f s h o r t - t e r m leases s i n c e these d e p r e d a t i o n s h a d b e e n a l o n g s t a n d i n g a n d c o a a o n o c c u r r e n c e ,

\ PAGE 50

c a l l y , H a r v e y ' s s t a t e m e n t is t h a t " o n c e r i s i n g p r i c e s h a d

i n t r o d u c e d a m e a s u r e of l o n g - t e r m c h a n g e i n t o t h e l o c a l e c o n o a y ,

m a k i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h e d farms p a l p a b l y u n r e a l i s t i c , it u a s v e r y

d i f f i c u lt t o d i s c o v e r what n e u l e v e l s of r e n t would . b e f a i r t o

l a n d l o r d a n d lessee a l i k e . " ? 6 T h e t h e o r y b e h i n d these a s s e r t i o n s

i s n e v e r s p e l t o u t , n o r a r e its i m p l i c a t i o n s t r a n s p a r e n t ,

T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e l o r d s r e v e r t e d t o the gsg of l a n o u r

dues i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e y d i d so , a c c o r d i n g t o Har- ---- v e y , b e c a u s e of i n f l a t i o n a r y p r e s s u r e s t h a t are s u p p o s e d t o h a v e

r a i s e d a g r i c u l t u r a l wages f a r a b o v e t h e l e v e l of t h e -. c u s t o n a r i l y

fixed c o m m u t a t i o n payraen t s .7 ' (Note t h a t t h i s same a r g u m e n t was

p r e s e n t e d b y N o r t h a n d Thomas a n d F e n o a l t e a . ) U n l i k e P o s t a n ,

Harwey b e l i e v e s t h a t n a g r i c u l t u r a l w a g e s rose i n t h i s p e r i o d i n

v e r y much t h e ' same p r o p o r t i o n a s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r i c e s , " 7 8 A l s o ,

a n d a s a s i d e r e m a r k , H a r v e y d o e s n o t l i n g e r much o v e r t h e p o s -

s i b i l i t y t h a t l a b o u r d u e s were r e - i n s t i t u t e d a b o v e t h e i r former

c u s t o m a r y level.79 ( P o s t a n h i m s e l f has s o f t e n e d h i s p o s i t i o n on

t h i s i s s u e , )

I n w h a t s e n s e t h e n , d o e s H a r v e y s h o w c a u t i o n i n h i s f a c t u a l

t r e a t m e n t o f t h e r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r dues? R e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t

t h e movement t o w a r d s c o a m u t a t i o n was s t o p p e d o r s l o w e d down,

that * t h e r e may evea h a v e b e e n a g e n e r a l r e t u r n t o labour s e r v i -

-

76 i b i d ,

77 i b i d , , pp. 72-75.

7 8 ibid., p- 7 3 ; see a l s o f o o t n o t e 66 o n p . 73.

7 i b i d . , see f o o t n o t e 6 5 o n p . 72. 5

*I

PAGE 51

b

ces, a s P r o f e s s o r P o s t a n s u g g e s t e d i n 1 9 3 7 - " * 0 Yet h e a d d s , in a

f o o t n o t e : "it is l i k e l y . ,. t h a t t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of l a b o u r ser-

v i c e s was much less w i d e s p r e a d t h a n i s t h e r e s u g g e s t e d . The b

q u e s t i o n is a c o m p l i c a t e d o n e t h a t b a d l y n e e d s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i -

g a t i o n a n d r e - a s s e s s m e n t . "81 T h i s is a r a t h e r i m p o r t a n t q u a l i f i-

c a t i o n .

S u n n i n g u p H a r v e y ' s t h o u g h t s o n d i r e c t d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n

a n d t h e u s e of l a b o u f d u e s i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the r e t u r n

t o d i r e c t d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n is a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e effects of

i n f l a t i o n o n n e g o t i a t i o n cos ts ; s i a i l a r l y , t h e u s e o f l a o o u r

d u e s o n d e m e s n e l a n d s ( h o w e v e r l i m i t e d t h i s use) is l i n k e d t o

i n f l a t i o n v i a its effects o n w a g e s , a s s u m i n g i i x e d c o m m u t a t i o n

p a p e n t s . Why s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e . c o ~ s a u t a t i o n p a y m e n t s were fixed

w h i l e r e n t s were f l e x i b l e is n o t clear.

3 n a n a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t n o t e , H a r v e y c o n c l u d e s h i s a r t i c l e

w i t h a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of t h e l o n g - t e r m a d v a n t a g e s t h a t t h e

l o r d s m i g h t h a v e d e r i v e d from r e t a i n i n g , ' or f r o m r e v e r t i n g t o ,

l a b 3 u r dues. A s o n e of t h e s t a n d a r d l e g a l tests o f t h i r t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y v i l l e i n a g e , l a b o u r d u e s h e l p e d l o r d s a s s e r t t h e v i l l e i n -

a g e o f t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s . And a l t h o u i h a d e p e n d a n t who u a s

d e c l a r e d a v i l l e i n r e m a i n e d , i n p r a c t i c e , s h e l t e r e d by m a n o r i a l

c u s t o m , H t h i s was o n l y by t h e g r a c e o f t h e l o r d of t h e manor ,

who n o u h a d t h e u n q u e s t i o n a b l e r i g h t t o o v e r r i d e - t h e c u s t o m i n

a l n o s t every d e t a i l i f he c h ~ s e , ~ * a z T h e p o w e r s o f t h e l o r d s o v e r

80 ibid., p. 75.

81 i b i d . , f o o t n o t e 7 2 o n p . 75.

t h e l a n d s , g o o d s a n d p e r s o n s o f t h e i r v i l l e i n s v e r e t h u s

s t r e n g t h e n e d a n d extended: a e n t i a l u , -- a t l e a s t , t h e t h i r -

t e e h t h - c e n t u r y l o r d h a d g r e a t e r power? t h a n h i s tweif t h - c e n t u r y

p r e d e c e s s o r - a 3 H a r v e y e x p l a i n s t h e d e c 1 , i n e i n v i l l e i n s t a t u s a s

. " t h e l a n d l o r d ' s r e s p o n s e t o a s i t u a t i o n .where m a n o r i a l c u s t o m

c o n b i n e d u i t h t h e d e c r e a s i n g v a l u e of money was e n d a n g e r i n g

t h e i r income f r o m t h e i r t e n a n t s . l 8 4 he l o r d s * a t t e m p t s . a t

a d j u s t i n y t h e i r i n c o m e s r e s u l t e d i n d i s p u t e s . u i t h t h e i r t e n a n t s . .

over t h e b o u n d s of m a n o r i a l c u s t o a ; t h i s b r o u g h t about- the new

d e f i n i t i o n o f v i l l e i n a g e i n w h i c h l a b o u r d u e s w o u l d b e i m p l i -

c a t e d . B u t why d i d t h e l o r d s c o n t i n u e t o a d h e r e t o c u s t o m , a s

H a r v e y in t imates? Uhy d i d n o t t h e y b reak away v i t h c u s t o m o n c e

t h e y a c q u i r e d , l e g a l l y , t h e u p p e r h a n d ? H o r e p r e c i s e l y , why \

would t h e y g o t h r o u g h t h e c o s t l y p r o c e s s of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e

v i l l e i n a g e of t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s u n l e s s i t w a s t o i m p r o v e s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y their e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n w h i c h i m p l i e d a c t i n g i n d e f i a n c e

of c u s t o m ? An answer would b e t h a t t h e y p e r h a p s m i s c a l c u l a t e d

t h e r e s i s t a n c e t h e y would e n c o u n te,r i n t r y i n g t o e x e r c i s e t h e i r

n e u l y - a c q u i r e d p o w e r s , S t i l l , s u p p o s e d l y p r o m p t e d b y i n f l a t i o n ,

a t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i l l e i n a g e e e a n t t o c i r c u m v e n t m a n o r i a l

c u s t o m , a n d y e t a l s o r e s p e c t f u l of i t , is n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y

persuasive a r g u m e n t ! T.0 be r e t a i n e d , h o u e v e r , is t h e f o c u s o n

l a m u r d u e s a s t h e s e were i n t e r t w i n e d u i t h a d e f i n i t i o n o f

u n f r e e d m t h a t ~ i g h t h a v e s e r v e d p u r p o s e s m i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m -

4 8 2 ibid., p. 76.

83 3 a r v e y c o n c u r s h e r e v i t h R , H i l t o n ' s a n a l y s e s ,

3 4 i b i d . , p. 74

p r o v i d i n g t h e l o r d w i t h manpower t o u s e o n demesne l a n d s , T h i s

f o c u s i s e v i d e n t i n t h e two a n a l y s e s t h a t r e m a i n t o b e c o n s i d -

e r e d .

B* HILTON 01 THE REVEBSIOH TO LABOUR .DUES

A d i f f i c u l t y i n d e a l i n g w i t h R . H i l t o n a s a n a l y s e s is t h a t

t h e y e x t e n d f a r beyond t h e s o ~ e u h a t n a r r o w q u e s t i o n s of why

l a b a u r d u e s a s o p p o s e d t o wage l a b o u r a n d why d i r e c t demesne

c u l t i v a t i o n a s o p p o s e d t o l e a s i n g . T h e y , i n f a c t , e x t e n d beyond

w h a t a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y p e r c e i v e d t o b e t h e e c o n o m i c q u e s t i o n s .

H i l t o n ' s g e n e r a l i n q u i r y i n t o a e d i e v a l a g r a r i a n s o c i e t y d e a l s

w i t h i s s u e s a s b r o a d a s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f m a n o r i a l u n f r e e d o m , 8 *

. t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e o f a a n o r i a l f e u d a l i s m , 8 6 a n d t h e " o v e r a l l n I

d e t a r m i n i n g role of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s " a 7 i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f

this s y s t e m , By t h e " r o l e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t 8 , h e is

r e f e r r i n g t o t h e mode ( t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s of l e g i t i m a t i o n ) a n d t o

t h e s i z e o f t h e i n c o a e t r a n s f e r s e f f e c t e d by t h e m e d i e v a l r u l i n g

e l i te . H i s a n a l y s e s d o n o t a t a l l p r e c l u d e c o n s i d e f a t i o n s p e r -

t a i n i n g t o d e m o g r a p h i c , m o n e t a r y o r m a r k e t forces b u t t h e y do

h i g h l i g h t c o e r c i o n and r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s be tween

85 The p e r f o r m a n c e of l a b o u r d u e s was o n l y o n e s u c h i m p l i c a t i o n : B i l t o n d o e s n o t see l a b o u r d u e s a s s u b s t a n t i v e of u n f r e e d o m - ( i n d i c a t i v e of u n f r e e d o . p e r h a p s b n t no-ubs tan t ive of it.)

86 I am n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d e c o n o m i c h i s t o - r i a n s i g n o r e d t h i s a n d s i m i l a r i s s u e s , N o r t h a n d Thomas, f o r i n s t a n c e , c e r t a i n l y a p p l i e d t h e m s e l v e s t o the t a s k o f d e f i n - ing a a n o r i a l i s m a n d f e u d a l i s a , However, I do t h i n k t h a t H i l - t o n is '.ore e n g a g e d by t h e s e issues.

87 8. H i l t o n , "A C r i s i s o f F e u d a l i s m u , Past a n d Present, no, 80 ( ) f o o t n o t e 4 , p, 3 , T h e a r t i c l e is p a r t of t h e symposium . on B r e n n e r ' s n A g r a r i a n C l a s s S t r u c t u r e ,,, H

r u l e r s and . -

T w o k i n d s o f a r g u m e n t s c a n b e d i s c e r n e d i n E i l t o n t s d i s c u s -

s i o n s o f t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t n r y l a b o u r d u e s s i n c e h e a d d r e s s e s b o t h

t h e i s s u e of l a b o y r d u e s i n u s e on demesne l a n d s a n d t h e i s s u e

of l a b o u r d u e s a s a t e s t o f unf reedom. On t h e u s e o f l a b o u r '3;r

d u e s o n d e m e s n e l a n d s : H i l t o n ' s a n a l y s i s is c u r s o r y a n d some-

what i n c o a p l e t e , H i s e x p l a n a t i o n ( a s e x t r a c t e d from T h e B e c l i n e

of Serfdoa) h i n t s a t a p r o f i t a b i l i t y argument a l a P o s t a n t o -- --- a c c o u n t f o r t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f d i r e c t demesne c n l t i v a t i o n 8 ~ ; a n d

i t i n t i s a t e s t h a t - t h e e x a c t e d l a b o u r d u e s m i g h t n o t a l w a y s h a v e

been f u l l y u s e d , e 9 Note t h a t t h e r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t demesne

c u l t i v a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d by H i l t o n , i n a P o s t a n - l i k e f a s h i o n , a s

a c o u n t e r - a t t a c k l a u n c h e d by l o r d s who, u n d e r d u r e s s , had

r e s a r t e d t o t h e p o l i c y o f l e a s i n g ( l o r d s d i v i d e d a n o n g s t them-

s e l v e s a n d i n n e e d o f " e a s i l y r e a l i s a b l e c a s h r e v e n u e s ) - 9 0

3x3 l a b o u r d u e s a s a test o f unf reedom, (a r a t h e r i m p o r t a n t

test , a c c o r d i n g t o K i l t o n ) : i n a n a r g u m e n t e v o c a t i v e o f H a r v e y ' s

( b u t a l s o much s t r o n g e r ) , H i l t o n h i g h l i g h t s t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

v i l l e i n a g e a s a p a r t i c u l a r f o r n o f l e g i t i m a t i o n of income t r a n s -

f e r s - t h a t is, a s an i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d l o r d s t o s u b j e c t

t h e i r m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s t o h e a v i e r e x a c t i o n s , 9 1 W i t h i n t h i s

p e r s p e c t i v e , q u e s t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o s e r v i c e s a c t u a l l y p e r f o r m e d

88 B. H i l t o n , T h e D e c l i n e of Se r fdom in 4 e d i e v a l E n g l a n d (I.onT d o n , 1983), p. 18.

89 i b i d . , p. 19; see a l s o pp. 31-2 .

9 0 ibid., p. 18.

9 1 I n h i s a r t i c l e , Harvey d o e s i n d e e d refer u s t o H i l t o n .

f a d e i n r e l a k i o n t o t h e l a r g e r i s s n e o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g f i n a n c i a l -

p r e s s u r e s e x e r t e d by t h e l o r d s . The d i s c u s s i o n which e v o l v e s

. o u t of t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e is r a t h e r i m p o r t a n t i n terms o f t h e

u h o l e p r o j e c t o f my t h e s i s b u t p r e s e n t l y , a closer l o ~ o k a t t h i s r*

d i s c u s s i o n would be o v e r r e a c h i n g t h e l i m i t s o f t h i s c h a p t e r .

B e v s r t h e l e s s , a r e q e ~ s i o n t o l a b o a r d u e s m o t i v a t e d by r e a s o n s

o t h e r t h a n t h e i r i m m e d i a t e . u s e is e ~ e r g i n g as- p e r h a p s t h e more

i n t e r e s t i n g c o n n e c t i ~ n ' to e x p l o r e .

C. REED ON THE SYMBOLIC V A L U E OP LABOUR DUES I8 YEP ANOZBER TRABSACTIOHS COST MODEL

I n t a k i n g up t h e n o t i o n o f v i l l e i n a g e f o r p u r p o s e s of income

. t r a n s f e r s , C. Reed i n q u i r e s i n t o (1) w h a t m i g h t h a v e p rompted

t h e l o r d s t o effect t h e s e t r a n s f e r s and (2) i n t o why v i l l e i n a g e

( and , b y a s s o c i a t i o n , l a b o u r d u e s d s o n e of i ts tests) c o n s t i -

tuted t h e , medium t h r o u g h which the l o r d s c h o s e t o e x t r a c t more

income from t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s , T h e starting p o i n t o f R e e d ' s

a r g u m e n t i s a n o m i s s i o n i n t h e N o r t h a n d Thomas e x p l a n a t i o n o f

t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y : hou was - the l o r d " t o c a p t u r e t h e

i n c r e a s i n g v a l u e o f the s e r f ' s custoagrp h o l d i n q s g i v e n t h e rel-

a t i v e f i x i t y of l a b o u r dues a n d c c m m u t a t i o n p a y m e n t s [ e m p h a s i s

added]"?92 S i n c e s h o r t - term l e a s e s took care o f t h e r i s i n g v a l u e

o f demesne l a n d s , t h i s must h a v e been , accx r rd ing t o Reed, t h e - c r u c i a l a n d most d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m c o n f r o n t i n g t h e t h i r t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y l o r d . I n R e e d ' s a r g u m e n t , t h e l o r d ' s a n s w e r t o this

p r o b l e m l a y i n t h e exercise of h i s r i g h t s o f l o r d s h i p - t h a t is,

i n t h e e x a c t i o n o f a r a n g e o f p a y a e n t s (of n u n a s s e s s e d c u s -

n 3 2 C , S e e d , R T o v a r d s a T r a n s a c t i o n s C o s t s ,,. , p. 1 4 . -

t o m s n 9 3 ) t h a t .were n o t (or v h o s e size was n o t ) a s f i r m l y

e n t r e n c h e d i n c u s t o m a s c o m m u t a t i o n payments a n d l a b o u r d u e s .

T h e s e paymen t s c o u l d b e l e v i e d o n l y on v i l l e i n s which would

e x p l a i n t h e l o r d ' s c o n c e r n T w i t h e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e v i l l e i n a g e of

h i s d e p e n d a n t s a n d w i t h l a b o u r d u e s a s a p o s s i b l e test of v i l -

l e i n a g e ,

C l e a r l y , Reed does n o t c o n s i d e r l a b o u r d u e s a s a n e n d i n

t h e ~ s e l v e s . O f s y m b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e , t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d t o h a v e

been " v a l u e d s t r i c t l y a s a means of l e g a l l y e s t a b l i s h i n g serf

s t a t u s ( o r of s t o p p i n g t h e s e r f f rom e s t a b l i s h i n g free s t a t u s )

a n d t h e r e b y l o w e r i n g t h e c o s t t o tb l o r d of e x t r a c t i n g a d d i -

t i o n a l i n c o m e f rom h i s peasantsn.9* Y h e t h e r labour d u e s had t o

b e a c t u a l l y p e r f o r m e d is-- n o t a q u e s t i o n t h a t Reed t a c k l e s ,

e x p l i c i t l y . And, a s h e r e c o g n i z e s , his whole a r g u m e n t ra ises

t h e i s s u e of why t h i s cum$er soae ( e x p e n s i v e ) s o l u t i o n was

d e v i s e d a s o p p o s e d t o t h e c h e a p e r a l t e r n a t i v e o f r e n e g o t i a t i n g

' c u s t o n a r y r a t s 1 , i f i n d e e d t h e s i z e oP t h e payment was t o

i n c r e a s e ? F i r s t , Reed p o i n t s o u t t h a t , i n r e s i s t i n g t h e r enego-

t i a t i o n of c u s t o m a r y r e n t s , t h e d e p e n d a n t s may h a v e b e l i e v e d

t h a t t h e y c o u l d e v a d e a l t o g e t h e r p a y i n g laqger a m o u n t s t o t h e i r f l o r d . 9 5 I n a n o t h e r h y p o t h e s i s o n t h e b e h a v i o u r o f m a n o r i a l

d e p e n d a n t s , Reed s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e o f h i g h e r s e i g - '

n e u r i a l p a y m e n t s ( a s a g a i n s t r e n e g o t i a t e d c u s t o m a r y r e n t s ) may -

93 l b i d ; R e e d ' s e x a m p l e s o f t h e s e p a y a e n t s i n c l u d e marche t (pay- g e n t on t h e m a r r i a g e of a d a u g h t e r o r s o n ) , t a l l a g e , etc,

9 4 i b i d , , p - 15,

95 i b i d . , p- 16-

have y i e l d e d t h e n v e r y s p e c i f i c b e n e f i t s - b e n e f i t s t h a t migh t

H h a v e more t h a n ' c o m p e n s a t e d , fo r the h i g h e r t r a n s a c t i o n s c o s t s

i n v o l v e d i n making the payaent,s."96 T h e b e n e f i t Beed is refer-

r i n g t o is s e c u r i t y of t e n u r e . If c u s t o m a r y r e n t s were associ-

a t e d w i t h s e c u r i t y of t e n u r e , . r aanor i a l d e p e n d a n t s m i g h t h a v e

d e e a e d t h a t a n y c h a n g e in c u s t o m a r y terms. o f t e n u r e would p e r - *

h a p s r e s u l t i n t h e i r l o s s o f ' s e c u r i t y o v e r t h e i r t e n u r e - a

f e a r s o m e p r o s p e c t i n a n age of s e v e r e d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s ,

I n conclusion^ Reed8 s . e x p l a n a t i o n s t a n d s a s q u i t e d e t a c h e d

from t h e demesne c u l t i v a t i o n i s s u e , U n l i k e ~ o s t of t h e a r g u -

m e n t s r e y i e u e d above, i t d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n the e x i s t e n c e o r t h e

s e v e r i t y of i n f l a t i o n a r y p r e s s u r e s i n t h e t h i ~ t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

Bhat is n o t r e a l l y e l u c i d a t e d by Reed is uhy l a b o u r d u e s p r o v e d

t o b e na p r i m e test of v i l l e i n a g e , * 9 7 A aore c o m p l e t e v e r s i o n o f

h i s a r g u m e n t would h a v e t o e x p l a i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r a p p e a l of

l a b u r d u e s a s s u c h a i es t , i f t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e was unimpor-

t a n t ,

The q u e s t i o n o f why l o r d s r e su%ed direct d e ~ e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n e

h a s e l i c i t e d s e v e r a l answers, I n n o v a t i o n , c h a n g e s i n m e n t a l i t y ,

r i s i n g prof i t a b i l i t y i n t h e c o n t e x t 1 o f r e l a t i v e p r i c e movements

a n d a o r e s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , i n f l a t i o n c o u p l e d vith

customary c o n s t r a i n t s o n demesne l e a s i n g a n d the c o s t o f i n f l a - a .

'&

tion a s reflecteil i n contract n e g o t i a t i o n s f H a r v e y t s variant) Y

95 Beed , u T o u a r d s a T r a n s a c t i o n s . . .", pa 16.

8

- hava a l l been a d v a n c e d a s likely c a u s e s of this r e s n m p t i o n , ' A s -

- - -

' k of why l o r d s v e n t back t o l a b o u r d u e s in use, -ta , , - *-

r e c u r r i n g and n e a r l y unanimous e x p l a n a t i o n seeas t o b e t h a t - t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r f Money wages Mere d r i v e n a b o v e the c o m m o ~ a t i o n

payments , However, a s was P o i n t e d o u t above , t h e p h e n o n e n o n of

a r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r dues i n u s e h a s a l s o b e e n q u e s t i o n e d - a t

least, i n terms of i ts m a g n i t u d e . This makes the a n a l y t i c a l

a t t e m p t s a t assessing ' the economic i n p l i c a t i p o s of l a b o u r d- A I

as a test of v i l l e i n a q s , and - t h e r e f o r e qf t h e i n s t i t a t i o n - -- - -- - s,

i t s e l f , a l l t h e more i m p o r t a n t . The next c h a p t e r i n t h e t h e s i s

w i l l s e e k t o b r i n g into f o c u s precisely some of t h e ,'facts1 per-

t a i n i n g t o t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i l l e i n a y e and to t h e role of

- l a b u r d u e s t h e r e i n .

TESTS &ED LEGAL uPLICATIOHS

3 0 w e x t e n s i v e l y l a b o u r d u e s were u s e d o n d e m e s n e l a n d s i n a

e i t h e r t h e t w e l f t h or . t h e ' t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y a r e c o n t r o v e r s i a l

q u e s t i o n s ; much less so i s t h e e x i s t e n c e of a c o q n e c t i o n b e t w e e n

l a i n u r d u e s - i r r e s p e c t i ~ ~ r f a n c g - a n d a c o n c e p t of r . , u n f r e e d o n t h a t was f o r m a l i z e d i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d ,

T h g r e is a m p l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d d i d u i t -

ness t h e 9 e v e l o p m e n t of ib new (a l e g a l ) c o n c e p t o f u n f r e e d o n I . i n

- + w h i c h l a b o u r ' d u e s we?ee i n v o l v e d d This c h a p t e r w i l l g i v e r e a s o n s

f o r t h e o/f l a b o u r d u e s i n t h e t h i ; t e e n t h c e n t u r y

w i t h o u t r f e r e n c e . t o t h e i r d e ~ l o y m e n t o n t h e d e m e s n e , p A t i s s u e

h e r e i s t h e u s e of l a b o u r d u e s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e , t h a t

. . 'is, f o r t h e d e m a r c a t i o n of u n f r e e d o n a n d o f p r o p e r t y r i g h t s

a d j u d i c a t i o n . To re i terate a t h o u g h t e x ~ r e s s e d ea r l i e r i n t h e

'thesis, a n i n q u i r y i n t o t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s s h o u l d n o t s t a n d ( o r

fall)' o n w h e t h e r l a b o u r dues were l i t t l e (o r iauch) i n u s e i n t h e

t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . ' T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t l a b o u r d u e s were i n t e r t -

v i n E d u i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a new l e g a l c a t e g o r y t h a t may >

h a v e e n t a i l e d a se t o f neu o r o f b e t t e r s p e c i f i e d m a n o r i a l c o n -

s t r a i n t s , I c o n s i d e r i t e s s e n t i a l t o l o o k more c l o s e l y a t this " ca t s g o r y. To d e t e r m i n e t h e c h r o n o l o g y a n d t h e s p r e a d of t h e

8

v a r i o u s t e s t s o f t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t ury v i l l e i n a g e (of wh ich labour

1 Sse ny p r e v i o u s discussion of B r i d o u r y i n # S o a e P r e l i a i n a r y T h o u g h t s . , . w pp. 14-16.

dues mere o n e ) is araong t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h e coming d i s c u s s i o n

which v i l l h a v e t o d e a l t h u s w i t h q u e s t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e

d e f i n i t i o n of v i l l e i n s t a t u s a n d o f v i l l e i n t e n u r e ,

OH THE D E P I I I T I O B OF PEBSOBAL PkEEDOB

The i s s u e o f p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m ( o f f ree s t a t u s ) a r o s e i n Eng-

l a n d when Henry 11's l e g a l r e f o r a s a l l o w e d r of s u b j e c t s ,

who h e l d n o l a n d d i r e c t l y frcm t h e k i n g , t a k e w h a t e v e r l iti- 0

g a t i o n f e l l u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f r o y a l p l e a s b e f o r e - j u s t i c e s o f

t h e r o p u c o u r t - 2 T h i s , a c c o r d i n g t o l e g a l h i s t o r i a n s l i k e A I L .

P o o l e a-nd P, Hyaas, c o n f r o n t e d r o y a l c o u r t s w i th a p rob lem: what

g r o u p s t o welcome a n d what p l e a s t o h e a r ? Whether t h e k i n g d i d .

n o t v i s h t o , d i d n o t d a r e to , o r c o u l d n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h mano-

r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n is n o t - s o much t h e i s s u e nou a s i n t h e d e c i -

s i o n u l t i a a t e l y re$-ched: r o y a l c o u r t s v o u l d d e a l u i t h t h e wrongs

o f f r e e m e n a n d t h e cases r e l a t e d t o f r ee t e n a n t s , Those deemed

t b b e u n f r e e fo r , to b e h o l d i n g i n v i l l e i n t e n u r e ) were l e f t

1 u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n bf t h e i r l o r d f o r a l l cases c o n c e r n i n g

t h e i r r e l a t i o n s u i t h h i e ( n s n c h a s t h e burden o f t h e i r l i a b i l i -

ties a n d t h e p o s s e s s i o n o r t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e i r h o l d i n g m 3 ) -

The d e f i n i t i o n of f r e e d o m became t h e f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n .

It a p p e a r s t h a t up u n t i l l a t e i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y t h e r e 6

werz f e u r u l e s to g u i d e t h e judge a n d t h e j u r y i n t h e i r d e c i -

2 3 r y c e L y o n , A C q n s t i t u t i o n a l and Legaa History of Bedieva l Znq land ( l e r ~ o r k . 1980) p, 2 8 3 ; P. Byams, Kinqs, Lords a n d

- - - ?easan+s i l ed ievaa En-nd: The Common of V i l l e i n a q e i n t h e g w e l f t h and T h i r t e e n t h m t u r i e s ( O x f o r d , 1980)- p. 240, --

- 3 aloch F e u d a l S o c i e t y p . 272-

s i o n s a s t o who was br who was n o t f r e e . 4 The r u l e s a n d t h e pro-

c e d u r e s were e s t a b l i s h e d a o s t l y i n t h e c o u r s e of the t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y j u s t a s s e i g n o r i a l l i t i g a n t s were a b a n d o n i n g s t a t u s lit-

i g a t i o n t o s u e i n s t e a d i n t e n u r e s ; s t a t u s l i t i g a t i o n v a s p rov - 1 -

i n g t o be b o t h e x p e n s i v e a n d r i s k y . A c c o r d i n g t o P, Vinogra -

d o f f , t h e o n l y c o n c l n s i v e p r o o f a g a i n s t l i b e r t y was " a b s o l u t e

p r o o f t h a t t h e k i n s f o l k of t h e Fersgn c l a i m e d were v i l l e i n s b y

d e s z e n t o n e And Hyaets p o i n t s t o t h e p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g

a c l a i m a n t i n s t a t u s l i t i g a t i o n . The c l a i m a n p h a d t o t r a n s p o r t F .

t h e a l l e g e d v i l l e i n ' s r e l a t i v e s b e f o r e t h e j u s t i c e s , t o wa tch

l e s t t h e y decide t o f l ee , a n d t o make s u r e t h a t t h e y would n o t

s u d d e n l y c l a i a t o b e free - a l l of which c o u l d h a v e meant a l o s s

of t h e i r l a b o u r s e r v i c e s f o r s e v e r a l d a y s , ? F u r t h e r a o r e , t h e

w h o l e p r o c e d u r e ( t h e s o - c a l l e d p r o c e d u r e of s u i t of k i n ) was, h e

a r g u e s , a n a c h r o n i s t i c i n a n a g e when l e g a l s t a t u s , t h o u g h h e r e d -

i t a r y i n t h e o r y , " c o u l d be a n d u a s , c h a n g e d in men ' s life-

t i m e s , " 8 s o t h a t famil ies o f t e n f o u n d i n c o u r t " t h a t t h e y now

4 ? 3 o l e , O b l i q a t i o n s p. 20.

5 f lynas King, L o r d s P e a s a n t s F, 182.

6 P. V i n o g r a d o f f , V i l l a i n s Enqlland, E s s a y s on E n q l i s h Hedi- Histor1 {Hew York, 1967) , p . 21 9, V i n o g r a d o f f is a l s o of

t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e on q u e s t i o n s o f s t a t u s " u a s d e c i i l e d l y f a v o u r a b l e t o l i b e r t ~ " (p. 229) a n d t h a t t h i s was the case l a r g e l y b e c a u s e of t h e ~ o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of feuda- l - i s m in which a l o r d ' s a u t h o r i t y u a s ereant t o be , a n d t o r e a a i n , t e r r i t o r i a l a n d uas k e p t i n c h e c k by t h e c o u n t e r v a i l - i n g p o v e r o f n e i g h b o u r i n g l o r d s (pp. 8 5 - 6 ) -

7 Elyans, Kinq, L o r d s a d Peasan t s , F. 175.

d i f f e r e d i n s t a t u s from fami l ies u i t n i n whom t h e y h a b i t u a l l y

i n t e r a a r r i e d i n t h p p a s t . " 9 I n f a c t , by t h e a i d - t h i r t e e n t h cen-

t u r y , t h e r e were a t t e a p t s a t c i r c u m v e n t i n g t h e p r o b l e a p o s e d b y

mixed m a r r i a g e s b y m a k i n g s t a t u s d e p e n d "on t h e land,where t h e

c h i l d v a s b o r n , m o r e p r o p e r l y o n w h e t h e r 'lie was w i t h i n a l o r d ' s

g o t e s t a s a t b i r t h . " 1 0 A s f o r t h e c a s e s i n v o l v i n g f r e e m e n h o l d i n g

. u n f r e e ( v i l l e i n ) t e n u r e s , b y t h e e n d o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

free s t a t u s d i d not allow t h e s e men t o r e c o v e r t h e l r l a n d by t h e

p o s s e s s o r y a s s i z e s . " I n g e n e r a l t h e n , t h e q u e s t i o n o f s t a t u s

came t o b e g r a d u a l l g r d o m i n a t e d b y t h e q u e s t i o n of t e n u r e . 12 B u t ,

u h j was l e g a l s t a t u s e v e r ~ a d e i n t o a n i s s u e ? I t h a s b e e n sug-

g e s t e d t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t e n u r e a n d s t a t u s s t e a m e d

f r o e t h e E n g l i s h j u r i s t s 1 i n c l i n a t i o n t o b o r r o w Roman c o n c e p t s

of lam - s o B e o f which w o u l d p r o v e t o b e i n c o m p a t i b l e v i t h t h e

\ ? ~ n ~ l i s h m e d i e v a l s c e n e . 1 3

,) i i o r t b n o t i n g is hor l e g a l c o n c e p t i o n s o f p e r s o n a l u n f r e e d a m

e v o l v e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e t v e l f t h a n d t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s .

J h e r e a s - v i l l e i n a g e was first t h o u g h t of a s a p u b l i c , a h e r e d i -

t a r y , a p e r a a n e n t c o n d i t i o n ( G l a n v i l l s s i d e a s ) t h e e m p h a s i s

9 i b i d .

10 ibid,, p. 176,

f 1 ? o o l e , O b l i q a t i o n s of Society _in t h e X I 1 and XI11 C e n t u r i e s p. 1 9 ; D,B, Denaan, O r i g i n s of O w n e r s h i p ; 4 B r i e f History of L a n d O u n e r s h i p & T e n u r e L n q l a n d frog E a r l i e T i m e s to

~ o d e m Era f l ondon , 7959) , p , 123.

12 F, J o u o n D e s L o n g r a i s , HLe V i l a i n a g e ~ n y l a i s e t l e S e r v a g e Bee1 e t P e r s o n n e l n , R e c u e i l s so. J e g g B o d i n I1 (1 937), pp , 211-20 ; see also V i n o g r a d o f f s s V i l l a i n z i s in Encrlanil, p, 177..

1 3 3es L o n g r a i s , p. 2 1 9 .

3

s h i f t e d l a t e r t o f r e e d o m a n d un f reedom a s t h i n g s t h a t c o u l d b e

owned a n d t h u s bought a n d s o l d ( t h e B r a c t o n i a n v i e w ) . Villein-

a g e , i n t h i s v i ew , was a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e only:

manumiss ion f r e e d a v i l l e i n i n r e l a t i o n t o his l o r d , r e i n s t a t i n g

h i n i n a w o r l d where h e h a d n e v e r g i v e n u p h i s f r e e d o m i n r e l a - ,

t i o n t o o t h e r s , 1 4 S u c h a n i d e a c a l l e d f o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n the

p r o c e d u r e o f s u i t of k i n - m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h a t were a t t e s p t e d but

u e r e n o t a l t o g e t h e r s u c c e s s f u l . I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e i d e a t h a t t o

be a l o r d ' s c h a t t e l d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y s e r v i t u d e i n o t h e r

r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( i -e . , t h e i d e a of r e l a t i v e v i l l e i n a g e ) c r e a t e d

s e v e r a l p rob lems , F o r i n s t a n c e , c o u l d a v i l l e i n b e s u e d upon a

c o n t r a c t b y a t h i r d p a r t y , g i v e n t h a t h i s l o r d c o u l d s e i z . a l l

h i s lands a n d b e l o n g i n g s ? O n t h e b a s i s of r e l a t i v e v i l l e i n a g e ,

t h e v i l l e i n c o u l d s u e b u t c o u l d n o t , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , b e

s u e 3 . 1 5 I n t h e e n d , t h e o r i e s o f p e r s o n a l unf reedom were r e a l l y

t o o c o n v o l u t e d t o be o f g r e a t p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e a n d i n d e e d

t h e e x t e n t s a n d s u r v e y s o f t h e m a n o r i a l economy were n o t v e r y

c a r e f u l i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e p e r s o n a l l y f r e e f r o & t h e p e r s o n -

a l l y u n f r e e which s u g g e s t s t h a t what a a t t e r e d i n t h e m a n o r i a l

e c o n a n y u a s , i n f a c t , t e n u r e . 1 6

You, I am u n c e r t a i n a s t o w h e t h e r t e s t s o t v i l l e i n a g e l i k e

n e r z h e t , t a l l a g e a t w i l l , the d u t y t o serve a s a r e e v e , o r

l a b ~ u r d u e s uere p a r t o f t h e e v i d e n c e p r o d u c e d i n s u i t s o f k i n ,

1 4 Fiyaas, Kinq, L o r d s and P e a s a n t s p. 9 0 a n d p . 120.

15 f , Pollock a n d F, 3 . h i t l a n d , The H i s t o r y of E n q l i s h Law ( C a a b r i d g e , 18951, p p . 403-4.

w h e t h e r t h e s e tes ts e v o l v e d a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o s u i t s o f k i n o r

w h e t h e r t h e y were m a i n l y a s s o c i a t ~ d w i t h s u i t s of' t e n u r e ( t h u s

c o l o n r i n g , i n d i r e c t l y , t h e s t a t u s of men who h e l d i n v i l l e i n

t e n u r e f o r a l o n g e n o u g h t i a e ) . What d o t h e t e x t s c o n s u l t e d

r e v e a l ? I n e a c h o f V i n o g r a d o f f , H a i t l a n d a n d P o l l o c k , a n d A.L.

P o o l e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f p r o c e d u r e s r e g a r d i n g s t a t u s f o c u s e s on Z

s u i t o f k i n a s a n e t h o d of p r o o f . 1 7 H y a m g s c h a p t e r on t h e p r o o f

of v i l l e i n s t a t u s r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e method of s u i t of k i n a n d

i n c l u d e s n o m e n t i o n o f m e r c h e t , t a l l a g e , t h e l i a b i l i t ~ t o s e r v e

a s a r e e v e o r , f o r t h a t matter, t h e l i a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m l a ~ o u r

d u e s . 1 8 H o u e v e r , i n d i s c u s s i n g t e n u r e , f l a i t l a n d a n d P o l l o c k

r e m a r k t h a t " a n y s e r v i c e w h i c h s t a m p s t h e t e n a n t a s a n u n f r e e

a a n , s t a m p s h i s t e n u r e a s u n f r e e .. , ( m e r c h e t was) c e r t a i n l y

r e g a r d e d a s ,,, a mark, t h o u g h n o t a c o n c l u s i v e m a r k , of p e r -

s o n a l u n f r e e d o r a . . t h e d u t y of s e r v i n g a s t h e l o r d ' s r e e v e

w h e n e v e r t h e l o r d p l e a s e s , t h e l i a b i l i t y t o b e t a l l a g e d ' h i g h

a n d low1, t h e s e a re a l s o t r e a t e d a s i m p l y i n g p e r s o n a l b o n d a g e ,

a n d v e r y n a t u r a l l y sa. "19 A s f o r V i n o g r a d o f f , h e s p e c i f i e s t h a t

a e r z h e t was n o t H a n u n f a i l i n g test of s t a t u s w z o w h i l e c o n c l u d i n g

* t h t t h e r e can b e no q u e s t i o n , a t l e a s t a t t h e c lose o f t h e

17 V i n o g r a d o f f , V i l l a i n a q g in Z a g l a n d , py. d3-6; P o l l o c k a n d ? f a i t l a n d , The H i s t o x of g s l i s h Law, pp, 409-10; P o o l e , 3 b l i q a t i o n s & S o c i e t y , pp, 20-3,

18 See Hyans l "The A c t i o n of B a i f t l a n d P r o o f o f V i l l e i n S t a t u s w i n King, Lords P e a s a n t s a s well a s his "The P r o o f of B i l - l e i n S t a t u s in t h e Common L a w H -- The E n q l i s h H i s t o r i c a l B e v i e w ( O c t o b e r , 1974) .

19 2 o l l c c k a n d d a i t l a n d H i s t o r y of E r l q l i s h m, pp. 354-6.

2 0 V i n o g r a d o f f V i l l a i n a z in E n s l a n d , p. 154.

5

t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , o f t r e a t i n g i t a s a s u r e test of p e r s o n a l

s u b jec t ie -n , "21 I n P o o l e , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t v e e n p e r s o n a l v i l - .-

l e i n a g e a n d holding i n v i l l e i n a g e is v e r y much b l u r r e d - 2 2 And

i i ~ a a s t u r n s h i s a t t e n t i o n t o m e r c h e t a n d t a l l a g e a t u i l l only i n 1

h i s c h a p t e r o n v i l l e i n t e n u r e i n u h i c h h e t e l l s u s t h a t

" a l t h o u g h m e r c h e t c o u l d n o t , i n t h e o r y p r o v e v i l l e i n s t a t u s ,.. i ts a b s e n c e c o n v i n c e d e y r e justices o f a m a n a s f r ee s t a t u s o n

o n e o c c a s i o n . On t e n u r e , m e r c h e t was u s u a l l y a c c e p t e d a s c o u -

c l u s i v e , a n d t h e u e l l - a d v i s e d l o r d w o u l d a l l e g e t h a t h i s a d v e r -

s a r y was a v i l l e i n who h e l d i n v i l l e i n a g e a n d owed m e r c h e t , @ ~ 2 3

T a l i a g e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n u a s s e l d o m more t h a n good c o r r o b o -

r a t i v e e v i d e n c e , a n d c a s e s o f t e n u r e t h a t t u r n e d o n i t a l o n e a r e

r a r e e n 2 * F i n a l l y , S i l t o n I s " F r e e d o m a n d V i l l e i n a g e i n E n g l a n d t g

s u g g e s t s , I t h i n k , t h a t tes ts l i k e m e r c h e t , , , l a b o u r s e r v i c e s o r

r e e v e s e r v i c e s c o n s t i t u t e d a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o , p r o o f t h r o u g h

u n f r e e k i n . 2 s

01 THE DEPIIITIOB OF V I L L E I I P E P U B E

T w o a p p r o a c h e s were used i n t h e a t t e m p t s a t d e f i n i n g v i l l e i n

t e n u r e , J u r i s t s a p p e a r t o h a v e l o o k e d e i t h e r a t s p e c i f i c o b l i -

g a t i o n s o r a t t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e s e o b l i g a t i o n s were p e r -

2 2 S e e P o o l e l s "The P e a s a n t s f f i n @ l i q a t i _ o n s $ Society in the Zf I and XI11 C e n t u r i e s , . pp, 12-35. -- - -

2 3 Hyams, K i n q , L o r d s and P e a s a n t s , p. 189,

2 4 ibid,, pl 191 .

2 5 R . E i l t o n , " F r e e d o n a n d V i l l e i n a g e i n E n g l a n d * i n P e a s a n t s , K n i q h t s , Heretics, f o o t n o t e 2 0 o n p , 181.

f o r a e d ; i n t h e l a t t e r case ' c e r t a i n * o b l i g a t i o n s are s u p p o s e d t o

ha.ve c h a r a c t e r i z e d free t e n u r e s , ' u n c e r t a i n ' ' o b l i g a t i o n s u n f r e e

t e n u r e s , How, t h e r e seems t o b e a g r e e m e n t a m o n g s t h i s t o r i a n s

t h a t n o c o n c l u s i v e p r o o f of v i l l e i n a g e - e n o c l e a r l y

d e f i n e d servile o b l i g a t i o n ( e x c e p t p e r h a p s f o r m e r c h e t ) - was

d e v e l o p e d p r i o r t o t h e e n d of t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . . Are ue t o

i n f e r from t h i s t h a t up u n t i l t h e n t h e j u d g e s a n d t h e jury r u l e d

by t h e u n c e r t a i n t y c r i t e r i o n a n d , i f t h e y d i d , w h a t e x a c t l y d i d

t h i s c r i t e r i o n i n v o l v e ?

P o l l o c k a n d H a i t l a n d c o n s i d e r t h e u n c e r t a i n t y o f labour ser-

vices t o h a v e b e e n the best ( t h o u g h n o t t h e o n l y ) c r i t e r i o n of

v i l l e i n t e n u r e . I n t h e i r o p i n i o n , l a b o u r s e r v i c e s were u n c e r -

t a i n i f t h e y c o n s i s t e d of s o much l a b o u r t h a t c u s t o n c o u l d n o t

d e f i n e them w i t h o u t c o n s t a n t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l o r d ' s w i l l , 2 6

a o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , f o l l o w i n g this definition, "villein t e n u r e is

t h e t e n u r e of o n e who o w e s t o h i s l o r d i n r e s p e c t of h i s t e n e -

ment ' u n c e r t a i n ' l a ~ o u r s e r v i c e s g r yhp (by h i m s e u or his preu-

ecessora has owed such s e r v i c e s && pas t or who is s u b j e c t ---- t o l i s t i n c t l y s e r v i l e b u r d e n s [ e m p h a s i s a d d e d ] , n 2 7

A r e a d i n g of V i n o g r a d o f f s u g g e s t s t h a * , i n t h e i r d e c i s i o n s ,

t h e c o u r t s t o o k i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i c n a r a n g e of l i a b i l i t i e s ( l i k e

a e r z h e t , t a l l a g e , l a b o u r s e r v i c e s etc.) - 2 8 Uhen p r o b i n g i n t o t h e

u n c e r t a i n t y c r i t e r i o n (a t e s t that h e f i n d s c o n f u s i n g ) V i n o g r a -

2 6 P o l l o c k a n d ? l a i t l a n d , The H i s t o r y 02 E n q l i s h Law, pp, 356 a n d 358,

27 i b i d . , p . 353.

2 8 Vinogradof f V i l l a i n a s in E n g l a n d , F. 8 2

r lof f c o n c l u d e s t h a t , i n p r a c t i c e , ' uhat m a t t e r e d u a s t h e d i s t i n c -

t i o n between t e n u r e s p a ~ i n g m o s t l y r e n t and tenures o w i n g m o s t l y

l a b 3 u r dues. gas there a l i n k b e t w e e n c e r t a i n t y a n d money pay-

a e n t s , u n c e r t a i n t y a n d l a b o u r d u e s ? A c c o r d i n g t o V i n o g r a d o f f ,

l a n d t h a t p a i d r e n t a p p e a r e d r e l a t i v e l y s e c u r e s i n c e "[ h l o w e v e r

h e a v y the r e n t , t h e l a n d t h a t p a y s it h a s becolee i n d e p e n d e n t i n

p o i n t o f h u s b a n d r y , its d e p e n d e n c e a p p e a r s a s a matter o f a g r e e -

nrent, a n d n o t a n e c o n o m i c t i e , w 2 g On t h e o t h e r h a n d , l a n d o w i n g

s e r v i c e was " f o r e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e s s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e general r

management o f t h e n a n o r [ a n d t h u s e n t a i l e d ., , almost of n e c e s -

sity a d e g r e e o f uncertainty i n its t e n ~ r e , ~ J o Yet, i f i n f a c t ,

t e n u r e s t h a t owed a c o n s i d e r a b l e a a o u n t o f l a b o u r d u e s were c a t -

e g o r i z e d a s u n f r e e d o e s n o t V i n o g r a d o f f l s a c c o u n t much r e s e m b l e

P o l l o c k a n d H a i t l a n d ' s ? T h e r e is a r e s e m b l a n c e a l t h o u g h Vino-

g r a 3 o f f ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f * u n c e r t a i n t y i is i n terms of t h e vil-

l e i n ' s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f h i s t e n e i a e n t w h i l e P o l -

lock a n d ? l a i t l a n d ' s is i n terms sf h i s work c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e

Byaas o f f e r s d i f f e r e n t i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e i s s u e o f u n c e r t a i n t y

a s t h i s ~ i g h t h a v e b e e n r e l a t e a t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of u n f r e e t e n - 1 -

u r e s . F r o a his e x a m i n a t i o n of t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y cases h e g a t h -

e r s t h a t u n c e r t a i n t y was n e v e r 3 rule o r a tes t l i k e t h e aerchet

test, It is o n l y i n trying t o fesolve h a r d cases t h a t j u d g e s

f o c u s e d on t h e u n c e r t a i n t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a f f e r e n t payments

2 9 i b i d , , p. 171.

30 i b i d .

8

a n d s e r v i c e s as a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e . A l o r d who c o u l d s,how t h a t

h e h a d b e e n i n a p o s i t i o n t o m a n i p u l a t e e x a c t i o n s ( w h e t h e r t a l -

l aye payuients , m a r r i a g e f i n e s , e t c , ) or t o i n t e r f e r e s i g n i f i-

c a n t l y w i t h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d was l i k e l y t o

win the case, B u t u n c e r t a i n t y a s a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e was r e a l l y

a lame s o l u t i o n , B y a m s iat'imates, f o r i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e a m o u n t

and t h e k i n d of p a y i e n t s t h a t were i n d i s p u t e - h e n c e , t h e c i r -

c u l a r n a t u r e o f & a n y of t h e a r g u m e n t s i n v o l v e d in t h e s e c a s e s . 3 1

L A B O U R DUES AS A TEST OP UIPREE V I L L E I l A G B

T h e r e were s e v e r a l w a y s i n w h i c h u n f r e e v i l l e i n a g e mas es tab-

l i s h e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . L a b o u r s e r v i -

ces, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e of a ,demeaning n a t u r e (as a n e x a m p l e ,

iiyams cites t h e c a r r y i n g of d u n g 3 2 ) , i n d i c a t e d s e r v i l i t y . Y e t

i t is n o t a s t h o u g n l a b o u r d u e s c o n s t i t u t e d a f o o l p r o o f test of

v i l l e i n a g e , T e s t s t h r o u g h labour d n e s were f r e q u e n t a n d p r o b -

ably more w i d e s p r e a d t h a n o t h e r s b u t p e r h a g s n o t o v e r v h e l m i n g l y

s o . And, a s u n d e r l i n e d ea r l i e r , t h e p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e of l a b o u r

d n e s ( t h o u g h a d m i t t e d l y much h a r d e r t o p r o v e ) c o u l d b e a s r e a d -

i l y i n v o k e d a s t h e i r p r e s e n t p e r f o r m a n c e ,

UHFBEE V I U E I H A G E : PUBPOSE AND COBSBQDEBCES

P e r h a p s l a b o u r s e r v i c e s were n o t t h e o n l y t es t o f v i l l e i n a g e

b n t were t h e y - w h e t h e r t o b e p e r f o r m e d o r s o l d - a l i k e l y con-

s e q u e n c e of u n f r e e s t a t u s and u n f r e e t e n u r e ? Bore b c o a d l y , w h a t

uers t h e s p e c i f i c c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y u n f r e e vil-

31 B y a a s , nThe Laii and V i l l e i n a g e T e n u r e 1 ' i n Kinqs, Lands and Peasants, e s p e c i a l l y pp- 196- 8.

3 2 ibid., p. 197.

,

l e i n a g e ? D id a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i -n c o n d i t i o n s of t e n u r e a n d a n

i n c r e a s e i n t h e w e i g h t . a n d i n t h e number of p e r s o n a l a n d t e n u - .

r i a l o b l i g a t i o n s o c c u r i n close a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t /

o f ' IIOBPOII-1a.u v i l l e i q a g e ? S u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e r e was a d e t e r i o r a - I

t i o n : the a r g u m e n t s k-0 what c a u s e d t h i s d e t e r i o r a L i o n c o u l d

a s sume a t l e a s t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t forms. T h e e m p h a s i s c o u l d b e o n

t h e legal c h a n g e s a s t h e y a f f e c t e d t h e b a r g a i n i n g power of l o r d s

v i s - a - v i s t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s ; i n t h i s s e n s e , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of

e x t r a e c o n o a i c p o w e r s b y t h e f o r m e r would e m e r g e a s t h e k e y

v a r i a b l e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n c o u l d be s e e n as t h e

r e s u l t of c h a n g e s i n t h e e c o n o a i c and the d e m o g r a p h i c e n v i r o n -

ment ( i n • ’ l a t i o a , d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s , etc.) a n d v i l l e i n a g e a s

t h e vehicle whereby l o r d s t r i e d t o a d j u s t t h e i r i n c o m e s h a r e t o

t h e n o v e l e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n . Both the p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t t h e

l o r d s , t h e m s e l v e s , i n i t i a t e d t h e p r o c e s s o f d e f i n i t i o n of v i l -

l e i n a g e , o r t h a t t h e y m e r e l y t o o k a Z d v a n t a g e o f i t , would b e c o n -

s i s t e n t with t h i s k i n d of a r g u m e n t , A t h i r d a n d r a t h e r ' d i f f e r -

ent c o n j e c t u r e c o u l d b e t h a t t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t e n a n t s 8

c o n d i t i o n s (f o l l o v i n g c h a n g e s i n f a c t o r p r o p o r t i o n s and i n t h e

p r i c e l e v e l ) would h a v e been more s e v e r e i n t h e a b s e n c e of c u s -

tom: t h a t t o b e under t h e yoke o f m a n o r i a l ( h e n c e , c u s t o m a r y ) 'i -*

c o u r t s c o n s t i t u t e d a s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t m d r k e t f l o c t u a t i o n s , a n d

t h a t m a n o r i a l p r a c t i c e was f a r more l e n i e n t t h a n o n e would

g a t h e r from e v o l v i n g l e g a l d o c t r i n e s and p r o c e e d i n g s . 3 3 A c t u -

33 S e e , f o r t h i s a r g u m e n t , J o h n H a t c h e r , . " E n g l i s h Serfdom a n d V i l l e i n a g e : Towards a Beasses smen tM, Past and P r e s e n t , no, 3 0 ( F e b r u a r y , 1981) , pp. 3-39 .

PRGE 70 .'

a l l y , J o h n ~ a t c h e r ( w h o s e p o s i t i o n t h i s &-s) a r g u e s t h a t , f o r )

many t e n a n t s , l a b o u r s e r v i c e s were n o t new i m p o s i t i o n s b u t reim-

p o s i t i o n s a n d t h a t " t h e d e n i a l of royal j u s t i c e was u s u a l l y n o t

a d e p r e s s i o n of s t a t u s b u t a c o n f i r m a t i o n of s t a t u s . "34 Hore *

t h a n t h i s , h e e v e n g o e s a s f a r as. a l l u d i n g t o a n i m p r o v e l a e n t i n

l e g a l s t a t u s i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y s i n c e h e d i s c e r n s "a new

a n d p o u e r f u l p r o t e c t i o n , , . i n t h e p r e s u m p t i o n of t h e l a u t h a t

f r e e s t a t G s h a d t o be p r o v e d , " 3 5 The merit of t h i s a p p r o a c h is .

t o ra i se t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e alternative of p r i c e d e t e r -

m i n a t i o n t h r o u g h aa rke t s a i l o n e would h a v e m i t i g a t e d , accen tu-

a t e d , or made a n y d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e p r e s u m e d d e t e r i o r a t i o n ,

Now, a s r e g a r d s t h e time p e r i o d r e l a t i v e t o which o n e c o u l d t a l k

a b o u t a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t e n a n t s 1 c o n d i t i o n s ,

H a t c h e r ' s p o s i t i o n is t h a t i t is c e r t a i n l y n o t w i t h r e s p e c t t o

.- t h e l a t e e l e v e n t h / e a r l y t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s , H e c o n s i d e r s t h e

t e n a n t s 1 d i s a b i l i t i e s t o h a v e b e e n c o n p a r a t i v e l y l i g h t e r i n t h e

t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . On wha t - g r o u n d s ? B e c a u s e , when e n f o r c e d ,

l a b a u r d u e s were much better d e f i n e d a n d , a c c o r d i n g l y , less

l i k z l y t o b e s t r e t c h e d a t t h e l o r d ' s u i l l , and b e c a u s e restric-

4 t i o n s o n m o b i l i t y were n o t i n f o r c e w h e r e a s t h e y h a d b e e n so i n

. t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d , H a t c h e r w o u l d c o n c e d e , h o w e v e r , t h a t re la-

t i v z t o t h e t h i r t e e n ' t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e h a d n e e n a t e m p o r a r y arne-

l i o r a t i o n i n t e n a n t s g c o n d i t i o n s of t e n u r e a r o u n d t h e mid-

t w e l f t h c e n t a r y . 3 6 -

3 4 i b i d , , p , 35,

35 i b i d -

4

I t would be c o n v e n i e n t a n d t h u s tempting - to t r y t o reduce -all

o f t h e h y p b t h e s e s a b o u t the e m e r g e n c e of common-lau v i l l e i n a g e -

i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s - t h a t is,' t h o s e f o r which h e a v i e r e x a c t i o n s

was t h e p n r pose v e r s u s t h o s e t h a t associate comaon-law v i l l e i n -

a g e ui t h t h e more i n n o c u o u s p u r p o s e ' o f c l a r i f y i n g and d e l i n e a t-

i n g cus tom. 3 7 However, s u c h a' treatment would o v e r s i a p l i f y t h e

h y p ~ t h e s e s t h a t h a v e , even w i t h i n - t h e same b r o a d c a t e g o r y ,

r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s e s a n d some t imes - d i f r e r g e n t i m p l i c & i o n s . 5

To i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t , a m o n g s t t h e h y p o t h e s e s s u b s c r i b i n g t o

t h e i d e a of Bore o p p r e s s i v e e x a c t i o n s , v i l l e i n a g e h a s b e e n $re- . .

s e n t e d as e q u i p p i n g t h e l o r d s w i t h s t h e . a u t h o r i t y t o m u s t e r t h e

l a b ~ u r f o r c e . r e q u i r e d f o r t h e d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n of ' $ h e i r

d e m e s n e s - a v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s which, a s i n d i c a t e d i n p r e v i o u s

c h a p t e r s , c a l l s f o r a n e x p l a n a t i c n o f why l o r d s would f a v o u r -

l a b ~ u r d u e s a n d d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n i n a d d i t i o n t o e v i d e n c e t h a t *

t h e y r e a l l y d i d f a v o u r t h e n , On t h e o t h e r hand, i n R.eedgs

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e v e n t s { a l s o f o c u s i n g on t h e l o r d s ' a b i l i t y t o

e x t r a c t a d d i t i o n a l i ncome f r o n t h e i r t e n a n t s ) , l a b d n r d u e s

e m e r g e a s o f s y m b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e . 38 S i m i l a r l y , t o g r a s p common s . -

l a m v i l l e i n a g e a s a taoireaent t o w a r d s t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f e x i s t - . *

i n g r e l a t i o n s & c o u l d b e c o n s i s t e n t . w i t h s e v e r a l - h ~ p o t h e s e s . - , . -

B m n g s t them is Elyaas*; he c o n s i d e r s v i y l l e i n a g e t o have b e e n *an

36 i b i d . , pp. 26-34, ,

37 !ly u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e issues i n v o l v e d owes nuch t o Hynasa c h a p t e r on the origins of c o m o n - l a y v i l l e i n a g e , e s p e c i a l l y t o pp, 56-8 of this chapter.

38 ;ee the d i s c n s s i o n of t h i s i n t e r p e t a t i o n o n pp. (48-'50) o f the t h e s i s .

u n i n t e n d e d b y - p r o d u c t o f t h e birth of coBmon laww39 s u g g e s t i n g -,

f u r t h e r " t h a t t h e u n l i m i t e d e x t e n s i c n of r o y a l j u r i s d i c t i o n

n e v e r i n q u e s t i o n n , * o The k i n g and a h i s a d v i s e r s b e l o n g e d

n o b i l i t y wh ich a s sumed t h a t " p e a s a n t t e n a n t s were p r i m a r i l y

t h e i r l o r d ' s c o n c e r n n * % ; t h e ' d e c i s i o n a s t o who would h a v e

access t o r o y a l c o u r t s uas a a d e by a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h a t s h a r e d

t h e s e t h o u g h t s , But is i t o b v i o u s t h a t ,the e x t e n s i o n of r o y a l

j u r i s d i c t i o n - and, more b r o a d l y , of . r o ? a l p o w e r s t o s u b s u m e laaao3

r ia l d e p e n d a n t s was n e v e r r e a l l y i n q u e s t i o n ? (Me know. t h a t the

F r e n c h k i n g , a l s o o n e of t h e l a n d e d n o b i l f t y , s t a r t e d e n c r o a c h -

. i n g o n m a n o r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n a s s o o n a s h e had t h e power t o d o

s o , t o w a r d s t h e e n d 09 t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y : was t h e r e a

marked c h a n g e i n t h e n o b i l i t y ' s a n d i n r o y a l c o n c e p t i o n s i n t h e

= t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ? ) To s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e e x i s t e d c o n f l i c t s

b e t w e e n k i n g a n d m a n o r i a l l o r d s raises t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a k t h e

d e f i n i t i o n of - m a n o r i a l t e n a n t s a s u n f r e e t e n a n t s i n t h i r t e e n t h -

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s t i t u t e d t h e l o r d s B r e a c t i o n t o , a n d d e f e n s e a g a i n s t , t h e e x t e n - "

sion 'of r o y a l j y r i s d i c t i o n . 4 2 Now, t o a r g u e f u r t h e r t h a t lords

might have t a k e n a d v a n t q e of t h i s r e t r e n c h ~ e n t of t h e manor

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30 i b i d .

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4 2 This p a r t is e l a b o r a t e d on pp. 185-195 of t h e t h e s i s .

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s h i p s o f d e p e n d e n c e i n ' t h i k t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d is e v i d e n t , 'I

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d e v e l o p m e n t s o u t s i d e of E g g l a n d , h o p i n g t o g a i n i n s i g h t s ( i n a .

r o u n d a f s o n t f a s h i o n ) ' i n t o t h e move t o w a r d s f o r m a l i z i n g d e p e n d e n c e - on E n g l i s h m a n o r s a n d i n t o t h e i r a ~ l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s move fo r '

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i ~ t e r e s t v i l l b e a r upon t h e e v o l u t i o n o f l a b o u r dues is u s e o n

deaesne l a n d s a n d t h u s a l s o on t h e e v o l u t i o n o f d i r e c t demesne ,

c u l t i v a t i o n . T h r o u g h o u t t h i , s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , I v i l l ue a t t e n t i v e

t o a n y o c c u r r e n c e t h a t a i g h t h a v e a p p r o a c h e d t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e i n c o n s e q u e n c e s o r a i a s . P i n a l Z y , . t h i s o v e r - .

v i e # of a a n o r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s elsewhere s h o u l d p r o v i d e me w i t h

t h e seans k o a test3 - a l b e i t indirectly - t h e - e x p l a n a t o r y power

of soae of t h e h . y ~ o t h e s e s a b o a t t h e E n g l i s h t h i r t z e n t h - c e n t u r y

r e v s r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s .

4 3 A s t a t e l p e n t on p, 219 of P. V i n o g ~ a d o f f ' s Y i l l a i n a w ~ E E m- land, Sssavs English Redie- H i s t o r y .(New y o r k f a l 967) i n d i c a t e s t h a t this a i g h t &aye b e e n t h e Case b u t t h e p o i n t

, s b o i l i d De i n v e s t i g a t e d f u r t h e r , h

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L. , PAGE 74 -

F r e n c h , ~ a n o r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n l i g h t b o t h of fl- B l o c h t s

u o r k o n F r e n c h r u r a l a n d m e d i e v a l h i s t o r y a n d of c o n t e m p o r a r y *

r e v i s i o n s of h i s t h o u g h t w i l l form th ,e s u t s t a n c e o f t h i s c h a p -

ter. A l t h o u g h s e v e r a l o f E 3 1 0 c h R s i d e a s h a v e b e e n q u e s t i o n e d , l

B l o c h R s u o r k can s t i f f s e r v e a s t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t of a n i n v e s - I

t i g 3 t i o n i n t o F r e n c h m a n o r i a l , r e l a t i o n s h i ~ s j u s t a s P o s t a n B s

work h a s p r o v i d e d t h e g r o u n d s o n w h i c h t h e f a c t s p e r t a i n i n g t o

the English ,manor h a v e been d i s c u s s e d , * Here a g a i n , - t h e f a t e of

demesne l a n d s , o f l a b o u r d u e s - a n d of b o n d a g e , g i l l b e i n f o c u s .

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a a n o r i a l l i f e t h a t v a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y b u t n o t e x c l u s i y e l y

F r e n c h .- w i l l a d d a new d i ~ e n s i c n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n of ~ e s t e r n b

E u r o p e a n m a n o r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s .

H3te t h a t B l o c h v i e w e 3 h i s work a s a work i n 2 r o c e s s - o n e i n w h i c h h e w o u l d o f t e n r e v i s e e a r l i e r c o n c e ~ f t s a n d ra ise n e u q ~ e s t i o n s . To f o c a s a n a n y one o f h i s v r i t i n g s t o t h e e x c l u - s i o n of t h e rest c o a l d give a d i s t o r t e d p i c t u r e of h i s t h ~ u g h t , g h a t w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d i s a s t e p b y s t e p synthesis of his t h o u g h t a s i t e v o l v e d - 3 major u n d e r t a k i n g w h i c h has b e e n a t t e m p t e d a n d o n w h i c h I #ill d r a w ; see t h e s u p p l e m e n t c ~ a p i l e d b y Robert Dauvergne, i n t h e 1956 e d i t i 6 n of I•÷. 3 1 0 c h R s L e s Caracteres Q C f v i n a u x & L ' i i i s t o i r e R u r a l a a n c a i s e ( P a r i s , 1956) \

2 I n t h e 1930 ts , B l o c h a n d P o s t a n e x c h a n g e d t h o u g h t s o n t h e e v o - lution of t h e a e d i e v a l i a n o j ; s e e t h e q u o t e f r o m P o s t a n o n p, 13 of t h e t h e s i s f o r a c o n f i r m t i o n o f t h i s ,

THE FfEBCH S E I G B E U B I E TBfOlJGE T H E EYES OF fil. %BLOCE

Direct Demesae C u l t i v a t i o n , Labour D u e s and the Evo lu t ion of Banal Powers

I n s k e t c h i n g , i n F r e n c h R u r a l History (1931). the e v o l u t i o n

o f the F r e n c h s e i g n e n r i e from t h e e i g h t and n i n t h c e n t u r i e s down

t o t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , B l o c h d e s c r i b e d a c o n t i n u a l raovement

t o w a r d s the a t t e n u a t i o n of l a b o u r services a n d t h e s h r i n k i n g of

. t h e d e m e s n e , I n h i s v i e w , this ~ o v e n e n t c h a r a c t e r i z e d P r a n c e a s

o p p ~ s e d t o E n g l a n d . -- F r e n c h R u r a l H i s t o r y o f f e r s , h o w e v e r , no . -

e x p l a n a t i o n for t h i s c o n t r a s t . 3 B b r o a d e r c o m p a r a t i v e c h r o n o l o g y

o f when t h e m e d i e v a l l o r d c e a s e d t o b e * t h e h e a d o f a l a rge

a g r a r i a n a n d s e m i - i n d u s t r i a l u n d e r t a k i n g 1 * 4 t o become a r e n t i e r

l a n d l o r d a p p e a r e d i n a s u b s e q u e n t a r t i c l e p u b l i s h e d by B l o c h i n

1933 . T h e s u g g e s t e d d a t e s were t h e f o l l o w i n g : b y 1200 t h e

c h a n g e was s u p p o s e d l y c o m p l e t e d i n F r a n c e , r o u g h l y a r o u n d t h e

s a n e p e r i o d (or p b s s i b l y e a r l i e r ) i n I t a l y , s o m e w h a t l a t e r i n

G e r a a n y , a n d a t l e a s t a c e n t u r j l a t e r i n E n g l a n d . S

I n B l o c h ' s m i n d , t h e d u i n d l i n g of l a b o u r d u e s M a s def i a i t e l y

r e l a t e d t o t h e r e d u c t i a n i n t h e s i z e o f the d e m e s n e : by 1 2 0 0

- a g r i c u l t u r a l t a sk work h a d d i s a p p e a r e d a n d d a y work h a d b e e n

zuch r e d u c e d s i ~ p l y b e c a u s e l o r d s h a d a l l o v e d t h e i r d e a e s n e s t o

s h r i n k a n d c o n t i n u e d t o 30 s o . 6

3 Y . B L o c h , F r e n c h ily a n d Los

5 3. a l o c h , "De l a Grande E x ~ l o i t a t i o n D o m a n i a l e a l a R e n t e d u S31: un P r o b l e a e e t u n P r o j e t d l E n ~ u e t e s t l , n e l a n g e s H i s t o - r i j u e ~ tome I1 f?aris, 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 6 7 2 .

As f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n of j u s t i c e , F r e n c h R u r a l ist tory tells

u s t h a t b y 1200 t h e F r e n c h l o r d had a m o n o ~ o l y o f j u s t i c q - Low

j u s t i c e , a t e r r i t o r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r h i s es ta te ( t h e h e a r i n g

o f o f f e n c e s and cases r e l a t i n g t o t e n u r e s ) , a n d sometimes e v e n

h i g h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n were i n k ' s h a n d s - a l l of w h i c h r e i n f a r c e d 0 \ h i s p o w e r t o c o m a n d , t h a t is', 4is b a n a l p o v e r . 7 As a s u b j e c t o f

a l o r d ' s b a n a l l o r d s h i p , a t e n a n t c o u l d be o r d e r e d t o p e r f o r a \ \

s e r v i c e s , s u c h a s t o c u t u o o d ; a l s o , h e would u s u a l l y b e coerced

t o u s e his lord's water-mills,. b a k e - h o u s e s , w i n e - p r e s s e s , brew- \

h o u s e s , b u l l or b o a r , and had sometimes to b u y h i s w ine From his

lor3, Similar m o n o p u l i e s were f o u n d a t t h e t i a e o n E n g l i s h a n d

German m n o r s , However , Bloch n o t e s that,

i t was i n P r a n c e t h a t t h e s y s t e m r e a c h e d its a p o g e e ; n o w h e r e e lse d i d it embrace s o many es ta tes o r s o a a n y o f t h e - d i f f e r e n t e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s carr ied o n i n a single p l a c e . T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t t h i s v a s d u e t o t h e g r e a t e r a u t h o r i t y o f t h e French s e i g n - e u r , d e r i v e d f r o m h i s a l a o s t t o t a l u s u r p a - t i o n of j u r i s d i c t i o n , a h e n t h e j u r i s t s o f t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y s e t a b o u t p r o v i d i n g a t h e o - r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r t h i s s o c i a l o r d e r , i t uas a s o u n d i n t u i t i o n t h a t l e d them t o c o n - n e c t c o n s t r a i n t s a n d m o n o p o l i e s w i t h the o r g a n i z a t i o n , o f j u s t i c e ,. . The r i g h t t o j u d g e was i n d e e d t h e s u r e s t f o u n d a t i o n for t h e r i g h t t o command, 6

5 3 l o c h , F r e n c h R u r a l H i s t o r z , p ~ . 92-95. B l o c h a l s o s u g g e s t e d t n a t the d i s a p p e a r a n c e of u a n u f a c t u r i n g s e r v i c e s was c o m p l e t e d oy 12_00 w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o h i m was p r o b a o l y t o o e a r l y a n d t o o g e n e r a l 3 d i s a p p e a r a n c e t o be a c c o q n t e d f o r b y t h e e x p a n s i o n of t r a d e ,

A c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s p r e a d o f s e i g n e u r i a l m o n o p o l i e s a n d b a n a l

p o w e r s was t h e d i f f u s i o n of t a l l a g e a s a n a i d i n money o r i n

k i n i . I n i t i a l l y l e v i e d a t i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s a n d v a r i a b l e i n

a a o u n t , i t b e c a m e a more g e n e r a l i z e d a n d y e a r l y i r n p o s j t i o n

( a l t h o u g h / s t i l l v a r i a b l e i n a m o u n t ) i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t w e l f t h

c e n t u r y , T h e m o v e n e n t t o f i x t a J l a g e s t a r t e d o n l y a r o u n d l 2 O O , 9 -

B l o c h d i d n o t d r a w a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

af t h e s e n e u e x a c t i o n s a n d t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e s i z e o f t h e

d e m e s n e i n P r e n c h R u r a l H i s t ~ r y , b u t i n ~ e u d a l S o c i e Q (1940). \a

h e a a d e t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t :

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of new ' e x a c t i o n s ' n o t o n l y v a r i e d fro^ c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e r i g h t t o i s s u e o r d e r s h a d b e e n t a k e n o v e r ; i t o p r a t e d a l s o i n d i r e c t r a t i o t o t h e l o r d ' s a b a n d o n m e n t of p e r s o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e e s t a t e , H a v i n g ~ o t h m o r e time a n d more l a n d , t h e p e a s a n t c o u l d p d y more, And t h e m a s t e r , n a t u r a l l y , s o u g h t t o r e c o v e r o n o n e s i d e w h a t h e l o s t o n t h e o the r , I f i n P r a n c e t h e ill h a d n o t b e e n t h e monopoly o f t h e l o r d , how c o u l d i t h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o f u n c t i o n o n c e t h e s u p p l y o f c o r n from t h e d e m e s n e had c e a s e d ? l o

T h e s t a t e m e n t c o u l d be t a k e n t o s u g g e s t t h a t a c a u s a l i t y re la -

- t i o n s h i ~ o f a c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r vas" i n v o l v e d , B u t I am u n a -

ware of a n y e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d s h o w i n g t h a t t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e

size o f d e m e s n e l a n d s c l e a r l y g e n e r a t e d a n d t h u s p r e c e d e d , t h e

i n p o s i t i o n o f a s y s t e a of new e x a c t i o n s , F u r t h e r m o r e , v h a t

e x a c t l y t h e l o r d l o s t i s u n c l e a r . T h e r e is n o h i n t , i n t h i s

t e x t , as t o why t h e l o r d c h o s e t o r a i s e p a y n e n t s t h r o u g h new

1 3 . Eiloch, F e u d a l S o c i e t y t r . by L . A . f lanyon ( C h i c a g o , 1964) Vol . I , p. 253.

exac t i ons a s o p p o s e d t o a d j u s t i n g t h e c o m s u t a t i o n p a y m e n t s a n d

c h a n g i n g t h e terms on w h i c h d e m e s n e l a n d s were l e a s e d . One

w o u l d a l s o l i k e s o n e c l a r i f i c a t i o n s a s t o why t h e l o r d w o u l d n o t

c o n s i d e r l e a s i n g t h e m i l l , t h e u i n e - p r e s s , etc.

A slightly d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s s t a t e a e n t mould

h a v e t h e l o r d p a r c e l o u t a p o r t i o n o f h i s d e m e s n e ( f o r r e a s o n s

t h a t w o u l d n e e d t o be e l u c i d a t e d ) , t h u s giving u p some l a b o u r

d u e s , w h i l e s i r u u l t a n e o u s l y r e s o r t i n g t o new e x a c t i o n s . B u t ,

a g a i n : why w o u l d t h i s l a t t e r s o u r c e of r e v e n u e appear more

a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e l o r d t h a n t h e c o m b i n e d c o m m u t a t i o n g a y m e n t s

a n d r e n t s a s s o c i a t e d v i t h t h e l e a s i n g of d e m e s n e I d n d s ? And,

g i v e n such a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n would b e

t h a t t h e r e were n e c e s s a r y losses i n h e r e n t i n l e a s i n g when com-

p a r e d w i t h d i rec t d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n - losses t h a t t h e l o r d

a n t i c i p a t e d and t r i e d t o r e c o u p i m m e d i a t e l y ( t h a t l e a s i n g was a

l a s t r e s o u r c e known t o t h e l o r d t o e n t a i l i n e f f i c i e n c i e s ) . ~ h i k

is. r n c o n t r a s t t o the f i r s t s u g g e s t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h o s e only

i m p l i c a t i o n was t h a t , a f t e r a uhile, t h e terms o n w h i c h d e m e s n e

l a n d s were c e d e d n e e d e d t o be r e n e g o t i a t e d b u t t h a t r e n e g o t i a -

t i o n was e x p e n s i v e - a t l e a s t m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n t h e o p t i o n o f

r a i s i n g r e v e n u e t h r o u g h n e v e x a c t i o n s . I n t h i s f i r s t i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n , t h e i n i t i a l e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e system of l e a s i c g was n o t

p u t i n q u e s t i o n . g h a t is n o t a p g a r e n t i n % l o c h ' s a n a l y s i s is

v h e t h e r e i t h e ; t h e a b a n d o n ~ e n t of d i ~ e c t d e s e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n .o r 8

t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of b a n a l p o w e r s c o u l d h a v e l e a d t o t h e d e v e l o p - a d

a e r t - o f new e x a c t i o n s ; 31, u h e t h e r loch's h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t ,

g i v e n t h e l o r d ' s ~ s o n o p o l y of j u s t i c e a n d t h u s e x t e n s i v e r i g h t s d

t o command, t h e a b a n d o n m e n t of d i r e c t d e ~ e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n w o u l d

l e a d t o new e x a c t i o n s , 1 1

French Serfdom:-Personal and Tenurial I m p l i c a t i o n s

a h a t were B l o c h a s v i e w s o n t u e l f t h - a n d t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

F r e n c h s e r f d o m ? Did h e s u g g e s t t h a t s e r f s t h e a f o r m e d a n i n o r -

i t y ? . a m a j o r i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of n o r t h e r n a n d c e n t r a l

F r a n c e ? l * d e r e c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n s r e g a r d e d as s p e c i f i c a l l y ser-

v i l e ? A c c o r d i n g t o B l o c h , a s e r f was t i e d t o h i s l o r d t h r o u g h a

p e r s o n a l a n d h e r e d i t a r y relations hi^: h e was from h i s b i r t h , and

i n t a c t t h r o u g h i t , h i s l o r d ' s hcmme & corps ( h i s l i e g e a a n ) ,

H e n o r a a l l y l i v e d o n a t e n u r e , was p a r t o f a s e i g n e u r i e a n d ,

h e n c e , h a d t o fo l low c u s t o m a r y r u l e s b u t " h e a l s o h a d t o o b e y *

c e r t a i n r u l e a r i s i n g f r o m h i s p e r s o n a l s t a t u s . A l r e a d y a v i l - 5 l e i n h e was a v i l l e i n p l ~ s . ~ ~ l 3 Bhen d i s c u s s i n g t w e l f t h - a n d

11 I n a 1 9 3 5 . n o t e o n s o a e of Ch, -9 . P e r r i n 8 s work , B l o c h a r g u e d t h a t e v e n t h o u g h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of b a n a l p o w e r s , t h e e x t e u - s i o n of relationships o f p e r s o n a l d e p e n d e n c e ( e . s e r f d o m ) , a n d t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e s i z e o f t h e d e m e s n e were n o t a b s o - l u t e l y c o n c o a i t a n t p h e n o m e n d , t h e i r e f f e c t s c o i n c i d e d , How i s o n e t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s s t a t e n e n t ? D o e s h e mean t h a t t h e p n e n o a e n a v e r e n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s o r t h a t t h e i r c a u s e s were i n d e p e n d e ' n t o f o n e a n o t h e r ? E x c e r p t s f r o m t h i s n o t e are t o De f o u n d i n D a u v e r g n e ' s s u p p l e m e n t t o & g ~ C a r a c t e r e s - ,., pp. b7 -9 .

1 2 3 7 d i s c u s s i o n of i3 loch3s ' s e r f 3 o m ' g i l l n o t b e r e s t r i c t e d t o n i s a c c o u n t i n F r e n c h R u r a l -_o_rq: ( a n a c c o u n t t o b e f o u n d 3n pp. 83-93) . Tne most d e t a i l e d e x ~ o s i t i o n of Blochas t h o u g h t ori t h e subject of s e r f d c m is i n a n a r t i c l e w r i t t e n i n 1 9 3 3 , " P e r s o n a l L i b e r t y q n d s e r v i t u d e i n t h e d i d d l e A g e s , P a r t i c u l a r l y i n F r a n c e , C o n t r i b u t i c n t o a C l a s s S t u d y M . T h i s a r t i c l e is i n s l a v e r y and S e r f d o g in thg MiYlg aes; S e l e c t e d E s s a y s by 8. B l o c h t r . by Yilliam B. aeer B e r k e l e y , 1970 ) pp . 33-91. A n o t h e r p e r t i n e n t a r t i c l e i s h i s 1 9 2 8 "The

< o l l i b e r t i t . A Stud? o n t h e F o r m a t i o n of t h e S e r v i l e : l a s s n , a l s o p u b l i s h e 5 in S l a v e r y qu S e r f d o m ... : see, i n 2 a r t i c u l a r , pp . 140- 1 2 9 . P e u j a l ' S o c i e t y c o n t a i n s a c o n c i s e

t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y serf d o a , B l o c h c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e d s t a t u s from

t e n u r e , e i n p h a s r z i n g t h a t t h e serf *s p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

- h i s l o r d was not m e d i a t e d a t t h e time t h r o u g h t h e t e n e m e n t h e

o c c u p i e d . B l o c h e v e n a s s e r t e d t h a t " b o n d a g e t o . t h e s o i l was i n

n o s e n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e ~ e r f - ~ l * A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , ser-

v i l e was o n e who p a i d , t h e c h e w g ( a m o d e s t s y m b o l i c a n n u a l

h e a d - t a x a c t i n g as a p e r n a n e n t p r o o f o f v i l l e i n a g k ) , t h e d u t y

f o r f o r m a r i a q e (a duty p a i d t o o b t a i n t h e lordis p e r m i S s i o n t o

i aa rcy s o m e o n e o u t s i d e theg- s e i g n e u r i e , o r t o marry a. free p e r s o n )

a n d some k i n d of i n h e r i t a n c e t a x . O t h e r d i s a b i l i t i e s of s e r v i l e ,

s t a t u s , h e p o i n t e d o u t , were t n e i n a b i l i t y t o e n t e r h o l y o r d e r s

o r t o b e a r w i t n e s s a g a r n s t free sen-1s 'P

G i d s o m e t h i n g e v e r p r o m p t a p r o c e s s o-f s t r ic t , l e g a l d e f i n i -

t i o n of s e r v i l e s t a t u s o r were t h e a b o v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n l y

c u s t o m a r i l y d e s c r i p t i v e o f p e r s c n a l d e p e n d e n c e ? I n a r a t h e r t x

l a c ~ n i c p a s s a g e , '5loch m e n t i o n e d how " i n t h e t w e l f t h a n d t h i r - ,, . t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s t h e c o u r t s [ w h i c h c o u r t s ? ] e s t a b l i s h e d a n d r e g -

9

u l a r i z e d t h e laws o f s e r v i l e s t a t u s H l b a n d t h a t t h e y had t o

d e t e r m i n e who was a s e r f w h e n e v e r c o n f r o n t e d w i t h V a s e s r e g a r d - 4

s e c t i o n on F r e n c h s e r f d o m o n pp. 2 6 0 - 2 6 6 of Vol. I.

13 3 l o c h , F r e n c h B u r a l E J i s t o s y , F, 85

1 4 3 l o c h , q e u d a l S o c i e t y , Vol. I, p . 264.

1 5 S l o c h , f e u d a l S o c i e t y , p, 2 6 3 ; P r e n c h R u r a l H i s t o r y , p, 88; w 2 e r s o n a 3 L i b e r t y a n d S e r v i t u d e ,, , " i n S l a v e r y . . , , PP* 34-44 . I n c i d e n t a l l y , a c c o r d i n g t o B l o c h , t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e 3f t h e s e o b l i g a t i o n s w h i c h i m ~ l i e d t h a t t h e s e r f p o s s e s s e d a genuine p a t r i m o n y e s t a b l i s h e s t h e , d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s e r f d o n a n d s l a v e r y . 4 -

1 6 3 l o c h , t t P e r s o n a l L i b e r t y . . . rs i n S l a v e r y .,. , p. 35.

PAGE '81

i n g b o d i l y p o s s e s s i o n [ ? J u h i c h were v e r y f r e q u e n t . l 7 P h i s p a s -

s a g e l e a v e s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , a l o t u n s a i d . ,

3 b s e r v i n g t h e s p r e a d o f t h e p r e s u m e d se'rvile c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

B l o z h c o n c l u d e d t h a t b e f o r e t h e e r a o f t h e g r e a t c h a r t e r s of

l i b e r t y , se r fs c o n s t i t u t e d t h e na j o r i t y of t h e p e a s a n t p o p u l a - b

t i o n i n a l m o s t a l l o f c e n t r a l a n d n o r t h w e s t e r n F r a n c e . 1 8 The one

region t h a t . s e e m e d t o s t a n d a p a r t was Normandy. T h e r e , serfdom

n e v e r d e v e l o p e d t o t h e s a a e e x t e n t a n d is, i n f a c t , h a r d l y men-

t i o n e d i n d o c u m e n t s d a t i n g b a c k t o t h e 1 1 t h c e n t u r y . 1 9

F i n a l l y , B l o c h r e c k o n e d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t of s e r v i l e s t a t u s /--

u n d e r w e n t c h a n g e s i n t h e l a t e t h i r t e e n t h a n d - i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h

c e n t u r i e s when t h e a r b i t r a r y t a i l l e and some r e s t r a i n t s on

n o b i l i t y s t a r t e d t o a c q u i r e s e r v i l e c o n n o t a t i o n s , A r e s i d e n c e

t a x p a y a b l e t o t h e l o r d by a l l those who ' d e p e n d e d t on him f o r

a i d a n d p r o t e c t i o n , t h e t a i l l e was, ' i n its e a r l y d a y s , a n 6

u n p r e d i c t a b l e o b l i g a t i o n f a l l i n g o n . v a s s a l s , free t e n a n t s , a n d

s e r f s * l i k e . O v e r t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , t h e l o r d i n c r e a s i n g l y

t a l l a g e d his s u b j e c t s who s o o n d e m a n d e d t h e r e g u l a r i z a ~ t i o n of

the t a i l l e - H e r e s p o n j e d b y c h a r g i n g a s u k s t a n t i d l fee f o r t h e

38 3 l o c h , #The C o l l i b e r t i . i n S l a v e = . .- p , 140 a n d 32. 143-6; F e u d a l S o c i e t ~ , pp. 261-2.

19 3 f o c a , F r e n c h B u r a l g i s t o r y , F. 90. B l o c h t r i e d t o e x p l a i n t h e p e c a l i a r i t l o f Bormandy i n t e r n s of the l i ~ e r a l i z i n g i n f i u e n c e o f t h e D a n e l a n r e m a r k i n g t h a t i n Normandy as well a s r n t h e n c i r t h a n 2 n o r t h - e a s t of E n g l a n d - a l l a r e a s that h a d b e e n i n v a d e d by t h e Danes - m a n o r i a l t e n a n t s e n j o y e d a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h degree of f r e e d c a ; see F e u d a l S o c i e t y , Vol. 1, 2 - 4 9 . The absence of s e r f 3 c ~ i n H o r a a n d y h a s b e e n a such f t ~ t e d p h e ~ o a e n o n b u t h a s - n o t b e e n c l o s e l y ana lyzed .

a c t o f r e g i s t r a t i o n r e g u l a r i z i n g i t ; f o r sos t , t h e t a i l l e b e c a m e

' a f i x e d a n d annual p a y m e n t , Note t h a t a n n u a l s u b s c r i p t i o n t o

t h e t a i l l e was not t - a n t a m o u n t t o a • ’ f r a n c h i s e m e n t o r ' manumis -

s i o n ', H o w e v e r , v h e r e s-erf s were i n v o l v e d , t h i s c o n c e s s i o n a n d

t h e a b o l i t i o n of w h a t B l o c h d e e m e d . t o h a v e b e e n s p e c i f i c a l l y ,

s e r v i l e o b l i g a t i o n s were o f t e n p a r t o h e s a n e c h a r t e r (o f t h e

same l o n g p r o c e s s o f b a r g a i n i n g b e t w e e n l o r d a n d t e n a n t s ) , And, b

t e n a n t s who were n o t a n a p o s i t i o n t o pay f o r t h e i r n a n u m i s s i o n

u e r z of t e n - u n a b l e t o p a y t h e fee f o r a n n u a l - s u b s c r i p t i o n t o t h e

t a i l l e . I n p r a c t i c e t h e n , a r o u n d 1300, t h o s e s t i l l s u b j e c t t o

t h e a r b i t r a r y t a i l l e were u s u a l l y serfs - h e n c e , t h e n e w l y

a c q a i r e d s e r v i l e c o n n o t a t i o n o f t h e a r b i t r a r y t a i l l e . 1 f B l o c h

was c o r r e c t , a n y a r b i t r a r y i m ~ s o s i t i o n w o u l d h e n c e • ’ o r t h i m p l y

s e r v i l i t y , 2 0

F r o m t h e e l e v e n t h t o t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y , d o c u m e n t s list-

i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y s e r v i l e o b l i g a t i o n s n e v e r c i t e d r e s t r a i n t s o n 8

m o b i l i t y , I n f a c t , Ban? o f t h e s e d o c u a e n t s made a n o t e of s e r f s

who, a l t h o u g h l i v l n g o u t s i d e ' t h e s e i g n e u r i e , were s t i l l e x p e c t e d

t o lake s p e c i f i c a l l y s e r v i l e p a y a e n t s t o t h e l o r d w h o s e h o m n e s

3e orps t h e y u e r e . O f c o u r s e , t o h a v e i t i n e r a n t serfs was - I

u n d 2 s i r a b l e f o r a l o r d s i n c e h e u o u l d h a v e t o i n c u r s u b s t a n t i a l ,' i

e x p e n s e s i n t r y i n g t o c o l l e c t his d u e s b u t t h e n B l o c h l s p o i n t i s

t h a t , u n t i l t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e u a s n o t much a l o r d

c o u l d do t o p r e v e n t i t i n e r a n c y . ID t h e o r y , t h e o b l i g a t i o n . of

f i x e d r e s i d e n c e c o u l d b e e n f o r c e d with t h e - h e l p o f a strong s d v -

20 See B l o c h , l s P e r s o n a l Liberty a n 3 .. ." i a S l a v e r y and . .., pp. 4 3 - 4 8 f ~ r t h e e v o l a t i o n o f t h e t a l l l e .

e r e i g n - a u t h o r i t y t h a t would demand r e s t i t u t i o n of t h e f u g i t i v e

from t h e l o r d s h i p s o r t h e c o m m u n i t i e s h a r b o u r i n g him. T h e frdg- i

m e n t a t i o n of a j u s t i c e made t h i s i r n ~ o s s i b l e i n F r a n c e up ' u n t i l

l a t e i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f a s t r o n g cen-

t r a l y a n t h o r i t y , t h e l o r d s c o u l d a n d d i d r e a c h b i l a t e r a l a g r e e -

B e n t s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e y d i d n o t h a r b o u r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s u b -

jects, T h e s e a g r e e m e n t s a p p l i e d t o serfs a s w e l l .as' t o free

t e n a n t s y e t t e n d e d t o b e s h o r t - l i v e d . Also, a l o r d c o u l d

t h r e a t e n h i s s u b j e c t s w i t h t h e c o n f i s c a t i o n of t h e i r p r o p e r t y I

( m o v a b l e s i n c l u d e d ) i n case t h e y d e p a r t e d , A g a i n , ue find t h a t

se r f s a n d free t e n a n t s alike were t h r e a t e n e d w i t h t h e c o n f i s c a -

t i o n of t h e i r h o l d i n g w h e n e v e r t h e y e l e c t e d to r e s i d e e l s e w h e r e .

B u t w h a t was t h e l o r d t o do w i t h t h e c o n f i s c a t e d h o l d i n g ? C o u l d

h e b e s u r e o f f i n d i n g s o m e o n e who would c u l t i v a t e i t a n d r e s i d e

on i t a s a serf? A c c o r d i n g t o B l o c h , a s l o n g a s men were scarce

r e l a t i v e t o l a n d , t h e l o r d g s - b e s t ~ o l i c y was t o a l l o w his i t i n e -

r a n t serf t o c u l t i v a t e i t f r o & a f a r ( i f a t ! a l l p o s s i b l e ) or t o .. a c c e p t a f ree man is a t e n a n t . E v e n t u a l l y , h o w e v e r , i n c r e a s e d

p o p u l a t i o n would g i v e s u b s t a n c e t o t h e t h r e a t of c o n f i s c a t i o n o f

h o l d i n g s u h i c h c o u l d t h e n b e r e n t e d o n more s t r i n g e n t terms.

F o r e x a m p l e , a l o r d c o u l d s h o r t e n t h e lease t o allow f o r r e n t

i n c r e a s e s ; o r , h e c o u l d demand f r e e e e n t o r e n d e r s e r v i l e o b l i g a -

t i o n s w i t h w h i c h t h e y were l i k e l y t o c o m p l y i n o r d e r t o r e c e i v e b

[or r e t a i n ) - l a n d , It i s i n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a - t s o m e . h o l d -

i n g s caae t o b e r e g a r d e d a s s p e c i f i c a l l y s e r v i l e , I n t h e l a t e /- t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d more s o i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h serf-

30s a c q u i r e d a new character: l a n d e d r a t h e r t h a n a p e r s o n a l

'r PAGE 84

character, t h e r e b y o f t e n b r i n g i n g r e s t r a i n t s on r e s i d e n c e , still

most o f t e n t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e Ban v i a h i s t e n u r e , a n d t h e r e f o r e

s u s e e p t i b l e t o b e i n g l o s t w i t h i t . t t 2 1

Blocb's thought summed up Q

A s d e s c r i b e d by Bloch , f r o m a r o u n d t h e e l e v e n t h t o t h e f o u r -

t e e n t h c e n t u r y , F r e n c h m a n o r i a l l i f e e v o l v e d away from d i r e c t s

deaesne c u l t i v a t i o n t o w a r d s much s i a a l l e r demesnes , away f r o a a

s t r i c t l y p e r s o n a l forts of d e p e n d e n c e t o w a r d s a Bore t e n u r i a l

f o r a o f s e r v i l i t y a n d a l s o t o w a r d s newer p e r c e p t i o n s of s e r v i l -

i t y - a c o n d i t i o n h e n c e f o r t h a s s o c i a t e d with a r b i t r a r y e x a c t i o n s

( e x a c t i o n s t h a t h a d n o t b e e n the o b j e c t of a n y o v e r t b a r g a i n -

i n g ? ) , Pluch i n use a t t h e h e i g h t of t h e p e r i o d o f d i r e c t

demesne c u l t i v a t i o n ( s u b s e q u e n t t o u h i c h t h e y would b e s t e a d i l y

r e d u c e d ) , l a b o u r dues were n e v e r , i n B l o c h 8 s p e r s p e c t i v e , the -~

i m p r i n t o f s e r v i l i t y . n o r e o v e r , t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e a l l u d e s n e i - . i.

ther t o a r e v e r s i o n t o d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n n o r t o l a b o u r

s e r v i c e s ,

THE FRENCH S E I G U E U B I E THROUGH MORE CONTEHPOBABY EYES

3n t h e e ~ o l n t i o n of the demesne

I d e a l l y , t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e demesne s h o u l d b e e x p l o r e d i n

terins oi u h a t h a p p e n e d t o t h e q i z e o f t h e demesne, i n t o whose

L h a n d s i t p a s s e d ( i f i t was f r a g m e n t e d ) , a n d how t h e l o r d f a r m e d

t h e lands t h a t r e m a i n e d h i s , I h a v e found G , ' D u b y s s work

e n l i g h t e n i n g i n t h a t i t does r e c o g n i z e t h e s e q u e s t i o n s t o b e

distinct a s o g p o s e d t o a m a l g a m a t i n g t h e m u n d e r t h e o n e g e n e r a l

\ . .

P 27, ibid,, p , 85. T h e whole d i s c u s s i o n of r e s i d e n c e c o n s t r a i n t s

/ is d r a v n f r o a p p , 48-58 o f t h i s a r t i c l e .

, . PAGE 85

h e a d i n g of ' t h e d e c l i n e of t h e d e a t e s n e *, C o n t e m p o r a q research

i n t i m a t e s t h a t B l o c h m i g h t h a v e e x a g g e r a t e d t h e e x t . e n t o f the ,

r e d u c t i o n i n t h e d e m e s n e - 2 2 T h e p o s i t i o n t a k e n , f o r i n s t a n c e , by

Duby in Rural Economy 2nd ~ o u n t y y L i f e H e d i e v a l Yest isA

t h a t t w e l f t h - c e n t u g y e t a t e s were i n d e e d much smaller t h a n t h e k I- 3

huge e s t a t e s of i t - the g t e a t F r a n k i s h m o n a s t e r i e s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e

n i n t h c e n t u r y p o l y p t i q n e s but t h a t t h e ~blypfiques r e f e r r e d t o -

e x c e p t i o n a l l y l a r g e d e m e s n e s ~ a ; and t h a t u e really 'do n o t know

w h e t h e r t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d e m e s n e was, o n a v e r a g k , l a r g e r

o r smaller t h a n i n the twelfth c e n t u r y . 2 4 F u r t h ' e r , Duby

3.

expresses r e s e r v a t i o n s a h o u t h y p o t h e s e s i m ~ l y i n g t h a t t h e l o r d ' s

a r a b l e had b e e n d e l i b e r a t e l y d i s t r i b u t e d t o t e n a n t t h e e l e v -

e n t h a n d ' t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s ; i n f a c t , he d o u b t s t h many l a n d -

l o r i s t f i e l d s a t t h a t period b e c a m e p e a s a n t s t - f i e l d s , I t would

b e aore correct t o say t h a t t h e demesne a r a b l e ,, w a s d i v i d e d by

i n h z r i t a n c e a n d ' b e n e f i c e s ' i n t o ever s a a l l e r u n i t s o f c u l t i v a -

t i o n , T h i s f r a g a e n k a t i o n l a r g e l y r e s u l t e d f r o m d e m o g r a p h i c

g r o w t h , t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of a r i s t o c r a t i c c l a n s , and t h e multi-

p l i c a t l o n o f lords."25 Be a l s o stresses t h a t l a n d l o r d s " h a d n o t

2 2 a o b e r t 3 o u t r u c h e , S e i q n e u r i e 5 F e o d a l i z e , m. II, ( P a r i s , 1970), p . 11 1,

.23 Z - D u b y , R u r a l S c o n o a y and c c u n t g Llf e the B e d i e v G West tr. by C,' P o s t a n { C o l u a b i a , S-C,, 1 9 6 8 ) , pp- 200-201.

2 4 ibid., p. 264,

2 5 i b i d . , p. 199, See a l s o F.L. Ganshof a n d A. V e r h u l s t nPledi- 2 ~ 3 1 A g r a r i a n Society i n its ? r i s e ; P r a n c e , t h e Lou Coun-

. t r i e s , a n d lestern Geraanyn i n @g C a r n b r i d q e Z c o n o m i c H i s t o r y . ? g - E u r o p e x, 2; tt;e A q r a r i a a ~ i f e of L& Biddle A q e s e d , by

3.3. P o s t a n (Caabr idge , 1 9 6 6 f , 310-312. Do t h e y suggest t h a t deaesne land sere s o r e often p a r c e l l e d o u t aaong t e n a n t s

d i v o r b d f h e m s e l r e s a t a l l f roa' d i r e c t c u h t i v a t i o n . - @ h e t h e r i t * was p t a i n e d i n the h a n d s qf - tfhe m a s t e r o r u d e t h e r it was

I - e n t r u s t e d t o ,an a g e n t ,or t o a * f a r m e r n , t h e f demesne [ w h i c h was

- i ' c u l t i v a t e d i n c r e a s i n g l y ' w i t h t h e h e l p o f h i r e d l a b c k e r s ] :

u n d o u b t e d l y f o r m e d the most p r o d u c t i v e p o r t i o n of m a n o r i a l l a n -

-99r t h e t h i r t e e t h c e n t u r y , t h e e v i d e n c e o f p a r c e l l e d d e a e s n e + .+ -

l a n d s i s more p l e n t i f u l ; '-In g e n e r a l , t h o u g h , t h e e v i d e n c e " d o e s *

n o t d i s p e l t h e impressioh t h a t i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a s i n - F

t h e t w e l f t h , t h e p a r c e l l i n g o u t of la 'bd Hffected o n l y a v e r y , small p o r t i o n of t h e demesne . . . ~ h a . t . o n e demesne 10s t h e r e , , -

4 .

a n o t h e r u o u l h g a i n t h e r e , v e r y f r e q u e n t l y b y 4 t h e c n l t i r a t i o n of

w a s t e l a n d s - " 2 7 'who s a n a g e d t h e a r a b l e c o i y o n e n t od t h e demesne? 6

' T h e l o r d h i m s e l f , i n t h e case'@ 'small a n d m i d d l e - s i z e d estates,

'farmers* i n t h e case of l a r g e r e s t a t e s . Again, Duby s t r o n g l y " e m p h a s i z e s t h a t , i n t h e l a t t e r case, it i s a o t a s thoucjh the

P

d e ~ e s n e l a n d s were p a r c e l l e d o u t : C t h e y p r e s e r v e d t h e i r bound-

a r i e s , and t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t p a c t s rere k e p t q u i - t t e - d i s t i n c t f rom *

r e n t - p a y i n g l a n d s t 8 , 2 8 I n o t h e r u o r d s , o n t h e b a s i s of t h i s e v i - -

c

t h a n Dubg u o a l d h a v e u s b e l i e v e ? I t is n o t a l t o g ' e t h e r clear.

26 Duby, R u r a l Economy ,.., p. 211. b h e t e a s : l a t e r i n t h e text, i n D u b 1 ' s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , . t h e p h r a s e , ' d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e d e a e s n e ' refers q u i t e e x p l i c i t l y to t h e case of d i r e c t a a n a g e s e n t by t h e l 2 r d (see p. 273), t h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n is c o n f u s i n g . b e c a u s e i t s u g g e s t s a n unusual meaning: namely , the p r e s e r v a t i o e of - the d&see l a n d s a s a n i n t a c t a n i t of c u l t i v a t i o n , *his is n o t what is '

z o n a o a l y u n d e r s t o o d a s d i r & c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n . . T-he cog- ', f u s i o n may b e due t o p r o b l e m s i n t r a n s l a t i o n . I

27 i~id., p. , 2 6 6 ,

*

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deace, t h e p r a c t i c e of ~farm l e a s i n g apwars to h a v e been as s i g - --

J

a i f i c a n t - agd p r o b a b l y n o r e signnficant- - a phenomenon a s t h e

d e c l i n e i n t h e size o f t h e ' d e n e s n e . I d e s c r i p t i o n of ;hat ibis

p r a c t i c e e n ta i led f o l l o u s bekou. 4

X

In. t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t u e l f t h . a n d t h r i r t e e n t h . c e n t u q i e s t h e r e - %.

v e r e a t t e m p t s a t r e o r g a n i z i n g l a r g e r estates: r e l i g i o u s h o u s e s - I 7 , . -

t r i e d - t o s e l l or e x c h a n g e t h e h more restate p r o p e r + e s a n d ,

fixed- term leases became g r a d u a l l y a f e a t u r e of m a n o r i a l o r g a n i - p

.I 7 z a t i o n - H o s t o f t e n i t uas t h e d e ~ e s n e Z h a t was f a r m e d o u t ,

' a l t h o u g h a t t h e e n d of t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y even l a n d s owing

quit F e n t were l e a s e d a n d s-6 v e r e v a r i o u s rights . a n d d u e s l i k e 6

Z

t i t h e s and o t h e r a i s c e l J a n e o u s r e v e n u e s . R e do n o t know t h e

extant to which leases s j r e a d i n t h e e l e v e n t h a n d i n t h e e a r l y

t s e l f t h c e n t u r i e s when they were . p r o b a b l y a g r e e d u p o n v e r b a l l y . \

P r e d i c t a b l y . , l o r d s vhose p r o p e r t i e s were u i d e l y d i s p e r s e d v e r e

t h e f i r s o n e s t o resort t o t h e s p s t e m of l e a s i n g . 2 9 U s u a l l y the " - -I d e

whole u n i t pf c u l t i v a t i o n was farme? o u t u i t 4 equipaent, tools ,

d o ~ & i , c s e r v a n t s , some l a b o u r s e r v i c e s a n d s ~ a e t i n e s e v e n w i t h

1 ca t t le , money, or s e e d . S h o r t - t e x m c o n t r a c t s a s ' o p p o s e d t o

l e a s e s f o r life s p r e a d , e s p e c i a l l y a f te r 1250, Leases were

e i t h e r i n r e t u r n f o r a sha-re of t h e h a r v e s t o r f o r a f i x e d c e n t .

I n t h e foriser case, the s h a r e a b s o r b e d was o f t e n h a l f of t h e

c rop ' ( h e n c e , t h e a p p e l q t i o n of me tayage ) , Where t h e s o i l u a s

n o t v e r y f e r t i l e t h e lord was w i l l i n g t o take much less t h a n - - -

h a l f o r a t h i r d of t h e p r o d u c e , A t first q u i t e wid 'espread , t h i s

29 S e e Reed a n d Ander son tor a n e x p l a n a t i o n of t h i s t e n d e n c y . *

'7

PAGE 88

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form of i ease u a s l a t e r s u p p l a n t e d in- n o r t h e r n Prance by - c--- *

r *

f i x e d - r e n t l q e s . 30 - -

9 b-

Two t b a t would be ' u o r t h p u r s u i n g r ' i t h i n t h e frame-

- uo& of a d i s c u s s i o n d n l e a s i n g a n d t h a t are o u t s i d e th:e s c o p e . .

* _ i

of t h i s t h e s i s : . - vdo u e r e - t h e :farmers ' w i l l i n g t o ' manage t h e ' P

demesne ' l a n d s a n d why d i d m e t a y a g e becomeV'f i r s l y i m p l a n t e d onl -y '

i n s o m e regions? The l a t t e r q n e s t i o h a n t i c i p a t e s . r e a l l y much ,

l a te r d e v e l o p a e n t s a l t h o u g h it d o e s s e e a t h a t t h e r e g i o n a l . char- 1

8-

acter b f m e t a y a g e i d n i f e s t e d ? i t se l f r a t h e r early.

On t h e e v a l a t i o n of labour dues

_Daby coafirms Bloch's thesis of a decline i n - a g r i c u l t u r a l 9 a

l a b o u r : s e r v i c e s , H i s e x p l a n a t i o n r t h i s d e c l i n e d e p a r t s , hou- 97 ever, from Bloch ' s. H e c e r t a i n l y d o e s n o t * f o c u s on a d e c l i n e i n

t h e s i z e of t h e demesne a s t h e p r i n c i p a l e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e

d e c l i n e i n l a b o u r s e r v i c e s . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

h i s i d e a s r e g a r d i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e demesne- L a b o u r s e r v i - - - -

< ces u e r e s u c h reduced bd tween t h e n i n t h a n d the t w e l f t h c e n t u -

<

30 h n o t e on c h a m p a r t y a r r a n g e m e n t s which a r e sometimes c o n f u s e d u i t b m e t a y a g e c o n t r a c t s s i n c e t h e y were. axso b a s e d on t h e d i v i s i o n of p r o f i t s b e t w e e n l o r d s a n d t e n a n t s , On c h a m p a r t y t e n u r e s . ( m o s t l y i n v o l v i n g newly a s s a r t e d p l o t s of l a n d ) a t h e l o r d d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e cost of t i l l a g e . I n i t i a l l y m e a n t t o be n o n - h e r e d i t a r y , t h e s e t e n u r e s were s o o n t o be treated, however , a s c u s t o m a r y holdings i n p e r p e t u i t y a n d t h u s became s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s a n e ~ a n o r i a l r u l e s as r e n t t e n - u r e &e. , a s t h e c e n s i v e or: t e n u r e s~ v i l a i n a c r e . ) L e a s e s o n a e t a x a g e were r a t h e r different i n t h a t t h e m e t a y e r had no '

r i g k t to t h e l a n d h e t i l f e a - h i s r e i a t i o a s t i i p to the lmx l was rather p r e c a r i o u s , I mould d e s c r i b e it a s much more

c o n t r a c t u a l '. H e t a y a g e a r r a n g e m e n t s l a r g e l y p r e s e r v e d a - lord's c o n t r o l OWE h i s l a n d s s i n c e t h e m e t a y e r e s d u t i e s were

v e r y c a r e f a l l y stated, This i n f o r m a t i o n is dram from Dttby*s R u r a l ~codomrr -, . . P o n r q u i n @ s L o r d s h i g &I -, . , a n d Bou- t r o u d i e 8 s S e i q n e u r i e gg -,, -

. . I .

-7 .* . . - -. . . PAGE 89

. -

ries i n , p a r t b e c a u s e ' o f t h e r e d u c t e n - i n the area ' d i r e c t l y v

c u l t i v a t e d ' by the l o r d t h r o u g h t h e l o s s of &me lo t s corvees - - - . .'

b u t a l s o h e c a u s e o f t h e e r o s i o n of t h e mansus a s a f iscal

u n i t , 3i b e c a u s e t e c h n i c a l c h a n g e s made some l a b o o r s e r v i c e s *

r e d u n d a n t i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , J * and b e c a u s e =t h e c g r o u t h of

e x c h a n g e i n t r o d u c e d more money i n t o t h e s r a l l d e p e n d e n t c n l t i v a -

t i - o n s while a t t h e same time i t f a c i l i t a t e d t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f

wage l a b o u r u 3 3 - a l l t r e n d s which p e r s i s t e d i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h

P r m c h serfdom i n l i g h t of more c u r r e n t research

B l o c h * s v=i&iiis - on s e r f d o m h a v e been d e f i n i t e l y c a l l e d i n t o < - . # * <

q u e s t i o n , a i d l e a s t for t h e p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g t h e t h i r t e e n t h cen-

tury. The o y t c o n e of -some, i n t r i c a t e d i s c u s s i o n s i s t h a t t h e .>.L f :

t a r e s of c h e v i g e , f o r m a r i a g e , a n d mainmorte were not a s s p e c i f i - - tally s e r v i l e as Bloch c o n s i d e r e d them t o be ( t h e r e were

I

i n s t a n c e s , for example , of c h e v a g e p a y a b l e - by n o n - s e r f s ) ; a n d I

t h a t t h e serfs d i d n o t form a m a j o r i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h e

s e i g n e u r i e s ; The a l t e r n a t i v e t o B16chts h y p o t h e s i s is t h a t t h i s /

31 T o d i v i d e l a b o u r s e r v i c e s be tween t h e newly c a n e d p o r t i o n s of t h e manse was more cumbersoae t h a n d i v i d i n g a c a s h sum,

32. P u r e l y manual l a b o u r became less v a l u e d b e c a u s e of improve- m e n t s i n ,p lough ing equ ipment and i n c r e a s e s i n p r o d u c t i v i t y " w h e r e a s t h e v a l u e of l a b o u r services w i t h ' a n i m a l s was u n d o u b t e d l y enhancedm (p. 21 2 ) .

33 i b i d , , p, 208.

34 ibid,, pp. 269-273; B o u t r u c h e , a q n e u r i e et e o d a l i g Ilol, XI, pp. 100- 102. T h a t some o f t h e s e f a c t o r s might h a v e had a r o l e i n t h e d e c l i n e of l a b o n r s e r v i c e s i n Eng land is, of c o a r s e , p o s s i b l e a n d s h o u l d be wor th i n v e s t i g a t i n g i n some u l t e r i o r r e s e a r c h .

. p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t e d of d e p e n a a n t s - a .minor i ' t y of which. were * 3

:serfs uho possibly d e s c e n d e d froa t h e C a r o l i n g i a n , se~vi.~ The -

- V1 a-

rest - t h a t , is, t h e non- se r f s' - were u s u a l l y referredr t o a s hos -

p i t e s o r \ i l l a n i . U a l i k e t h e serfs, t h e h o s p i t e s ( o r v i l l a n i )

c o n l d b r e a k t!$ t i e t h a t bound them t o t h e l o r d t h r o u g h t h e i r .' * r e s i d e n c e by l e h v i n g t h e . s e i g n e a r i e - . 0 t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s con-

s i s t e d in serfs b e i n g u n d e r t h e o n l y , j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e i r l o r d

w h i l e h o s p i t e s n i g h t d e p e n d o n t h e t r i b u n a l .of s e v e r a l l o r d s

( g i v e n t h e f r a g m e p t a t i ' o n of j u s t i c e ) . And, where h o s p i t e s were

c o n c e r n e d , c h a r t e r s of f r a n c h i s e s were t h e means t o o b t a i n t h e

ereaption frois certain o b l i g a t i o n s ond t h e a l l e v i a t i o n of t h e i r I

c h a r g e s , F o r serfs, it was t h e a c t of manumiss ion t h a t c o n v e y e d

similar p r i v i l e g e s a s w e l l a s p r o n o u n c i n g them free. 35

3 n t h e basis of m y r e a d i n g s of t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s , I c o n c l u d e ..

t h a t s e r f d o m a s d e n o t i n g a c o n d i t i o n of strict, p e r s o n a l a n d

p e r m a n e n t d e p e n d e n c e h a s p r o b a b l y b e e n a n o v e r r a t e d c o n c e p t i n , -

a n a l y s e s of t h e s e i g n e q r i e . To u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a t t e r o n e s h o u l d

consider r a t h e r t h e o b l i g a t i o n s accompany ing t e n a n c y u n d e r a : c

l a n d l o r d a n d s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e h c l d e r s of b & a l powers. 3 6

35 Ch, El Perrin, #Le Servage on P r a n c e et e n Al1enageee1, X. I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n q r e E of B i s t o r j c a l ~ S c i e a c e s , Pol . I1 (~10;- ence, l955) , pp, 214-221; P o u r q n i n , Z o r d s h i p and ..,, pp. 174-178; B o u t r u c h e , Vol. XI, pp. 75-79, The first t o c h a l - l e n g e B l o c h ' s h y p o t h e s e s was H, Verqiest whose work l a u n c h e d t h e who le r e - e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e quesb ion of s e r f d o m . '

36 T h e o d o r e E v e r g a t e s , F e u d a l SocieQ in B a i l l i a e of T r o y e s q -

u n d e r tbg C o u r t s of Gam~aqne tf52-1284 ( B a l t i m o r e , 19751, p. 188.

I

. . 3 PAGE 91

x * . J

s h o r e Bloch h a s r e m a i n e d u n c h a l l e n g e d is i n hi; ; ' ugges t ions

t h a t t h e a r b i t r a r y t a i l l e , aod r e a l l y a n y a r b i t r a r y e x a c t i o n , . ,

-

g r a 3 u a l l y e v o l v e d a s a t t r i b u t e s of a s p e c i a l i n f e r i o r s t a t u s ,

a n d t h a t t h i s s t a t u s , and h e n c e its o b l i g a t i o n s , became i n t e r t - "-,

i w i n e d " u i t h t e n u r e , R e c e n t r e s e a r c h c o n f i r m s tliat, in t h e c o u r s e '

. of t h e t h i r t e e n t h a n d f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e h a n n e r i n which + i

o b l i g a t i o n s were e x a c t e d became a mark of * s e r v i l e e s t a t u s , 1t

a l s o c o n f i r m s t h a t c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i g n s became bound a i t h s p e -

c i f i c t e n e m e n t s , that a f e u l o r d s demanded from t h e i r p o t e n t i a l

t e n a n t s t h a t t h e y s u r r e n d e r t h e i r f r e e d o m , and t h a t sone t r i e d

t o restr ict t h e mobility of t h e i r bondsmen so t h a t they c o u l d

i n p o s e upon them t h e t a i l l e - a n d t h e t y p i c a l c h a r g e s t h a t r e n t

w i t h i t - 3 7 . Thes=e c h a n g e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween some depen-

d a n t s a n d t h e i r l o r d s h a r e b e e n t e r m e d a n d i n t e r p r e t e d a s a

n r e w i v a l of s e r v i t u d e n 3 8 o r , a *#new se r fdcmn .39 I t a p p e a r s t h a t

they o c c u r r e d i n v a r i o u s - p a r t s of p o s t - 1 2 5 0 - F r a n c e : i n t h e

n o r t h and t h e n o r t h - e a s t of L a 1 l e - d e - F r a n c e , i n p a r t s of t h e

s o u t h - w e s t a n d t h e - s o u t h - e a s t , i n ' t h e e a s t a n d i n c e n t r a l b

37 •’&By, Be~af E(eenuq - -. , pp- 248-50- 38 i b i d , , p. 248.

. 4 0 i b i d ,

,. PAGE 92

+ he Revival of sa~itodsm in France: an erolution aiong the : l i n e s *of thirteeathwentary Bngl i sh v i l l e i n a g e ?

A - * . 3

The r e a d e r w i l l l i k e 1 1 be i n c l i n e d t o reg&d + t h i s F r e n c h ver- - s i o n o f a *new s e r f d o m * a s ' t h e o b v i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t o f E n g l i s h

v i l i e i n a g e , a s s u m i n g t h a t the l a t t e r d i d s t r e n g t h e n t h e l o r d ' s

g r i p o v e r h i s d e p e n d a n t , I n f a c t , a p a r a l l e l h a s b e e n drawn i n

t h e l i t e r a t u r be tween t h e F r e n c h 'new se r fdom1 a n d t h i r t e e n t h - t L

c e n t u r y E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e , e ' Bpt t o what e x t e n t t h i s p a r a l l e l

c o n t r i b u t e s t o our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t u o phenosena is a ques-

t i o n t h a t s h o u l d be posed. Uhat a r e its m a s t a p p a r e n t limita-

t i o n s ? I n F r a n c e , t h e cbapges a s s a c i a t e d w i t h t h i s neu se r fdom -* - t o o k p l a c e a g a i n s t a s p e c i f i c background - namely, t h e e x t e n s i o n

o f community f r a n c h i s e s t o a s u b s t a n t i a l segment of t h e popula-

t i o n , A s Dnby r e m a r k s - t o p r o c l a i m t h e * f reedom' of some coun-

t r y f o l k was t o b r i n g o u t , by way of e q n t r a s t , t h e web o f s e r v i - - C

t n d e i n which t h e rest was still c a u g h t u p O n * 2 Could one e q u a l l y . a r g u e t h a t i t was t h e e x t e n s i o n o f f r e e q o m ( s ) i n Eng land t h a t

, - 3 I

b r o u g h t a b o u t a c o n t r a r y movement in. ?he ifor. of a c l e a r e f d e f i -

n i t i o n of v i l l e i n a g e ? Such r e a s o n i n g would b e f l a w e d , I t h i n k .

Even i f o n e were t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f reedom ,

lurked b e h i n d t h e p r o c e s s of r e d e f i n i t i o n of v i l l e i n a g e 4 3 t h e

42 ibid, Paby also m s i d e r s t h a t a renewed i n t e r e s t i n juribi- c i a 1 s t u d i e s had a strong i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e r e v i v a l of serf- lo. and t h a t t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of p o o m r t e n a n t s c a u s e d t h e i r f

a s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e l o r d t o b e c o a e t i g h t e r . -- - - --

4 3 J o h n H a t c h e r , " E n g l i s h Serfdom a n d V i l l e i n a g e : T o u a r d s a R e a s s e s s m e n t w , P a s t a n d P r e s e n t , Bo, 90 ( F e b r u a r y , 1981), p, 3 4 ,

'

- . f a c t remins tha t, t h r o u g h v i i l e i n a c j e , t h e d e p e n d e n t s t a t u s of

_ t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e E n g l i s h m a n o r i a l p o p u l a t i o n was e i t h e r

l e g a l l y a n d e c o n o n i c a l l y d e p r e s s e d or, i n a n y case; ~ o n f i r a e d . ~

- I n P r a n c e , on t h e o t h e r hand, p o c k e t s (?) of u n f r e e d o m s u r f a c e d n.

a m i d s t a a o v e m e n t t h a t would b r i n b g r e a t e r c e r t a i n t y to t h e - m

l i v e s of m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s - a movement m a t e r i a l i z i n g i n t h e

c h a r t e r s . " N o w i f one were a t a l l b e n t o n a n a l y z i n g t h e t h i r - , -

t e e n t h - e n t n r y r e d e f i n i t i o n o f v i l l e i n a g e a s a p r o c e s s that

m a i n i y r e g u l a r i z e d t h e c h a r g e s w e i g h i n g o n m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s ,

o n e c o u l d p e r h a p s a r g u e , on t h i s bas i s , t h a t the; r e d e f i n i t i o n o f , *

v i l l e i n a g e was m r e ~ i k i n , i n i t s economic c o $ A g u e o c e s , t o t h e ' * I ' +:

g r a n t i n g 'of c h a r t e r s t h a n t o t h e s o - c a l l e d rnnew s e r f d o a n ! f

' T h o u g h t s r e l a t e d t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s w i l l be e l a b o r a t e d i n the

c o n c l u d i n g . p a r t of t h e t h e s i s , H e a n w h i l e , and f o r t h i s r e a s o n ,

t h e F r e n c h char ters of l i b e r t i e s s h o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d somewhat .

Charters o f ' l i b e r t i e s ' - --

T h e r e is l i t t l e u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e - ways i n which t h e F r e n c h .

c h a r t e r s ( w h i c h o r i g i n a t e d i n s n e w l y a s s a r t e d r e g i o n s ) h a v e b e e n

t r e a t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , They are p r e s e n t e d a s e s s e n t i a l M

w r i t t e n r e c o r d s of l o n g s t a n d i n g c u s t o m s o r , a 1 t e r n a t i v e l . y ; a s

h a v i n g had a much w i d e r i m p a c t i n t h a t they h e l p e d create new

c o n 3 i t i o n s i n new a n d older v i l l a g e s , T h e i r effect is d e s c r i b e d - *

a s * l i b e r a t i n g a y e t also c o n s t r i c t i n g ! I n t r y i n g t o s u m m a r i z e ,

t h e preseat s t a t e of r e s e a r c h on v a r i o u s r e g i o n s i n F r a n c e , T.

E v e r g a t e s r e p o r t s t h a t t h e c h a r t e r s . ..

g r a n t e d t h e ' same b a s i c g c i n t s : f r eedom o f movement, p r o p e r t y t r a n s f e r , and m a r r i a g e ( w i t h o u t t a x ) ; t h e c o n v e r s i o n - of a l l t a x e s i n t o a s i n g l e , f i x q d h e a r t h t ax ; and some

- y e

economic p r i v i l e g e s ,-- A uniform method o f . -

a n a l y s i s o f t h e s o u x c e s shows t h a t b y the a i d - t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y a g e n e r a l c h e c k e r e d p a t t e r n o f s t r i c t l y h e l d a n d o f f r a n c h i s e d ' commnn+ities p r e v a i l e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e kingdom, 4 4

C o n t r a s t t h i s w i t h Duby*s a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e c h d r t e r s were

e x t r e m e l y e x p e n s i v e f o r t e - c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t bo-ught them:

f rom t h e economic p o i q t of view [ t h e c h a r - ters] , , , Chiefly' r e s u l t e d ?n t r a n s f e r r i n g t o t h e l o r d s who owned t e r r i t o r i a l a o n o p ~ - ~ l i e s and p r i v i l e g e s t h e l a r g e r sums of c a s h which t h e p r o s p e r o u s ~ e a s a n ts had s u c c e e d e d i n S a v i n g up ,,, t h e l i b e r t i e s d i d n o t i n f a c t a b o l i s h ' t h e l o t d * s pouer t o l e v y exac- C i a p s . They s u p p r e s s e d i n t s e r a o t l k a r i e s , , , whose demands a n d c h i c a n e r i e s were o f t e n less b e a r a b l e t h a n t h e m a s t e r ' s i f o n l y b e c a u s e a s p e r s o n s t h e y were less r e s p e c t e d , ,, t h e c h a r t e r s ,,, d i d n o t so much r e d u c e t h e f i s c a l power o f t h e ban a s r e g u l a r i z e t h e m , i n t r o d u c e them i n t o c u s t o a , and t h e r e - f o r e l e g i t i m i z e them, and even e n t r e n c h them more f i r a l y , So much s o t h a t e n f r a n c h i s e d v i l l a g e s d i d n o t f i n a l l y f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y p r i v i l e g * economic p o s i t i o n compared t o t h e nany l o c a l i t i e s which had n o t r e c e i v e d c h a r t e r s , b u t which b e n e f i t e d f rom t h e g rowing f i x i t y of cus tom, 4 5

-Is there i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y be tween t h e two s t a t e m e n t s ? Not C 1 F.

r e a l l y , s i n c e E v e r g a t e s * e m p h a s i s is on ' t h e 3 a c t - t h a t t b e c h a r -

ters r a t i f i e d t h e p e a s a n t s 8 p o t e n t i a l t o engage i n a number of

; ' 4.4 E v e r g a t e s , ~ e u d a l S o c i e t y the B a i l l j e of T r o y e s . -. , p.

1 4 4 . I n h i s own a n a l y s i s of t h e b a i l l i a g e - s i t a a t e d i n C h a i p a g n e - E v e r g a t e s s u g g e s t s t h a t " I n c r e a s i n g p e a s a n t m o b i l i t y f o r c e d l a n d l o r d s t o s p e c i f y t h e i r c la im b y - n a a e ; a s t a t i m a q peasantry would n o t have r e q u i r e d t h e d e s c r i v t i o n s o f t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s t o o t h e r l a r d s # , [p , 3 1381 And " a t t h e same t i n e , t h e c o u r t o f Champagne d e v e l o p e d a p o l i c y of t a k - i n g @ v a n t a g e of t h e f l o a t i n g p o p u l a t i o n by e n t i c i n g a i g r a n t s t o h i s f o r e s t e d lands by means o f exempt ion a n d p r i v i l e g e s N , C P - 5 6 1

1. i

PAGE 95 e S

".

a c t i ~ v i t i e s w h i l e D u b y t s c o n c e r n s e e a s t o be with a moie immedi- , -

--

>

a t e a n d d e p r e s s i g g p e c n n i a r y e f f e c t , O f c o u r s e , t h e q u e s t i o n J

- t -

c o u l d a l w a y s b e r a i s e d a s t o whe the r a d e p r e s s i n g p e c u n i a r y , t

e f f e c t would n o t i - n e v i t a b l y i n f l u e n c e p o t e n t i a l deve lopment and

t h u s o E l i e e r a t e ' the p ~ s s i b X l i t i e s embedded i n t h e l f r e e d o m s ' 2'

On t h e concept of banal power: its a n a l y t i c value

T h e c o n c e p t of a i o r d s h i p o f t h e ban i s l i n k e d . t o a t t e m p t s a t

d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between t h e d i f f e r e n t components o f a J o r d ' s

' b u n d l e o f r i g h t s ' - a d i s t i n c t i o n i n t e n d e d t o s h e d l i g h t o n t h e

, f o l l o r i n g k i n d of q u e s t i o n : i n what c a p a c i t y d i d t h e l o r d '*

-

r e c e i v e t h e t a i l l e , t h e d i m o r t e , p l o u g h i n g s e r v i c e s , or t h e

c h a m p a r t ? The i d e a is t h a t t h e c h a r g e s b u r d e n i n g a l o r d ' s

d e p e n d a n t s e x p r e s s e d d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f h i s power o v e r them. 3

I n i t i a l l y t h e word bannua d e s i g n a t e d t . h e r i g h t t o judge , t o cos-

=and a n d t o punish w i e l d e d by t h e k i n g a n d h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ;

e v e n t u a l l y i t became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the l o r d ' s own power t o d o

4 6 A n o t e on t h e a b s e n c e o f s i m i l a r c h a r t e r s i n England. The r e a s o n s g i v e n a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : "For w r i t t e n * r e c o r d , t h e l o r d s h a d t h e i r s u r v e y s a n d t h e rolls r e c o r d i n g t h e -judge- m e n t s o f t h e i r courts: t h e y would h a r d l y have f e l t t h e need f o r f u r t h e r c o d i f i c a t i o n of u s a g e s whose v e r y i n s t a b i l i t y e n a b l e d t h e a t o render t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t e n e m e n t s prog- r e s s i v l y more p r e c a r i o u s , F u r t h e y ~ o r e , s i n c e l a n d c l e a r a n c e i-a England a p p e a r s t o h a v e been r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d w h i l e t h e l o r d s fo r t h e i r p a r t p o s s e s s e d a v e r y e f f e c t i v e i e a n s of r e t a i n i n g t h e i r s u b j e c t s , o n e o f t h e causes which on t h e con- t i n e n t h a d most p o w e r f u l l y conduced t o the c o n c e s s i o n s was n o t o p e r a t i v e here . [ Bloch, Peudd- S o c i e t y , Vol. I, p- 2 7 7 ) - B o u t r u c h e is xedded t o B l o c h ' s o p i n i o n ; see B o u t r o u c h e , Seiq- n e a r i e , , . B o l . 11, p - 142. B d i f f e r e n t s u g g e s t i o n i n D u b y e s R u r a l r -, , is t h a t c h a r t e r s which r e g u l a r i z e d mainly t h e b a n a l powers of t h e l o r d s were o u t o f p l a c e i n a c o u n t r y - England - i n which t h e s o v e r e i g n kept f o r h i m s e l f t h e supreme r u l i n g p o u e r s , p. 242.

so. B y use of his bannum, t h e l o r d R i m p o s e d on all alike a nner-

ber of dues, t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r v b i c h "uas no l o n g e r any prap-

e r t p - r i g h t i~ l a n d , or a n y a u t h o r i t y o v e r persons by r e a s o n of '

t h e i r l e g a l s t a tu s , b u t s i m p l y t h e f a c t t h a t by l e g a l o r - i l l e g a l k

meansi he had g o t i n to h i s h a n d s a p a r t pf t h e d i s n e ~ b e r e d .. - - a n t h o r i t j of t h e s t a t e f l a t B o u t r u c h e c a l l s t h i s 'a p o l i t i c a i

The r i g h t s a n d d u e s d e r i v i n g f r o m b a n a l power ( r e f e r r e d t o a s . B

* e x a c t i o n e s l i n t h e d o c u m e n t s ) s p r e a d r a p i d l y i n t h e c o u r s e of -

t h e e l e v e n t h , t w e l f t h , a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . Amongst them . were t h e . r i g h t s t o c o n t r o l r u r a l t r i b u n a l s and t o l e v y d u e s f o r

p r o t e c t i o n of, the h a r v e s t o r f o r s t a b l i n g h o r s e s , t h e right _to

l o d g i n g , a v a r i e t y of c o r r r e e s ( s u c h as m a i n t e n a n c e , c a r r y i n g a n d

p l o u g h i n g c o r v e e s j , t h e t a i l l e a s well a s new t o l l s and c o m e r -

c i a 1 p r i v i l e g e s - 4 9 A l l t h e s e r i g h t s d i d n o t r e m a i n v e s t e d in t h e

h a n g s of o n e s i n g l e l o r d - They e n d e d up q u i t e f r a g ~ e n t e d . A

l o r d a i g h t , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e s e r v e t o h i m s e l f t h e e-xercise of

A h i g h + jus t i ce a n d -sell that o f , l o w j u s t i c e , or v i c e v e r s a .

A n o t h e r might s e l l a l l of h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n a l r i g h t s yet r e t a i n

t h e l a n d over which h e h a d e x e r c i s e d them, One l o r d might be i n

p o s s e s s i o n of t h e monopoly o v e r t h e m i l l , w h i l e a s e c o n d e n j o y e d

s i m i l a r p r i v i l e g e s over the o v e n - h e n c e , a r a t h e r e n t a n g l e d

n e t w o r k of r e l a t i o n s h i p s v h i c h g a v e r ise t o numerous f r i c t i o n s

47 jansbof and v e r h & t , w ~ e d i e v a l A g r a r i a n ...a i n T& -- b r i d e ,--, Vol- I, p- 333,

4 8 B o u t r u c h e , S e i q n e u r i e 22. .. . , Vol. 11, pp, 124-1 40. 3

49 Dnby, R u r a l Econonx -,., pp. 224-6-

- , - 2

between t h e d i f f e r e n t hof ikers of b a n a l powers,so (The d i f f u s i o n I.

of b a n a l prerogatives was to resn1.t i n the growth of a .group of

i n t e r m e d i a r i e s who a c t e d a s a n x i l i a r i 6 s t o the l o r d s and uho I

- H e r e u s u a l l y drawn from t h e r a n k s o f d o m e s t i c o f f i c i a l s - It b a s

# - . been s u g g e s t e d t h a t , i n Eng land , d o a e s t i c o f f i c i a l s n e v e r rose

t o t h e same prominence , in p a r t , b e c a u s e p r i v a t e p o u e r s were n o t - a s d e v e l o p e d t h e r e , ) 5 1

Ejoeever a t t r a c t i v e a p r o p o s i t i o n , t o c a t e g o k i z e t h e v a r i o u s

r i g h t s claimed by a l o r d , t h u s tracing them t o different s o u r c e s

of power over men, is bound: t o i n v o l v e p r a c t i c a l and l o g i c a l

problems, A s Y i n o g r a d o f f s a i d w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e English manor I

- a reaark t h a t m n l d a p p l y e q u a l l y well t o the s e i g n e u r i e : "the

c o n s t a n t t e n d e n c y i n p r a c t i c e "must h a v e been u n d o u b t e d l y

d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s nixing up t h e s e p a r a t e t h r e a d s of s u b j e c - .>'

t i o n , n * 2 F o r e x a ~ p l e , a t first a t e r r i t o r i a l t a x , t a l l a g e became

*associated w i t h s e r v i l i t y ; p e r s o n a l s u b j e c t i o n with dependence * F Z

t h r a u g h t e n u r e , Boreover , there was no obvious connecti;"bn ,+ ./

b e t u e e n s e v e r a l of t h e - s e i g n e u r i a l levies a n d t h q i r s u p p o s e d

,- j n s t i f i c a t i o n l , . C o n s i d e r , h e r e , t h e , . s e i g n e u r i a l n o n o p o l i e s : ?$

. .

*! what uas t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e e x e r c i s e of p a r t i c u l a r f u n c - - t i o o s of t h e s t a t e - o t h e r t h a n t h a t t h e y were backed b y b a n a l

p r , e r o g a t i v e s ? s J T a l l a g e ,

50 B o u t r u c h e , S e i q n e u r i e

on t h e cther hand , was supposed t o a i d

52 P a u l V i n o g r a d o f f , Vi l la inacre in Enqland (New Pork, 19671, p. 151.

- t h e r d l e ~ s o v e r c o n e soae e t r a o r d i n a r y c i r c u a s f a n c e s ( a t 1,east

(.

i n its e a r l y days) , As f a - t h e t h r e e f o l d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a - - - -

I, *- l o r l ' s r i g h t s ( p r o p e r t y - r i g h t s i n - l a n d , r i g h t s o v e r men b y - v i r -

tue of t h e i r l e g a l s t a t u s , a n d r i g h t s result* g from t h e e x e r - k c i s e of p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s ) , it c o u l d b e c r i t i c i z e d o n t h e f o l -

l o w i n g grounds: what is t h e basis of a d i s t i n c t i o n between

r i g h t s o v e r a e n b e c a u s e s t a t u s a n d r i g h t s d e r i v i n 9

p o l i t i c a l ' s u a y ? The a n n o t e v i d e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y

c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e lose p e r s o n a l d e p e n d a n t s * l a p s e d in? this

c o n d i t i o q p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e t h e y s o u g h t , fro. i h d i v i d o a i l o r d s ,

s e r v i c e s t h a t 2 c e n t r a l a u f h o r i t y no l o n g e r o f f e r e d them. The

mere t w o f o l d d i s t i n c t i o n whereby a l o r d ' s m a n o r i a l income is

&'aced back t o rights i n l a n d (a r e n t c o e p o n e n t ) a n d t o p o l i t i -

ca l a t t r i b u t e s (a t a x c o a p o n e n t ) migh t see. more a p p e a l i n g .

#ore a p p e a l i n g y e t p e r h a p s less' r e v e a l i n g i n terms of t h e e v o l v -

i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween a c e n t r a l - a u t E o r i t p . .and manor=al -- l o r d s . --

T h i s twof o l d d i s t i n c t i o n c o r r e s ~ o n d s t o t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t a -

much f r a g n e n t e d central a u t h o r i t y l a p i n t h e manora s backgroundi ,-

and, u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , it would b e q u i t e a d e q u a t e . On t h e . *

o t h e r band, i f t h e aim is t o i n t e g r a t e i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s v a r y i n g 1 - \

d e g r e e s of f r a g a e n t a t i o n ( o r of c e n t r a l i z a t i o n ) of th'is a u t h o r - s

e

i t y t h e n p e r h a p s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of p e r s o n a l dependence as d i s -

t i - n c t f ron t e r r i t o r i a l s u b j e c t i o n becomes i m p o r t a n t , Uhereas

the mere t w o f o l d d i s t i n c t i o n g e n e r a l l y i m p l i e s t h e a b s e n c e o f an

e f f e c t i v e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y which i n turn a l l o w s t h e a n a l y s i s t o & t r e a t t h e a a n o r a s a s e l f - c o n t a i n e n t i t y , t h e t h r e e f o l d d i s - % t i n c t i o n c o n l d c a p t u r e , t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t , t h e e f f e c t of -

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f 3 . U . , be s i g n i f i c a n t l y b r i e f e r ; i n ,my d e s c r i p t i o n s of the - a

c h a n g e s t h a t o c c u r r e d i n n o r t h e r n I t a l y , Germany and t h e L o r

~ o u n t r i k than I 'have been i n say d i s c u s s i o n of J n g l i s h a n d iu

A F r e n c h d e ~ e r ~ p m e n t s ; r my i n t e q t i o n is t o e s t a b l i s h , g rosso modo, * * -

t h e c o u r s e of e v e n t s e x p e r i e n c e d by t h e s e r e g i o n s . d

i i u r . f

I n Wy r e s e a r c h o n ltafy I have used m o s t l y t h r e e s o u r c e s * P."g , e >& jl.

- . J o n e s e c h a p t e r i n The Caabridpe gcpq- gistory, G. ~ u z z a t & o * & Jj * / -

' 1111 E c o n ~ ~ i c History r t a l z a n d P. H e r l i h y e s nThe H i s t o r y - o f i -- I -

; . the ,kata l S e i g n e u r i e i n Italy, 7 5 1 f 1 2 0 8 w . I n g e n e r a l , t h e s e ir

-sources c o n c u r w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e t ~ e n d s s u m m a r i z i n g m a n o r i a l *

* r e l a t i o n s h i p s , ' ds t h e s e c u n f o l d e d from r o u g h l y t h e t e n t h t o t h e

f o u r t e e n t h c g n t a r y . The fo l lov i3 i 'g d e s c r i p t i o n s are a l l b a s e d on O .

r Y

t h i s l - r a t n r e , e s p e c i a l l y o n J o n e s 8 c h a p t e r . a z v

7

- - :

On demesne l eas ing f

@ The history of a a n o r i a f i s m , in n o r t h e r n I t a l y , r e v e a l s an

;

t e a r l y and a s t r o n g t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s the use of indirect methods 4F, # l - ..~+&, .

of 3 e l e s n e m a n a g e ~ e n t . This t e n d e n c y was manifest even i n t h e .'; *

1 P. Jones, R 8 e d i e v a l Agrarian s ~ c i e t y in its P r i m e ; 1-1 C a a b r i d c i e Economic H i s t o r y , V o L + I (Cambridge, 1966 340-431; G. Luzzatto, E c o n c a i e Histor][ of Itall tr. Jones ( tondon, 1961) ; D. H e r l i h y , n ~ h ~ ~ z t o r y of t h Seignenrie i n Italy, 753- 1200RC AQrarian Historx, (1 959), pp- 58-73, I n p a r t i c n l a r see J o n e s w pp. 395- L a z z a t t o w s d i s c a s s i o n s of a g r i c u l t u r e i n c h a p t e r s V , ' VI I.

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Loabard and i n t h e C a r o p 3 e r i o d s when d i r e c t demesne c u l - /

t i v a t i o n was a t i ts peak- F r o m t h e n i n t h t o t h e / f v e l f t h cen-

" t u r y , t h e l e a s i n g o f demesne l a n d s was a p r o c e s s associated w i t h

l a r g e ' and r e c u r r i n g t r a n s f e r s cf p r o p e r t y , H e r l i h y s u g g e s t s

t h a t t h i s p r o c e s s o c c u r r e d l n s p u r t s . 2 I n any e v e n t , by t h e -

t u e l f t h c e n t u r y , d i r e c t d e a e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n uas d e f i n i t e l y on &

t h e v a n e a n d l a b o u r s e r v i ~ e s were feu.; / t h e y c o n s i s t e d m a i n l y of I

* I .;:

s e a s o n a l works, c a r r y i n g s e r v i c e s and s h g n e u r i a l c o r v e e s u a r e -

l a t e d t o t i l la e, B Where t h e demesne remained u n d e r direct

s g p e r v i s i o n I i wage l a b o u r ' was i n use.. Has d i r e c t demesne c u l t i -

v a t i o n - r e p l a c e d by a s y s t e m of i n d i r e c t management b a s e d on t r a -

d i t i o n a . 1 leases o r on t e r a i q a l leases? Broad ly , t h e answer is

t h a t up u n t i l a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1150 t r a d i t i o n a l l e a s k s were t h e

norm a f t e r which s h o ~ t - t e r m c o n t r a c t s began t o a p p e a r - i n a l l

p a r t s of I t a l y -

I n ' d i s c u s s i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f d e a e s n e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n

( m a i n l y t h e t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s ) , J o n e s p o i n t s o u t t h a t -

t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f g r a n t s o f demesne l a n d s - g r a n t s t h a t t o o k t

t h e form o f p e r p e t u a l leases a n d t h a t , i n e f f e c t , were conc- ' r

e a l e d a l i e n a t i o n & - were more o f t e n k n i g h t s , l o r d s , m e r c h a n t s

and l a v y e r s t h a n s a a l l c u l t i v a t o r s , H e a l s o i n d i c a t - e s t h a t

t h e s e g r a n t s - were p a r t -of a l a r g e r movement t h a t encompassed

2 B e r l i h y , nThe H i s t o r y o f t h e R u r a l S e i g n e u r i e i n I t a l y " , p, 68.

I

3 J o n e s stresses h i g h l a b o u r costs as a f a c t o r i n t h e Abandon- n z n t of d i r e c t c n l t i v a t i o n , i i l p l y i n g t h u s t h a t l a b o u r d u e s uzre no l o n g e r a n o p t i o n , S e e p, 411 o f The Cambridqe ,;. , Val, I.

'b * PAGE 102

w h o l e manor s , castles, - c h u r c h e s a n d tithes: T h i s movement- l e d

t o a s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e i n p r o p e r t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s : " t h e g r e a t i

esta tes o f crown, C h u r c h a n d - n o b i l i t y iere b e i n g b r o k e n up a n d

r e d i s t r i b u t e d among a new m i d d l e - c l a s s of l a n d h o l d e r s , s e n t e P -

nnova of o b s c u r e o r i g i n . n * Hence, w h i l e a t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y --- (o r a c h u r c h ) c o u l d , i n p r i n c i p l e , ra ise c u s t o m a r y r e n t s i n d i -

r e c t l y by l e v y i n g f i n e s ' i n cases of i n h e r i t a n c e a n d a l i e n a t i o n ,

a n d while 'he c o u l d a l s o e v i c t a t e n a n t f o r arrears of r e n t , i n ' A

p r a c t i c e , h e was q u i t e c o n s t r a i n e d , Not o n l y u a s h e hampered by . %.

c u s t o m , b u t h e a l s o had t o r e c k o n w i t h t h e power o f many p e r p e t -

u a l t e n a n t s who were n o t s i m p l e c u l t i v a t o r s , S u c h t e n a n t s

t e n d e d t o be p r o t e c t e d b y the u r b a n communes - s e v e r a l o f wh ich

. s u p p o r t e d - a move t o h a v e p e r p e t u a l t e n u r e s d e c l a r e d a l l o d i a l .

Beu n e t h o d s of i n d i r e c t manageoen t a p p e a r e d i p h e t v e l f t h

a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , Y i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f r amework of

p e ~ p e t u a l leases, t h e r e were s u c c e s s • ’ u l a t t e m p t s a t c h a n g i n g

rents in ?OneY i n t o r e n t s i n k i n d . 5 B u t t h e r e is a l s o e v i d e n c e

of r a p i d 1 y s p r e a d i n g c o m a e r c i a l l e a s e s - e , of short-term ,F-

g r a n t s of l a n d , of l i v e s t o c k , of whole f a r m s a n d b u i l d i n g s f o r

4 J o n e s i n . The Cambridcze - -. , p. 4000 N

5 Whi l e J o n e s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o m m u t a t i o n ' was a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t d e v a l u a t i o n (page 4 10) EIerJihy r e m a r k s i n f o o t n o t e 53, on page 68 of nThe B o r a l S e i g n e a r i e , .,", t h a t i t u s u a l l y i avu lved "a h i k e _ i n t h e rent i-lf oat of a l l p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e f a l l i n t h v a l u e of t h e c o i n a g e ,., B e c a u s e i n t h e b a l k of r e n t s set i n money t h e p a y m e n t s were s o small, v e r g i n g o n t h e p u r e 1 y r e c o g n i t i v e , I d o n o t t h i n k t h a , t d e b a s e m e n t p r o v i d e d khe p r i n c i p l e m o t i v a t i o n f o r this wave of - c o m a u t a t i o n s a n d would r a t h e r c o n s i d e r t h e desire g r e a t l y t o i n c r e a s e r e n t a l incomes a s t h e d e c i s i v e factorsn

$ 7 - 2 d

f i x e d f e n t s . ( n s u a l l y f o o d rents) and f o r s h a r e c ropp ing .6 Hote ,

t h a t some o f t h e s h a r e - c r o p p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s b o r e a s t r o n g

r e s e a b l a n c e to uag& c o n t r a c t s , Uhere t h e owner advanced - most o f *

t h e working c a p i t a l , a n d where the c o n d i t i o n s of v e r y short-term \c

t e n u r e uere s t a t e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l s , ' t h e t e n a n t ' s s h a r e of t h e -

c r o p was n o t i a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t frcrn a wage, .i 7

~ h o i n i t i a t e d t h e c h a n g e t o w a r d s shor te r c o n t r a c t s and bow '

was t h i s c h a n g e implemented? Did commerc ia l l e a s e s a p p l y s o l e l y -

t o newly-made g r a n t s o r d i d l a n d l o r d s s u c c e e d i n d r a w i n g ' i d t o

t h e p r o c e s s p r o p e r i y t h a t had b e e n ceded ' p r e v i o u s l y on c u s t o m a r y

teras? Town-due l l ing l a n d o w n e r s - a s well a s t h e Church were i n - -

t h e f o r e f r o n t i n i n t r o d u c i n g c o m a e r c i a l l e a s e s o n a l r e a d y d d r e l -

oped l a n d ; on t h e o t h e r hand, * a n t s of unimproved and. waste A I _ l a n d s c o n t i n u e d to' be b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f p e r p e t u a l t e n -

I ure , A number o f p e a s a n t . h a l d i n g s were r e c o v e r e d t h r o u g h iuanum-

i s s i o n s a n d e s c h e a t s , A t h e n re-let f o r s h o r t e r terms a n d h i g h e r -

r e n t s , P e t , a c c o r d i n g t o J o n e s , w s o m e t h i n y a o r e t h a n t h e s e

, u n o b t r u s i v e c h a n g e s is needed t o e x p l a i n t h e r a p i d t r a n s f o r m a -

t i o n v i s i b l e on many I t a l i a n e s t a t e s >f t h e l a t e r f l i d d l e Agesm'

- t h i s "something moren' b e i n g anather m a s s i v e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

p r o p e r t y , low, hou e x a c t l y t h i s r e d i s t r i b u t i o n t o o k p l a c e , a n d

how i t f a c i l i t a t e d t h e s p r e a d o f t h e new l e a s e s is n o t c l e a r l y

d e l i n e a t e d i n J o n e s * account. . what a p p e a r s t o h a v e hapgpned,

6 S h a r e c r o p p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s g o back t o t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y b u t i t is o n l y a s o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y t h a t t h e y a c q u i r e d impor- t a n c e as s h o r t - term leases,

7 J o n e s , C a a b r i d q e ,,, , Vol, I, p a g e 415,

t h r o u g h o u t a p r o c e s s t h a t v o u l d s t r e t c h down to t h e s i x t e e n t h

- c e n t u r y is t h a t l a n d s were b e i n g p u r c h a s e d a n d h o l d i n g s consoli-

d a t e d i n t o larger t e a e m e n t s , T h e s e were o f t e n e n t r u s t e d t o a n

e n t r e p r e n e u r who mould t h e n sub - lease t h e m ,

On the r e l a t i o n s h i p between labour dues and s e r v i l i t y , p r i o r - t o t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n movement

S e r v i l i t y u a s e i t h e r a matter of s t a t u s and /o r of t e n u r e ,

But , s t a r t i n g i n the n i n t h c e n t u r y , s t a t u s became o f lesser

i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e l o r d t h a n t e n u r e : . r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r s t a t u s ,

t e n a n t s were s u b j e c t e d t o m a n o r i a l j u r i s d i c t i ~ n a n d t o a number.

of r e s t r a i n t s , r a n g i n g f r o m r e s t r a i n t s o n n o b i l i t y t o r e s t r a i n t s - * - - 4 4

o n i n h e r i t a n c e . Up u n t i l t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y , servi le t e n a n t s , *

t l i k e h o l d e r s of s e r v i l e t e n e m e n t s , were u n d e r h e a v i e r u o r k o b l i -

g a t i o n s t h a n t h e rest o f t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n . .Whether t h i s

c o n s t i t u t e d t h e most t e l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s e r v i l i t y is,

however , u n c l e a r , Woold n o r t h e r n I t a l y w i t n e s s a t t e a p t s a t

r e v i v i n k o b s o l e t e forms of d e p e n d e n c e a n d a t re- i m p o s i n g l a b o u r

d u e s ? I h a v e come a c r o s s t h e m e n t i o n o f s u c h a t t e m p t s i n rela-

t i o n t o f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y f e u d a l T y r o l . And i n P i e d a o n t some

form o f s e r v i t u d e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t a i l l e a n d t h e m a i n n o k t e

s u r v i v e d u p u n t i l a t l e a s t t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 9

8 i b i d , , page 415, J o n e s stresses t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n on t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e o l d t o t h e new s y s t e m of l e a s i n g i s poor : n too often r e c o r d s simp1 y show t h e new s y s t e a i n v ~ r k i n g order.I1 (pa 415)

9 J o n e s , The C a r b r i d q e ,.,, pages 406 a n d 409, A h i s t o r i c a l n o t e on T y r o l which c o u l d p r o v e t o b e u s e f u l : t h e r e were p a r t s of T y r o l i n u h i c h free p r o p e r t i e S h a d r e m a i n e d s t r o n g a n d i n u h i c h f e u d a l o r g a n i z a t i o n was relatively weak b e t w e e n t h e t e n t h a n d t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s . Smal l free p r o p r i e t o r s f e l l u n d e r t h e realm of r o y a l j u r i s d i c t i o n , had c o u r t s f o r m e d of their peers a n d e n j o y e d t h e r i g h t t o c a r r y arms, T h e r e was a n

The communes as holders of e x t e n s i v e banal powers and the a c q u i s i t i o n o f freedor(s) by manorial dependants,

v- A b r i e f p o r t r a y a l o f t h e t u e l f t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s

u o n l d p u t t h e a c c e n t o n t h e e a e r g e n c e o f t h e u r b a n communes a s

h o l d e r s of e x t e n s i v e b a n a l p o w e r s a n d - on t h e i r c o n t z o l l i n g

i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e r u r a l communes which i n t u r n h a d come t o reg-

u l a t e much of v i l l a g e l i f e , l o A s f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of m a n o r i a l

k e n a n t s , t h e i r - d e p e n d e n c e o n a p r i v a t e l o r d - w h e t h e r t h r o u g h "

t h e i r s t a t u s or t h r o u g h t h e i r t e n u r e - was l o o s e n i n g . By 1300

l i t t l e . u a s l e f t of t h e v a r a o u s f o r m s o f bondage , C h a r t e r s o f

f r a n c h i s e s a n d i n d i ' v i d u a l m a n u m i s s i o n s h a d been g r a n t e b e x t e n -

s i v e l y from t h e eleventh c e n t u r y o n u a r d s ,

To what e x t e n t d i d m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s owe t h e i r , newly

a c 3 u i r e d f r e e d o m s t o u r b a n p o l i c i e s a n d t o t h e a r b a n communes?

T v r e is n o s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n s w e r t o this q u e s t i o n . I t would

b4 r a s h t o , a s s n m e t h a t t h e communes were i n v a r i a b l y *pro-serf"

(or R p r e d e p e n d a n t s n ) a n d n a n t i - l o r d s n s i n c e , a s m e n t i o n e d ear-

l i e r , many of t h e townsmen h a d t h e i r o v n l a n d e d es ta tes a n d

d e p e n d a n t s i n %he c o u n t r y s i d e . Jones g i v e s t h e e x a m p l e of some

t h i r t e e n t h - c w u r y t o w n s t h a t t r i e d " t o p r o h i b i t i a m i g r a t i o n b y /

/\-

v i l l a n i a n d o f t e n o t h e r . p e a s a n t s , i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e c u l t i - --

o b v i o u s d i c h o t o m y , d u r i n g t h e s e c e n t u r i e s , b e t w e e n s u b j e c t s of p r i v a t e l o r d s h i p s a n d f r e e p e a s a n t s , T h i s i n f oraa t i o n is* drawn f roa f, 3 o i s s o n n a d e L i f e @ Hork &g H e d i e v a l Europe , t r , by E i l e e n Power (Hew Pork, 1964) , page 121,

10 A n o t e o n t h e e m e r g e n c e a n d the f u n c t i o n i n g of the r u r a l con- nunes: l o r d s would s e l l , lease o r g i v e soere of t h e i r s e i g n e u - r i a l r i g h t s t o v i l l a g e s w h i c h would b e o r g a n i z e d i n t o c o s - manes; t o 'soate e x t e n t , a l l v i l l a g e r s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the a d n i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e communes, B u t I s h o u l d i n d i c a t e t h a t i ~ o t h r u r a l and u r b a n communes were l e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d by aem- b e r s of t h e g e n t r y .

v a t i o n of estates a n d t h e t a x a b l e c a p a c i t y of t h e c o u n t r y s i d e

. , , [ b u t which also] a d o p t e d t h e s e e m i n g l y o p p o s i t e p o l i c y of

p e a s a n t e a a a c i p a t i ~ n . ~ l l R o w , i f t h e p u r p o s e of t h e u r b a n con-

mune a s a c o r p o r a t e e n t i t y - a s o p p o s e d t o what n i g h t h a v e con - /

s t i t u t e d , a t times, p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s of i t s i n d i v i d u a l m e m -

bers - was t o e x t e n d its t a x i n g powers t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d , g

. . . h e n c e , t o s u b j e c t t h e p e a s a n t s c o l l e c t i v e l y t o v a r i o u s i o p o s i - , 4 Y

t i o n s , it was bound t o d i s p u t e t h e t a x i n g p o w e r s p o s s e s s e d by

p r i v a t e l o r d s h i p s . And this would o f t e n l e a d the commune t o see

i n t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n of t h e p e a s a n t s a first s t e p t o v a r d s it% own

a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s e p o u e r s , Direct ways of d i s p o s s e s s i n g t h e

p r i v a t e l o r d s h i p s i n c l u d e d p u r c h a s i n g t h e i r r i g h t s or, waging

u a r a g a i n s t the^, B u t c o n t r o l over a l o r d c o u l d be a c h i e v e d i n

a more r o u n d a b o u t manner. By d r a w i n g h i m i n t o d e b t s , t h e t o w n s - sametimes f o r c e d h i m t o s e l l c c n c e s s i o n s t o . h i s d e p e n d a n t s - 1 2 1,

4

4-Taken t o g e t h e r , b o t h t h e d i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t effects o f u r b a n \

" p o l i c y were t o weaken t h e c o n n e c t i o n be tween p o l i t ' i c a l r i g h t s

a n d l a n d l o r d s h i p - 1 3 .

1 1 J o n e s , Xhe C a a b r i d u e -,,, page 403. a

<

12 S e e , f o r e x a m p l e s of s u c h ' o c c u r r e n c e s , J o n e s , p a g e 402. A g e n e r a l a n d b r i e f - d i s c u s s i o n of the communes is t o b e f o u n d in P. A n d e r s o n , P a s s a q E from A n t i s u i t v to eedalisa (London, l 9 7 4 ) , p a g e s 165-167, On p a g e 165, Ander son s t a t e s t h a t , i n I t a l y , t h e e v ? l n t i o n of feudalism ( a n d I would add a lso of a a n o r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ) was n a b b r e v i a t e d a n d i n f l e c t e d by t h e -z

s u r ~ i v a l of c lass ica l t r a d i t i o n s , T h e By z a n t % n e r e c o n q u e s t of m o s t of t h e p e n i n s u l a from t h e Loabards i n t h e 6 t h c e n t u r y had ,,. h e l p e d t o p r e s e r v e t h e s e ,,. B a r b a r i a n s e t t l e m e n t had anyway been r e l a t i v e l y t h i n . The r e s u l t was t h a t I t a l y n e v e r lost t h e m u n i c i p a l u r b a n l i f e which i t had p o s s e s s e d i n the Roman E m p i r e o n

13 J o n e s make a s t r o n g e r s t a t e m e n t , n a m e l y , t h a t the e f fec t "was

-5 4. ' 4

PAGE 107

f y u n d e r s t a & d i n g of t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e German l o r d s h i p is

b a s e d o n works by G. Von Below, Ch-E. erri in a n d F. L u t g e . l * I &- , .

h a v e a l so . g a t h e s e d s o n e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the C a m b r i d ~ Economic t

Historx a n d f r o a b . A n d e r s o n 8 s P a s s a e fir A n t i q u i t y &g g-; 1

d a l i s a The l a t t e r work i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l for its c o n c i s e --- Q s c r i p t i o n 'oE t h e f e u d a l ( i e , p o l i t i c a l ) r e l a t i o n s h i p s c h a r - .

a c t e r i s t i c of m e d i e v a l Geraany . 1 s 9

F i r s t of a l l , I would L i k e t o a c q u a i n t t h e r e a d e r u i t h ' s o m e

of t h e terms commonly u s e d t o d e s c r i b e G e r a a n phenomena - t e r n s

t h a t a r e b e s t . l e f t u n t r a n s l a t e d . l 6 A n a l y s e s of German a g r a r i a n

c o n d i t i o n s are c a s t i n terms of t h e G r u n d h e r r s c h a f t , t h e V i l l i -

&a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g a n d t h e G u t s h e r r s c h a f t , t h e l a t t e r term refer- L .

r i n g t o a form o f m a n o r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n that would become c h a r - '-*

C

t o s e p a r a t e a f t e r c e n t u r i e s l a n d l o r d s h i p a n d l o r d s h i p m , The Cambridqe. , . , B o l , I, p. 404, I h a v e d i l u t e d t h i s s t a t e m e n t on purpose b e c a u s e it s u g g e s t s , I t h i n k , t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n was f i n a l , I n f a c t , t h e r e would b e a few s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t s 3 t r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g f e u d a l l o r d s h i p s i n v e s t e d w i t h s e i g n e u r i a l r i g h t s , i n t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

14 Z e o r g e Von B e l o u , G e s c h i c h t e & d e u t s c h e n L a n d u i r t s c h a f t d e s g i t t e l a l t e r s ( S t u t t g a r t , 1966) ; Ch-E. P e r r i n , "Le g r a n d d o n a i n e e n A l l e a a g n e a u Hoyen Agen g e c e u i l s & S o c i e t e J e a n -Bodin, t. I B (HiHeren , 1 9 4 9 ) , pp. 115-47; Ch-E. P e r r i n , u L e s e r v a g e e n F r a n c e e t a n Alleolagnen X w e r n a t i o n a son- sr of His tor ica l S c i e n c e s , Vol. I ( F l o r e n c e , 19551, pp, 213-46; F r i e d r i c h L u t g e , m c h i c h t e D e u t s c h ~ A q r a r v e r - fassnqq ( S t n t t g a r t , 1967) ,

1 5 P, G a n s h ~ f and A * ~ e ~ h u l s ' E on FEance , t h e Low ~ ' o u n t r i e s and i f e s t e r n Germany i n " H e d i e v a l A g r a r i a n S o c i e t y i n its Pr imew, a Cambridqe Economic H i s t o y p , Val.. I, (Cambr idge , 1966) , pp. 290-339; P, Ander son , P a s s a w frr~ F e u d a l i ~ An t iq - _ u i t y , pp- 162-165,

16 I can o n l y t h i n k of o n e a d e q u a t e a s well a s l i t e r a l t rans la- t i o n f o r o n e of t h e s e terms, t h a t is, " l a n d e d l o r d s h i p g * fo r

J

Q8

a c t e r i s t i c of l a t e m e d i e v a l Germany eas t o f t h e E l b e ; (Append ix

I is a l o n g note o n t h e E a s t German G u t s h e r r s c h a f t ) , B r o a d l y ,

G r u n d b e r r s c h a f t is t h e g e n e r i c term f o r a l o r d s h i p whose S t a r t -

i n g - p o i n t , o r p r e - r e q u i s i t e , u a s l a n d , Such a l o r d s h i p d i d \

i m p l y c o n t r o l o v e r t h e men who o c c u p i e d t h e l a n d b u t t h i s con-

t r o l u a s somewhat i n d i r e c t , s i n c e it was m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h a buo-

d l e of r i g h t s o v e r l a n d , Where p e r s o n a l d o m i n a t i o n o v e r men was

i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e s e r i g h t s , a d i f f e r e n t k i n d of l o r d s h i p arose

and* is d e n ~ t e d a s ~ e i b h e r r s c h a f t . C o n c e p t u a l l y a n d h i s t o r i c a l l y

d i s t i n c t , t h e two k i n d s of l o r d ; h i p were i n f a c t o f t e n l i n k e d . 1 7

T h e -st 6er.a~ V i f l i k a t i o n s v e r f assung

A s p e c i f i c form of t h e ~ r u n d h e r r s c h a f t was the Villi k a t i o n -

s v e r f a s s u n g b a s e d o n demesne c u l t i v a t i o n a n d a v i d e r a n g e of

a c t i v i t i e s s u c h a s l i v e s t o c k r e a r i n g , h o r t i c u l t u r e a n d manufac-

t u r i n g , a l l of w h i c h mere d i r e c l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e l o r d ' s h o u s e ,

g a s t h e V i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s a n g s i m p l y t h e German v a r i a n t o f t h e

classical estate t h a t we associate w i t h t h e d e m e s n e - t e n u r e s

d i c h o t o m y , t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e of l a b o u r d u e s a n d t h e p redomi -

- n a h c e of m a n o r i a l c o u r t s ? The a n s w e r i s y e s i f we r e c o g n i z e

t h a t i t d i d n o t c o n f o r m a s closely t o t h i s ' a o d e l a s t h e F r e n c h

s e i g n e u r + e ( o r t h e E n g l i s h manor) i n t h e h e y d a y of l a b o u r d u e s .

( T y p i c a l l y f o u n d v e s t of the Elbe, t h e B i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g

m G r a n d h e r r s c h a f t n . - -

17 Because t h e ~ r u n d h e i r s c h a f t u a s was n o r m a l l y c o m b i n e d w i t h s e v e r a l a t h e r l o r d s h i p s - v h e t h e r o v e r j u s t i c e , o v e r t i t h e s , o v e r t h e mbodyn ( t h e "Le ibW) of p a r t i c u l a r d e p e n d a n t s , etc. - we t e n d to , a n d y e t s h o u l d n o t , o v e r l o o k its s p e c i f i c p r o p e r - 9)

t i e s ; see L u t g e fo r a statement of t h i s p o i n t i n G e s c h i c h t e ,., , p. 47 and p- 4 9 , r! C

was n e v e r t h e l e s s v e r y rare o r q u i t e a o d i f i e d , i n some r e g i o n s

l i k e F r i s i a , T h u r i n g i a and S a x o n i . ) 18

I n its o r g a n i z a t i o n ; t h e V i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g q u i t e of t e n

lacked c o h e s i o n . 1 9 I n s t e a d o f b e i n g l o c a t e d i n a s i n g l e v i l l a g e ,

its d e p e n d e n t t e n u r e s were s c a t t e r e d i n d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i c t s ;

t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n l a y i n t h e i r a n t u a l - s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o a c e n t r a l

c o u r t ( t h e P r o n h o f ) . S i m i l a r l y , t h e demesne l a n d s were o f t e n

d i s p e r s e d a m o n g s t d i f f e r e n t v i l l a g e s a n d , i n g e n e r a l , t h e y v e r e x

n o t v e r y e x t e n s i v e i n c o m p a r i s o n u i t w - t h e demesne l a n d s of t h e - Z

t e n t h o r e l e v e n t h (1 ) c e n t u r y F r e n c h s e d n e u r i e . a l s o , i n t h e

o b l i g a t i o n s owed by t e n a n t s , r e n t s u s u a l l y p r e v a i l e d o v e r l a b o u r .

d u e s , And, i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h t h e l a n d s of t h e V i l l i k a t i o n s v e r -

f a s s u n g v e r e l a n d s t h a t d e p e n d e d on other l o r d s a s v e l l a s

n u m e r o u s free a l l o d s , Ch-2. erri in n o t e s how this d i s p e r s i o n , ? - b

, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s u r v i v a l of a l a r g e n u a b e r of free men, ueak-

e n e d t h e p o r e r s of j u r i s d i c t i o n ( O F t+e immuni ty ) p o s s e s s e d by

t h e l o rds of V i I l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g e n ; . some of t h e d e t a c h e d t e n -

u r e s would i n e v i t a b l y s l i p o u t o f t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n by succumb-

i n g e i t h e r t o t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f a n e i g h b o u r i n g l o r d o r t o t h a t

of t h e r o y a l c o u n t . R o r e o v e r , f ree men c o n t i n u e d t o d e p e n d on -

t h e p u b l i c t r i b u n a l of this c o n n t , 2 @ - ? $

18 Sanshof a n d V e r h u l s t , a M e d i e v a l ,.. n, p. 306 .

19 P e r r i n , "Le g r a n d d o m a i n e ,. p. 122. Perrin d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n to the fact that t h e r e were some corapact estates b u t t h a t t h e y v e r e au"ch less p r e v a l e n t , Note t h a t , w h i l e r e v i s i n g a n d e x t e n d i n g Yon Below' s G e s c h i c h t e . . . P e r r i n re l ies o n i n f o r m a t i o n from this work. F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e B i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n i n Von Below, see pp, 45-59.

20 P e r r i n , m L e g r a n d d o a a i n e . . ,,", pp, 124-125,

A.

PAGE 110

S t a r t i n g i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y a n d o v e r another two- t o

' t h r e e - h u n d r e d years. t h e V i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g d i s i n t e g r a t e d : f

l a b u r d u e s were a b a n d o n e d a n d demesne l a n d s leased. l o s t pro-

nounced i n t h e n o r t h - w e s t e r n p a r t o f Germany, t h i s p r o c e s s o f

d i s s o l u t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y slower i n t h e -South-West where

demesne l a n d s were n o t a s r e a d i l y l e a s e d , w h e r e l a b o u r d u e s

( e v e n t h o u g h r e d u c e d ) s u r v i v e d l o n g e r a n d u h t r e d m a n o r i a l j u r i s -

d i c t i o n r e t a i n e d a more e x t e n s i v e r e a c h . 2 C o n j e c t u r e s a s t o J /- + = what c a u s e d t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e V i l l ' a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g t o u c h

upon a number of fac tors - b u t d o n o t o %r, i n my o p i n i o n , a n

1 i n t e g r a t e d e x p l a n a t i o n . 2 2 ~ o > f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e is t h e m e n t i o n

o f . the c o n s t a n t e n c r o a c h n e n t s c a r r i e d o n by es ta te o f f i c i a l s -

e e c r o a c h m e n t s t h a t r e s u l t e d i n t h e d i m i n u t i o n of t h e demesne a n d

. t h a t p r e s u m a b l y c a u s e d t h e l o r d s t c a b a n d o n d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o p

i n f a v o u r of fixed term leases, Both t h e l o r d s * a t t e a p t s a t

f i g h t i n g b a c k eas t German c o m p e t i t i o n f o r t h e i r t e n a n t s by

l i g h t e n i n g t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s a n d a n i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r money

f l o u i n g , i n p a r t , f r o t r t h e C r u s a d e s a re b e l i e v e d t o h a v e on-

/ t r i b u t e d t o t h e k o a a u t a t i o n o f l a b o u r dues, Also, h i g h l a . b o u r

c o s t s a r e s u ~ p o s e d t o h a v e d i s c o u r a g e d the l o r d s from r e p l a c i n g *

t h e coixmuted l a b o u r d u e s w i t h wage l a b o u r . 2 3

21 i b i d - , p. 137; i n n o r t h - w e s t e r n Geruiany u i a n o f i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n was b e c o n i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y l i m i t e d to j u r i s d i c t i o n ' o v e r aat- ters p e r t a i n i n g t o l a n d . -

21 The l a t t e r p a r t of t h i s s t a t e m e n t is n o t a g e n e r a l c r i t ic isa 3f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n German d e v e l o p m e n t s ; i t is d i r e c t e d o n l y t o u a r d s my l i m i t e d r e a d i n g s .

2 3 T h e s e a r e only. some of t h e more o b v i o u s f a c t o r s d i s c u s s e d by Oanshof a n d ~ e r h o l s t i n "L led ieva l .. .", pp. 308-319 and by

5. PAGE 111

On t h e l e a s i n g of estates and demesnes

I n soae r e g i o n s of W r t h - W e s t ~ e r m a n y , and for a w h i l e i n t h e f .. $

t u e l f t i h ' c e n t u r y , t h e l o r d c h o s e , t o lease h i s whole e s t a t e f o r a

f i x e d term -'sometimes i n r e t u r n f o r a s h a r e of t h e p r o d u c e o r

e l s e f o r a f i x e d rent ( i n s o n e x a n d i n k i n d ) - 2 4 A l t e r n a t i v e l y ,

i t was j u s t t h e demesne - e x c l u s i v e t h o u g h of t h e l a b o u r d u e s - t h a t was l e a s e d t o the v i l l i c u s , . Here a g a i n , t h e lease was for

a fixed t e r a (3, 6, 9, I2 y e a r s ) and was e i t h e r fo r s h a r e r e n t s

-or f o r f i x e d r e n t s , I t a p p e a r s t h a t e n r e l i e v i n g some of t h e i r

t e n a n t s f r oa t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of l a b o u r d u e s , l o r d s would occa- *

, s i o n a l l y s e i ze t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y 20 m p b e i n r o a d s i n t o t h e system -\

of c u s t o m a r y 'tenures. So, when " e n f r a n c h i s i n g t h e i r semi-f ree

t e n a n t s d n r i a g t h e t h i r % e e n t p a n d f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ; t h e i r

method was t o buy up t h e r e v e r s i o n of t g e i r h o l d i n g s , a n d t o l e t

t h e s o u t a g a i n , u s u a l l y a f t e r r e g r o u p i n g tbea i n t o l a r g e u n i t s , - -

ri

u n d e r t h e aame of L a t h u f e n , b u t t h i s time f o r a f i x e d te ra , n25

And, i n other cases, e v e n t h o u g h t h e c u s t o m a r y t e n a n t s r e m a i n e d

bon3ed to . t h e i r l o r d , r e t a i n i n g t h u s h e r e d i t a r y r i g h t s o v e r

t h e i r t e n u r e , t h e l o r d s e v e n t u a l l y managed t o i m p o s e on t h e n

leases for a fixed ters!26 Here t h e r e i n s t a n c e s of ,demesne l a n d s

Lutge i n G e s c h i c h t e .- ,, pp- 83-84.

24 I n G e s c h i c h t e ,,., o n p, 8 5 , L n t g e d e s c r i b e s t h i s a s h a v i n g - been a n i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p - Uhat was l i k e l y h a p p e n i n g is t h a t t h e lord u a s i n p o s i n g s u c h leases o n h i s es ta te o f f i c i a l s i n order toTb gores t a l l any farther u s u r p a t i o n s of h i s r i g h h , -

1-

25 Z a n s h o f a n d V e r h u l s t , " H e d i e v a l -. .", p. 324; P e r r i n , HLe g r a n d d o a a i n e -,. #, p. 136,

26 Perrin, "Le g r a n d doaaine . . . n , f o o t n o t e 1 on p. 136, # o r e on this development whose exact d a t i n g I d o n o t know r i g h t nou: # a l t h o u g h it mas h e r e d i t a r y , t h e land was h e l d b y a

p a s s i n g d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e h a n d s of t e n a n t s ? Yes, e s p e c i a U y @ s

o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n a o s t cases, it was common f o r t h e

l o r d s - t o r e t a i n a p o r t i o n of t h e demesne i n t h e i r h a n d s t o be

f a r m e d w i t h t h e h e l ~ o f wage l a b o u r a n d a f e u - r ema in ing l a b o u r .,

dues . - . -

On t h e modes of mnoLial dependence: real and personal dependence

f To p i c t u r e t h e v a r i e t y of f o r m s of d e p e n d e n c e t y p i c a l of t h e

c.

-2

west G e r r ~ a n manor. is c o m p l i c a t e d b e c a u s e , up u n t i l r e l a t i v e l y

l a t e , its s o c i a l gfroups Mere still r e f e r r e d t o i n terms of ca t - -

e g o r i e s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e C a g o l i d g i a n p e r i o d (the c a t e g o r i e s o f

l i b e r i , . s e r v i , lazzi; hornmines p ~ o p r i i and c e n s u a l e s ) . But, 'by F *

a r o u n d t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e s e v a r i o n s = g r o u p s h a d combined

i n a manner t h a t r e f l e c t e d t h e u n d e r l y i n g , t w o - s i d e d a s p e c k o f

dependence : a real a n d a p e r s o n a l a s p e c t . The l i b e r i , t h e s e r v i -3

anQ t h e l a z z i were, h e n c e f o r t f e r r e d t o - a s h o r i g e n a n d t h e

homt ines proprii and censnafei qe& as l e i k e i g e n e n , 2 7 To be a l

l o r d ' s h o r i g e i a p l i e d h o l d i n g a t e n u r e /on h i s e s t a t e ; t h i s was - '-----

n o t n e c e s s a r i l y Fe c a s e f o r t h e l e i b e i g e n e . T h e l e i h e i g e n s -

chaft p r o c e e d f r o m the f u s i o n of two c a t e g o r i e s whose depen- 4d d e n c e o n a comaon l o r d h a d been based i n i t i a l l y on r a t h e r u d i f -

f e r e n t p r e a i s e s , I n t h e t e n t h , i n t h e e l e v e n t h and o v e r p a r t of

w r i t t e n , p e r i o d i c a l l y r e n e w a b l e , c o n t r a c t f r o m t h e l a n d l o r d , who h e l d t h e l e g a l r i g h t to a p p r o v e . ' e v e r y t r a n s f e r effected t h r o u g h a m a r r i a g e c o n t r a c t , i n h e r i t a n c e s e t t l e i a e n t , o r sale, a n d c o d d d e n y a n y p r o v i s i o n s t h a t t h r e a t e n e d t o reduce h i s

I n L o t z K. B e r k n e r R I n h e r i t a n c e , l a n d t e n u r e a n d p e a s a n t f a m i l y s t r n c t n r e : a German r e g i o n a l compar i son ." , P a m i 2 gi I n h e r i t a n c e e d . by J a c k Goody, J o a n T h i r s k a n d - E . P . Thoapson ( C a a b r i d g e , 7 9 7 6 ) . p.77. - c

27 P e r r i n , " L e s e r v a g e ,..H, p. 230.

-

PAGE 113

* > t b

t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y t"he h o m a i n e s ~ r o p r i i ff ike;fp the d e s c e n d a n t s - = 1

of s l a v e s ) were d i r e c t l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e l o r d ' s - h o u s e and - - were - A - - - -

w e d m o s t l y a s a s o u r c e of l a b o u r power* f o r the c u l t i v a t i o n A of

d e n e s n e l a n d s ; t h e y owed t h e i r l o r d d a i l y l a b o u r s e r v i c e s and ,

a r e c e i v e d i n t u r n a d a i l y food a l l o u a n c e , a h o u s e a n d p e r h a p s a

t i n y p l o t of l a n d ; *he c e n s u a l e s i n c l u d e d free men a n d u o a e n uho -.

h a d g i v e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o a l o r d - o f t e n a n *

ecclesiast ical lord - o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t h e p r b v i d e s $ t h e m _ w i t h -. p r o t e c t i o n ; a l s o i n c l u d e d a a o n g t h e c e n s u a l e s were p r o b a b l y -some

h o a a i n e s p r o p r i i who h a d been s u r r e n d e r e d by t h e i r dominus , The

cost of * p t o t e c t % n n f o r the c e n s u a l e s was a h e a d - t a r , a sar- r -

C

riag;! t a x i n d a n i n h e r i t a n c e t a x , P e r r i n s u r m i s e s t h a t , a t t h e i.

outset , t h e p e r s o n a l dependence of th% hcmmines p r o p r i i s had

b e e n p e r c e i v e d d i f f e r e n t 4 1 from t h a t of t h e c e f i s u a l e s s i n c e , for i

a u h i l e a t l eas t , t h e l a t t e r d i d n o t owe any l a b o u r s e r v i c e s - 2 6

Bed-yet , by t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , -- - -- a g r a d u a l l e v e l l i n g - off - of -- -

t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s l e d t o t h e i r s e r g i n g i n t o one s i n g l e g r o u p o f

l e i b e i genen (a word that c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s , i n t r a n s l a t i o n , that

of h o a a i n e p r o p r i i ) . 2 9

The d i s t i n c t i o n betvein re;% a n d p e r s o n q l d e p e n d e n c e may

s t r i k e o n e a s a r t i f i c i a l a n d * & n c o n s e q u e n t i a l o n the f o f l o w i n g

grounds: f i rs t , i n d > c o a p o s i n j t h e o b l i g a t i o n s owed by t h e #

u t e n a n t - a e p e n d a n t s " - e - t h e l a z z i , s e r v i a n d l i b e r i who

28 P e r r i n , wLe. g r a n d aomaine' , , . R , 3- 131. I n . fact , a c c o r d i n g t o Perrin, < h e p a p e n t of a head t a x by a c e n s u a l e " h a d , f o r a u h i l e , e n t a i l e d i p s o f acto t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of a l l s e r v i c e s .

a 2 9 Perr in , " L e g r a n d doaai .-- p. 131- h 1

-a

a -5

f PAGE 114

would . s u b s e q u e n t 1 y Become: h o r i g e n - P e r r i n i n d i c a t e s p a y m e n t s i n 2' Q

k i n d , maney a n d lai#%ar dues t h a t were a l l assessed o n t h e t e n u r e

and t h a t -v . a r i ed i n a c c o r d a n c e v i t h t h e t y p e of manse o c c u p i e d . - i 1 , 9

But h e a l s o m e n t i o n s a s e c o n d t y p e of payment fa s e r v i t i u a ) t h a t

u a s a t t a c h e d t o t h e p e r s o n of t h e t e n a n . t a n d was a f u n c t i o n of

h i s soc i a l s t a t u s . 30 C l e a r l y , this s e r v i t i n a i n t r o d u c e d a p e r - ,

s o n a l d i m e n s i o n i n t o t h e r e a l c o n n e c t i o n whose b a s i s was l a n d

p o s s e s s i o n , S e c o n d l y , some of t h e p a y m e n t s b u r d e n i n g t h e h o r i -

I, gen were a n a l o g o u s to t h o s e b u r d e n i n g t h e l e i b e i g e n e n ; b o t h i , 'I g r o u p s were l i a b l e t o pay soae i n h e r i t a n c e a n d m r r i a g e , t a r e s . '.

/ .. -

However, t h e h o r i g e n p a i d a l a n d t a x a s o g p o s e d t o a head t a n

and, u n l i k e t h e l e i b e i g e n e n , t h e y were u s u a l l y r t i e d t o t h e l a n d ,

fhis meant t h a t they c o u l d be g i v e n away t y %-heir l o r d on- i n -

c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e i r t e n u r e s , i i h i l e t h e l e i b e i g e n e n c o u l d

mo~t &ore free1 y, t h e y r e a a i n e d , t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r lives, t h e i r

lo rAfs p e r s o n a l d e p e n d a n t s a n d t h e y ( t h a t - i s t o s a y , t h e i r p e r -

s o n ) c o u l d b e g i v e n away by t h e i r l o r d . 3 1 The t h i r d r e a s o n for

vhich: , f t h i n k , real a n d p e r s o n a l d e p e n d e n c e a r e e a s i l y b l u r r e d

is t h a t t h e s e two a s p e c t s of l o r d s h i p i n c r e a s i n g l y c o i n c i d e d a s " e

t h e l o r d s b e g a n a l l o c a t i n g t h e i r lands t o t h e i r l e i b e i g e n e n f o l -

l o r i n g the d i s s o l u t i o n of t h + Y i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g .

30 Perria, - L e g r a n d d o a a i n e ,..", p. 7 27

31 Von Below, G e s c h i c h t e ,,,, pp, 86-87, Bote t h a t P e r r i n who h i m s e l f d r a w s on t h i s p a r t of Von Bel-ou 's d i s c u s s i o n w a r n s u s t h a t sone m o d i f i c a t i o n s Bay b e r e q u i r e d -

An o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r p e r s o n a l dependence was more

(or less) c o n s t r a i n i n g t h a n r e a l dependence , O p i n i o n s o n t h i s

~ a t t e r d i f f e r . Acceding t o Von Be lou , t h e c o n d i t i o n s of L e i -

b e i g e n s c h a f t u a s n o t , i n i t s e l f , h a r s h e r t h a n t h a t o f H o r i g k e i t ;

t h e two c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r e d i n t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n s 3 2 and are n o t

t o b e r a n k e d i n terms of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f r e e d o ~ (or l a c k o f

i t ) . Yon Below p o i n t s a t a number of a c t i v i t i e s t h a t were open - t o , a n d were" u n d e r t a k e n by, l e i b e i g e n e n : t h e y c o u l d be farmers - u d t h e r on t h e i r own l o r d ' s o r other l o r d s * l a n d s ; t h e y c o u l d

hire t l i e m s e l v e s o p t a s a g r i c u l t o r , a l l a b o u r e r s o r work i n t h e

city; t h e y c o u l d f i l l v a r i o u s p u b l i c p o s i t i o n s i n t h e i r coamn-

n i t y . 3 3 (I would e x p e c t t h & t o have been t h e case m o s t l y a f t e r 9

t h e ,demesne l a n d s u e r e l e a s e d , ) L u t g e , on t h e o t h e r hand, sng-

g e s t s t h a t , d e p e n d e n c e b a s e d on l a n d ~ o s s e s s i o n s h o u l d b e

v iewed, c o n c e p t u a l l y , a s a less c o n s t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n t h a n p e r -

s a n a l dependence - a s b e a r i n g g r e a t e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s of f reedora,

A d e p e n d a n t by v i r t u e of t h e t e n u r e h e o c c u p i e d saw h i s o b l i g a -

t f o n s l a p s e i f severed from this t e n u r e . 3 4 The a b o v e remarks on

3 2 A l s o , h i s t o r i c a l l y , f oras o f p e r s o n a l dependence u e r e prob- a b l y a n t e c e d e n t t o forms o f r e a l dependence (an o b s e r v a t i o n made by L n t g e ) .

33 Yon Belou, ~ e s c h i c h t e .,,, p. 87.

3 4 L u t g e , Gesch icb te ,,,, p, 51, A t p r e s e n t I - h a v e a t l eas t one p rob lem wi th L o t g e t s d i s c u s s i o n . It s u g g e s t s t h a t , o n c e t h e L e i b e i g e n e n became t e n a n t s , t h e c a t e g o r y o f p e r s o n a l depen- d e n c e l o s t its s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t , a n a l 1 y t i c a l l y , h o r i g e n a n d l e i b e i g e n e n c o u l d , from t h e n o n u a r d s , B e treated a l i k e ( t h a t is, F a t t i n g a s i d e t h e l a t e m e d i e v a l f o m s of L e i b h e r r s c h a f t which I d i s c u s s l a t e r i n t h e t e x t ) , Y p q u e s t i o n is the f o l l o u i n g : a s o f when s h o u l d u e r e g a r d t h e t u o c a t e g o r i e s a s e q u i v a l e n t ? T h i s whole i s s u e is q u i t e saarkp, For e x a a p l e Ganshof a n d V e r h u l s t t a l k a b o u t a d e c l i n e

\

PAGE 116

p e r s o n a l d e p e n d e n c e (as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h r e a l dependence) d o n o t . -

a p p l y , in L u t g e s s a c c o u n t , t o a r e l a t i v e l y l a t e m e d i e v a l for^ of A-

- L e i b e i g e n s c h a f t t h a t e m e r g e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a t t e m p t s by ter-

r $ t o r i a l l o r d s ( L a n d e s h e r r e n ) t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r s o ; e r e i g n t p .

This p a r t i l ' c u l a r u s e of r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f p e r s o n a l d e p e n d e n c e w i l l d

be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r b e l o v s s -

The a c q u i s i t i o n of 'some freedoms i n the t w e l f t h a n d t h i r - teenth centuries; t h e spread of Yeistamer

The d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e V i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g c o n t r i b u t e d t o

t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of f r e e d o m s b y d e p e n d a n t s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t lei-

b e i j l e n e n a s v e l l a s h o r i g e n were r e l e a s e d from t h e p e r f o r m a n c e

o$ t h e h e a v i e s t l a b o u r s e r v i c e s , I n g e n e r a l , t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n

' o f t h e E a s t a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e a t t e n u a t i o n of t h e o b l i g a -

t i o n s o f d e p e n d a n t s v e s t of t h e E lbe . T h e s e c h a n g e s were n o t

f o r m a l i z e d , however , as m e a s u r e s o f e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t , 36 he Ueis-

~f s e r f d o m p r o p e r l y s o c a l l e d ( L e i b e i g e n s c h a f t ) o v e r t h e t w e l f t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ( p - 3 3 8 ) . B u t P e r r i n t e l l s u s t h a t the hornmines p r o p r i i a n d c e n s u a l e s merged a s l e i b e i g - enen r e l a t i v e l y l a t e - t h a t is, n o t b e f o r e t h e t h i r t e e n t h z e n t u r y ! I s u p p o s e t h a t k n s h o f a n d V e r h u l s t mean t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e u s e of p e r s o n a l d e p e n d a n t s as. a s o u r c e of l a b o u r - p o w e r t o c u l t i v a t e demesne l a n d s .

3 5 T h i s l a t e m e d i e v a l f o r m of L e i b e i g e n s c h a f t is n o t t o be con- fused w i t h o t h e r a t t e m p t s a t r e v i v i n g p e r s o n a l d e p e n d e n c e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h f o u r t e e n t h a h d f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s l a b o u r s h o r t a g e s when some l o r d s t r i e d t o p u t ' t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s t o work on d e s e r t e d t e n u r e s a n d demesne l a n d s ; f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e a t t e m p t s , see L n t g e , G e s c h i c h t g , p, 105,

j

'36 3 a n s h o f a n d V e r h u l s t , n B e d i e ~ a l ,, .", p, 338- ; Bote t h e i r r e a a r k s : - g r e a t e r f r e e d o m i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e l o r d s

d i d n o t h o v e v e r n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y a n . i r p r o v e m e n t i n t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e r n r a l p o p u l a t i o n ; it m i g h t b r i n g w i t h i t s e r i o u s d i s a d v a n t a g e s , T h u s i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h , a n d f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s t h e L a t e n o f Lower Sax- o n y , who h a d been f r e e d by t h e i r l o r d s fro^

i

PAGE ,117

t u n e r t h a t s p r e a d e v e r y u h e r e i n West Germanf, i n t h e c o u r s e of

t h e t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r i e s , were not c h a r t e r s of

e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t , They were ' s t a t e m e n t s o f r i g h t s ' "drawn up on b

t h e b a s i s of a n i n q u i s i t i o n a a o n g t h e i n h a k i k a n t s by l o r d s , usu-

a l l y e c c l e s i a s t i c s , R ~ ~ These s t a t e m e n t s uere s u p p o s e d t o r e c o r d U

c u s t o m 'for e t e r n i t y ' a n d i n so d o i n g t h e y t e n d e d ' t o l i m i t t h e

a r b i t r a r y p o w e r s o f t h e l o r d . s h e t h e r m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s s u c - .

c e e d e d i n i n t r o d u c i n g i n n o v a t i o n t h a t was f a v o u r a b l e t o them is

c o n t r o v e r s i a l . 3 8 Y h a t i s , n o r e c e r t a i n is t h a t t h o s e p r o t e c t e d by

a U e i s t u n d i d n o t thereby g a i n t h e r e p u t a t i o n of b e i n g free.39

Personal lordsh ip for neu purposes

A L e i b e i g e n s c h a f t of a s p e c i a l s o r t would e a a n a te, i n West

Germany, from c o n p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n l o r d s o v e r income, j u r i s d i c -

t i o n and, u l t i m a t e l y , t e r r i t o r i a l s o v e r e i g n t y , I t a p p e a r s t h a t , -

a t times, t h e s u r e s t way f o r a l o r d t o s e c u r e h i s claims o v e r

a l l l a b o u r s e r v i c e s a n d numerous o t h e r o b l i - g a t i o n s a n d h a d become l e a s e h o l d e r s i n s t e a d o f ' c u s t o m a r y t e n a n t s ' , were y e t i n a p o s i - t i o n f a r more u n s t a b l e a n d p r e c a r i o u s t h a n t h e L a t e n of U e s t p h a l i a , who r e m a i n e d ' c u s - t o m a r y t e n a n t s ' p e r s o n a l l y s u b j e c t t o t h e i r l o r d s , who were mak ing a s t r o n g e f f o r t d u r -

- ing. t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o b i n d . t h e n t o t h e s o i l .

37 S a n s h o f a n d V e r h u l s t , " I l e d i e v a l .,.. ", p. 338.

I! 38 Compare Ganshof a n d V e r h u l s t , n H e d i e v a l .,, , p. 338 w i t h G, F o n r q u i n , L o r d s h i e . , , , p. 3 2 The former are of t h e opin- - i o n that t h e U e i s t u m e r f l g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n n o i n n o v a t i - o n s , a t a n r r a te n o t b e f o r e t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y H (p. 3 3 8 ) . The l a t t e r s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y were o f t e n f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e p e a s - a n t r y wh ich c o u l d i n s i s t on some i n n o v a t i o n s (p. 182) .

39 Uhereas i n P r a n c e " t h e men who u e r e p r o t e c t e d by a c h a r t e r of f r a n c h i s e f rom t h e a r b i t r a r y e x a c t i o n s af t h e l o r d , were r e p u t e d freen, i n F o u r q u i n , L o r d s h i p ,.., p. 182.

5 PAGE 118

' some of h i s d e p e n d a n t s u a s t o d e c l a r e t h e m p e r s o n a l l y u n f r e e ,

T h e f o l ~ o v i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e k i n d o f s i t n a t i o n e l i c i t - . r

i n g t h i s r e s p o n s e . Hhen c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e i n t ~ n s i v e p o w e r s o f

a G e r i c h t s h e r r (a l o r d w i t h s p e c i a l p o w e r s o f j u r i s d i c t i o n ) , t h e

l o r d o f a ~ i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f ~ s s n n g i n d i s s o l u t i o n wasA o f t e n

t e m p t e d t o 'fix' h i s claims o v e r t h e p e r s o n o f h i s d e p e n d a n t s .

~ i m i l a r . l y , a ~ e r i c h t s h e r r u h o was ' s i m u l t a n e o u s l y L e i b h e r r c o u l d

e x e r c i s e h i s a u t h o ~ r i t y u i t h o u * f e a r i n g t o ke c h a l l e n g e d b y o t h e r

G e r i c h t s h e r r e n a n d , m o r e i m i p o r t a n t l y , b y t h e L a n d e s h e r r . Once

t h e l a t t e r had e s t a b l i s h e d h i s t e r r i t o r i a l h o l d o v e r a n area,

s u b o r d i n a t e G e r i c h t s h e r r e n r e t a i n e d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h i s

a r e a o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t k a t t h e y c o u l d a v a i l t h e m s e l v e s of p r e -

r o g 3 t i v e s t h a t d e r i v e d f r o . p e r s o n a l l o r d s h i p . And, i t was t o - -

p r e c l n d e s u c h p o s s i b l e i h t e r f e r e n c e s w i t h h i s s o v e r e i g n t y ( i . e . ,

t o e s t a b l i s h f u l l t e r r i t o r i a l s o v e r e i g n t y ) t h a t . a L a n d e s h e r r

w o u l d c h o o s e , o c c a s i o n a l l y , t o p r o n o u n c e a l l h i s s u b j e c t s t o b e

h i s l e i h i g e n e n . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f p e r s o n a l l o r d s h i p u a s

t h u s c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f s o v e r e i g n - p r i n c i p a l i -

t ies. f o r t h o s e s u b j e c t e d t o i t t h e e x p l i c i t c o s t was a t r i -

f l i n g p e r s o n a l t a x ; L u t g e i n s i s t s t h a t i t w a s n o t , a s s g c h , a C

degr a d i n y c o n d i t i o n , 4 0

THE DEVELOPHEST OF THE LOU COOITBIBS AS S E E I ADD IETEBPBETED BY - BRYCE LYOE

The f o l l o w i n g few p a g e s d o n o t p u r p o r t t o p r o v i d e h h e r e a d e r

w i t h a s y n t h e s i s o f v a r i o u s d a t a o n t h e Low C o u n t r i e s . They are

o f a much m o r e l i m i t e d s c o p e s i n c e t h e y o n l y r e c o r d t h e f i n d i n g s

40 L u t g e , G e s c h i c h t e ., ., pp. 105-6, .

L

of a s i n g l e s t u d y e n t i t l e d w E n c o r e le p r o b l e m e d e l a c h r o n o l o g i e

d e s c o r v e e s H . * l I n t h i s s t u d y , B r y c e Lyon q u e s t i o n s t h e v a l i d i t y

of w h a t h e refers t o a s t%e K o s a i n s k i - P o s t a n t h e p s , t h a t is,

the p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e s e i g n o r i a l economy b a s e d e e x t e n -

s i v e u s e of l a b o u r d u e s was r e v i t a l i z e d i n p a r t s o f t h i r t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y E n g l a n d a n d t h a t t h i s u'as a s s o c i a t e d *- -i ' XA,-

e c ~ n o n ~ ~ i ~ a c t i v i t i e s , . a n d g r o w i n g c o a m e r c i a l a n d

t u n i t i e s . 4 2 Now, I d o n o t h a v e t h e means

d e s c r i p t i o n s e x c e p t p e r h a p s by r e f e r r i n g t o

w i t h a s p u r t i n

i n d u s t r i a l o p p o r -

t o v e r i f y L y o a ' s

Ganshof a n d Ver-

h n l s t . * 3 U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e i r c h a p t e r is s p a r s e i n i n f o r n a t i o n

on t h e L o w - C o u n t r i e s . D e s p i t e t h i s l i m i t a t i o n , I c o n s i d e r a

d i s c u s s i o n of Lyon* s s t u d y i m p o r t a n t s i n c e it d e a l s with-the

g u e s t i o n of t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f l a b o u r d u e s i n E n g l a n d , on t h e

b a s i s of c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a .

L y o n ' s d o u b t s r e g a r d i n g the, K o s m i n k s i - P o s t a n t h e s i s stem f r o m

h i s e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a o n t h e r e g i o n s f o r ~ i n g t h e

med ieva j . Lou C o u n t r i e s - .a h i g h l y v a r i e g a t e d e n s e m b l e t h a t con-

4 1 a r y c e Lyon, " E n c o r e l e p r o b l e m e d e l a c h r o n o l o g i e d e s cor- v e e s w S t u d i e s of P e s t E u r o p e a n Hed ievaJ I n s t i t u t i o n s (London l978), pp. 615-630.

42 T o i l l u s t r a t e t h e k i n d of s t a t e a e n t t h a t Lfon t a k e s t o t a k k I w o u l d q u o t e P o s t a n : -The r i se of t h e money e c o n o a y h a s n o t 3 l u a y s b e e n t h e g rea t e m a e c i p a t o r y f o r c e which t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y h i s t o r i a n s b e l i e v e d i t t o h a v e been , I n t h e a b s e n c e of a large r e s e r v o i r of free l a n d l e s s l a b o u r , a n d w i t h o u t t h e l e g a l a n d p o l i t i c a l s a f e g u a r d s of the l i b e r a l s ta te , t h e s x p a n s i o n of m a r k e t s and t h e g r o w t h of p r o d u c t i o n is a s l i k e l y t o l e a d t o t h e i n c r e a s e of l a b o u r s e r v i c e s a s t o t h e i r d e c l i n e s n from nThe C h r o n o l o g y o f Labour S e r v i c e s u i n E s s a y s gg M e d i e v a l A q r i c u l t u r g w , I•÷.!!. P o s t a n , p, 106.

4 3 Zaoshof a n d V e r h u l s t , U B e d i e v a l A g r i c u l t u r e . . , F r a n c e , t h e Lou C o u n t r i e s a n d Germany,"

d

s t i t u t e d , i n h i s words , "a m i c r o c ~ s m of m e d i e v a l E u r o p e a n

e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y n * * ; this e n s e m b l e encompassed a r a n g e o f econ-

omies a t v e r y d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of deve lopmen t . F l a n d e r s r a n k e d

a a o n g s t t h e n o s t d e v e l o p e d of E u r o p e a n e c o n o m i e s , y e t Luxembourg d

.fell c o n s p i c u o n s l y b e h i n d , 4s

From h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s , Lyon c o n c l u d e s t h a t , f o r t h e Lou Coun-

t r ies , t h e d a t a f a i l t o show a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

g r o w t h of m a r k e t s and t h e r e v i v a l of l a b o u r d u e s , 30 q u a l i f i c a -

t i o n s are a t t a c h e d t o t h i s c o n c ' l u s i o n : t h e abandonmen t o f t h e

s y s t e a of c u l t i v a t i o n b a s e d on l a b o u r d u e s u n f o l d e d , he s u g -

g e s t s , e z e n i n t h e ~ o s t m a r k e t - o r i e n t e d r e g i o n s of t h e Lou Conn-

t r i e s , If t h i s was t h e case ( a s L ~ o n s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e s i t was),

t h e n s h o u l d we n o t s u b j e c t t h e K o s a i n s k i - P o s t a n t h e s i s to closer v

s c r u t i n y ? Might i t b e t h a t t h e i r d a t a o n E n g l a n d are f l a w e d ?

H e r e i n l ies L y o n a s p o i n t and a d v i c e : ue o u g h t t o b e aore c a u - L i

t i o u s i n oqr a c c e p t a n c e of p o s t a n t s c h r o n o l o g y o f l a b o u r d u e s - ,. - t

a t l e a s t , u n t i l s u c h time t h a t i t is s u p ~ o r t e d b y more e x h a n s - ,

t i v e r e & a r c h ,

A closer l o o k a t soae of L y o n g s arguaents

3y i m m e d i a t e r e a c t i o n t o L y o n a s g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t is t h a t i t

a d d r e s s e s i t s e l f s o l e l y t o t h e e a r l y P o s t a n ; i t r e p r e s e n t s Pos-

tan's t h o u g h t s 9n *the E n g l i s h c h r o n o l o g y of laoour d u e s a s a.

t h o u g h t h e y had n e v e r b e e n m'odi f ied . Also, I am u n e a s y a b o u t

h i s lack of c l a r i t y a s r e g a r d s t h e two d i s t i n c t i s s u e s of l a b o u r

4 4 Lyon, " E n c o r e l e p r o b l e a e ,, , n, p- 618,

4 5 Lyon, A E n c o r e , l e p r o b l e n e ,, .", p, 618 ,

d u e s a n d - & v i l i t y . A s I v iew i t . t h e r e a d e r is. l e d t.o i n f e r

t h a t t h e p e r f o r m a n c f of l a b o u r d u e s was t a n t a m o u n t t o s e r v i l i t y

a n d rice ve r sa . . .There is n o d e f i n i t i o n of s e c v i l i t y ; t h e r e a re

n o a t t e m p t s a t ~ U c u a s c r i b i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y s e r v i l e ob l iga t ions , . . - n

Yhat d o e s Lyon e x a c t l y mean when s t a t i n g t h a t s e r v i l i t y n e v e r I.

e x i s t e d i n maritime F l a n d e r s ? * & Yhat ( i f a n y ) u e r e t h e aodes o f

d e p e n d e n c e c h a r - a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s a r e a ? Uhat k i n d of f r e e d o m ( s ) c .

p r e v a i l e d ? On t h e s e a n d s i m i l a r q u e s t i o n s , Lyon r e m a i n s s i l e n t

i n t h i s s t u d y * ? a n d Ganshof and V e r h u l s t are h a r d l y more

e x p l i c i t ,

A S fo r o n e of L y o n l s more s p e c i f i c a rgumen t s : i t a p p e a r s t h a t

t h e a b b e y o f S a i n t - B a v o n of Gand p o s s e s s e d e x t e n s i v e demesne

l a n d s s i t u a t e d i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f F l a n d e r s . Some of t h e s e i t \ l a n d s had been l e a s e d i n t h e t w e l f t h a n d e a r l y t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u -

0 - ries a n d where t h i s happened l a b o u r d u e s a n d o t h e r s e r v i l e ob@-

i - - g a t i o n s d i s a p p e a r e d . O t h e r s r e m a i n e d u n d e r d i r e c t demesne c u l -

t i v a t i o n well i n t o t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y - t h e r e a s o n b e i n g ,

a c c ~ r d i n g t o Lyon, t h a t t h e i r b o u n t i f u 1 crop y i e l d e d s u b s t a n t i a l

b e n e f i t s when s o l d i n Gand. On t h e s e d e a e s n e l a n d s , l a b o u r d u e s

u e r e n o t i n c r e a s e d ; i n f a c t , t h e y were p r o g r e s s i v e l y commuted

o v e r t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b e i n g r e p l a c e d w i t h wage l a b o u r . e B

And Lyon sees i n t h i s a f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n of t h e weakness of

46 Lyon, - E n c o r e l e p r o b l e a e . .. n, p. 618,

47 I n a d i f f e r e n t a r t i c l e , R n e d i e v a l Real E s t a t e D e v e l o p m e n t s a n d f r e e d o m n , S t u d i e s of West European ,., , pp. 48-61 Lyon d i s t i n g a i s h e s b e t w e e n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of l a b o u r d u e s a n d ser- v i l i t y w i t h o u t e l a b o r a t i n g o n t h i s ,

- 48 Lyon, m E n c o r e l e ., , H, pp, 622-23.

t h e K o s a i n s k i - P o s t a n t h e s i s , Yet s h o u l d w e n o t d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n two p o s s i b l e cases, namely: a) t h e case i n which l a b o u r

d u e s were i n c r e a s e d L a n d b) t h e case i n w h i c h t h e y were r e d u c e d D

b a t more s l o w l y t h a n e l s e w h e r e ? I n o t h e r words, would e v i d e n c e .

p o i n t i n g to t h e e x p a n s i o n - of m a r k e t s a n d t h e g r o w t h of produc-

t i o n c o u p l e d w i t h a slower d e c l i n e o f l a b o u r d u e s weaken o r , on

t h e c o n t r a r y , g i v e a m m u n i t i o n t o t h e P o s t a n t y p e o f a r g u m e n t ?

A f t a r a l l , one c o n l d a r g u e t h a t , i f i t were not - for r e a l estate ., . - d e v e l o p m e n t s and t h e i r p o s i t i v e effects on t h e a - c q u i s i t i o n of

f r e e d o m (a most i m p o r t a n t c o n n e c t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o LyonJ , a 9 i n

p a r t s of t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F l a n d e r s , l o r d s would h a v e

3 t r i e d , p e r h a p s s u c c e s s f u l l y , t o i n c r e a s e l a b o u r d u e s b u t t h a t ,

u n d e r . t h e g i v e n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a l l t h a t t h e y c o u l d d o was t o

s l o w down t h e p r o c e s s of commuta t ion . I f i n d i t d i s c o n c e r t i n g

t h a t , h a v i n g g i v e n us t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e demesne l a n d s of

t h e abbey of S a i n t - B a v o n (on p, 622) . Lyon n e v e r t h e l e s s con -

c l u 3 e s (on p. ' 627) t h a t , e v e n i n F l a n d e r s (where, a s h e s p e c i -

f iea, t h e e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s a p p e a r e d f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e Kosein-

4 9 F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e r e a l e s t a t e d e v e l o p m e n t s see L y o n g s n H e d i e v a l Beal Es ta te Deve lopmen t s : i n S t u d i e s gg Uest W o - p e a n , . , , p. 6 1 o nore on t h e s e l a n d r e c l a a a t i o n p r o j e c t s : "It t h u s seems r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t a g r a r i a n f r e e d o m b e g a n f i rs t i n t h e s e real e s t a t e d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d t h e n fer- men ted t h e c o m m u t a t i o n of l a b o u r s e r v i c e s on s e i g n i o r i a l Land, F u r t h e r m o r e i t is safe t o say t h a t t h e c o n s t a n t p r e s - s u r e of t h e s e free areas g u a r a n t e e d no l e t u p i n t h e c o a a u t a - t i o n n o r a n y r e t r o g r e s s i o n t o s e i g n i o r i a l i s m m (p. 58) A s a n e x a m p l e o f how i a p o r t a n t these r ea l e s t a t e d e v e l o p m e n t s u e r e , Lyon cites t h e e x a m p l e of maritime F 1 n d e r s - a p r i v i l e g e d ,

& f r e e area which c o n s i s t e d m o s t l y of 1 3 nd won from water a n d w a s t e a n d which *wore down t h e s e i g n i o r i a l system d o ~ i n a n t i n t h e i n t e r i o r of F l a n d e r s , S o r e l e n t l e s s was the c o m p e t i t i o n of free land t h a t i t forced early a n d r a p i d c o m m u t a t i o n of l a b o r s e r v i c e s n (p- 5 7 ) .

c,

s k i - P o s t a n t h e s i s ) , n o e v i d e n c e w h a t s o e v e r s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

e m a n c i p a t i o n frof t h e s y s t e m of c o r v e e s was d e l a y e d , t h v a r t e d o r

r e v e r s e d ' b e c a u s e t h e l o r d s -w i shed t o t a k e a d & n t a g e of t h r i v i n g -- . . --z-z

m a r k e t o p p o r t u n i t i e s , Lyon ' s d i s c u s s i o n is, i n t h i s s e n s e , con- 0

f u s i n g - " Bu t I s h o u l d p o i n t o u t t h a t the a c c o u n t o f Ganshof a n d

V e r h u l s t does n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h e g i s t of h i s a r g u m e n t which is 0 -

t h e o n g o i n g n a t u r e of t h e p r o c e s s of c o m m u t a t i o n of l a b o u r d u e s ,

of t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of f r e e d o m b y n a n o r i a l d e p e p d e n t s a n d of t h e

l e a s i n g of t h e d e m e s n e ' l a n d s for a f i x e d term o v e r t h e t w e l f t h

a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . so

To be drawn f r o m t h e a b o v e d e s c r i p t i o n s a re a number of

o b s e r v a t i o n s ~ t h a t complemen t t h e English a n d F r e n c h d a t a d i s -

c u s s e d e a r l i e r . The c o n t i n e n t a l d a t a u n d e r r e v i e w i n d i c a t e a

w e a k e n i n g of d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n , t h e u s e o f wage l a b o u r

on deslesne lands r e m a i n i n g u n d e r d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n (beyond t h e

t w e l f t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ) , t h e e m e r g e n c e of s h o r t term

leases on demesne l a n d s and soae i n r o a d s i n t o t h e s y s t e m o f . c n s -

t o a a r y t e n u r e (see t h e G e r a a n e v i d e n c e ) . Also e n c o u n t e r e d is

t h e d i c h o t o a o a s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n d e p e n d e n c e t h r o u g h t e n u r e

a n d p e r s o n a l d e p e n d e n c e , w i t h i n s t a n c e s p o i n t i n g bot'h t o t h e

o v e r r i d i n g i m p o r t a n c e of t e n u r e a s well a s to a t t e m p t s . b y aano-

r ia l l o r d s a t i n t e g r a t i n g t h e two forms o f d e p e n d e n c e i n t h e

hope (I would think) of e n t w i n i n g t h e i r t e n a n t s i n a t i g h t e r

n e t v o a k of o b l i g a t i o n s , F i n a l l y , i n t h e p e r i o d u n d e r c o n s i d e r a - t-

-. -

50 Ganshof a n d V e r h u l s t , ~ ~ e d i e v a i A g r a r i a n ,, .* pp. 322-327 a n d pp* 337-3-8, .

t i o n , transfers of non-rental income from manorial lorits to

larger soarces of territorial power appear to have been in t h e

making.

o_r @OJ THESE HTPOTHESZS STAND LIGHT ~ - C O I S P A I U T I V E DATA

T o e x t r a c t , o r g a n i z e a n d se t d a t a a g a i n s t t e s t a b l e h y p o t h e s e s

is t h e t a s k u n d e r t a k e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r , a l t h o u g h i t s h , o u l d b-e

s t r e s s e d t h a t b o t h neu a n d o l d data" . . r e m a i n c o n t r o v e r s i a l ; f o r

t h e t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , many of t h e

a r g u m e n t s are f o r m u l a l e d i n a manner t h a t would r e q u i r e , f o r

a d e q u a t e t ' e s t i n g , much more r e l i a b l e * d a t a t h a n a r e a v a i l a b l e .

THE BOBZH ABD THOBAS ARGUMBETS

6 - I n r e - e x a m i n i n g t h e H o r t h and Thomas f r amework of a n a l y s i s , I

w i l l f irst i n d i c a t e some p r o b l e m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t s

p e r t a i n i n g E n g l a n d s u b s e q u e n t t o w h i c h I w i l l reflect upon

t h e s e a r g u m e n t s i n l i g h t of o t h e r European d e v e l o p m e n t s ,

3n the arguments about tent>- and eleventh-century E n g l a n d 01

Y h a t i f Nor th a n d Thomas e r r e d i n s u p p o s i n g t h a t t e n t h a n d

e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y E n g l a n d was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v e r y ' l o w l e v e l

of ~ a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s ? T h e i r a r g u m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e h i g h negot i - .,

a t i o n c o s t s of p a y m e n t s i n k i n d ( and , hence, t h e r e l a t i v e c h e a p -

ness of l a b o a r d u e s a r r a n g e m e n t s ) would u n d o u b t e d l y s u f f e r ,

Bow, e v i d e n c e b r o u g h t f o r w a r d b y P o s t a n d o e s s u g g e s t , as N o r t h

a c k n o w l e d g e s , t h a t t h e r e was more t r a d e i n m e d i e v a l E n g l a n d t h a n

t h e l o r t h a n d ~ h o a a s * n o d e l i m p l i e s , 1 But t h e n t h e q u e s t i o n

arises a s t o v h a t p r e c i s e l e v e l of m a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s would

r e v e r s e c o n c l u s i v e l y t h e l o r t h a n d Thomas s p e c u l a t i v e r a n k i n g of

a l t e r n a t i v e modes of p a y n e n t s ( a r a n k i n g i n terms of t h e p r i a c i - - ,:

p l e of m i n i m i z a t i o n of t r a n s a c t i d c o s t s ) , Inasmuch a s t h e e v i -

- d e n c e c i ted d o e s n o t . r e a l l y a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n , t h e Elorth a n d

Thomas a r g u a e n t c a n n o t a l t o g e t h e r b e d i s m i s s e d . On t h e o t h e r

hand , t h i s c o u l d p r e c i s e l y p o i n t t o p r o b l e m s ui$h t h e manner i n

which t h e a r g u m e n t was c o n s t r u c t e d . It c o u l d b e criticized on - t h e g r o u n d s t h a t , e v e n t h o u g h it is c o u c h e d i n teras of seem-

i n g l y v e a l d e f i n e d v a r i a b l e s ( e n f o r c e m e n t costs, etc, ) , o v e r a

w h o l e r a n g e of m a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s , it d o e s n o t l e n d i tself t o

t e s t i n g , A s i t s t a n d s , i t is o n l y i n t h e case o f a n u n q u e s t i o n -

a b l y l a rge amount of m a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s t h a t i t c o u l d , c o n c e i v - ==

a b l y , b e f a l s i f i e d - -

On the a r k m e n t s about twelfth-century England

~ o g i c a l l y , t h e l o r t h and Thomas a r g u m e n t s e x p l a i n t h e p r o c e s s s -

of c o a n a t a t i o n of l a b o u r dues i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y o n l y i f *

Bore and better f u n c t i o n i n g m a r k e t s d i d i n d e e d e x i s t , B u t , h e r e - 5 .-%

aga in , ~ o & a n * s d i s c u s s i o n throws d o u b t s o n t h e s e a rguments . . A s

w a s i n d i c a t e @ - i n a n ea r l i e r c h a p t e r , a c c o r d i n g t o P o s t a n ,

t u e l f t h - c e n t u r y m a r k e t s were n e i t h e r e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e n o r par-

t i c u l a r l y reliable. O f course, we c o u l d n o t set a s i d e t h e B o r t h

a n d Thomas a r g u m e n t s s i m p l y on thje basis o f P o s t a n ' s a c c o u n t

since this a c c o u n t i t s e l f is ndt beyond d i s p u t e (see flil ier 's

criticism of it).=

1 D. Y o r t h , S t r u c t u r e 1 9 8 1 ) , p, 130.

a n d Chanqe i n Econo* Historp ( N e w P o r k , -

B o r e p r o b l e m a t i c is t i o r t h a n d Thamas* f a i l u r e t o e x p l a i n v h ~ - ~

following t h e c o m ~ u t a t i o n of l a b o u r dues , t h e l o r d s - d i d n o t con-

t i n u e t o c u l t i v a t e t h e i r d e a e s n e l a n d s d i r e c t l y by u s i n g wage *

l a b o u r , Let B e r e t r a c e some of B o r t h - a n d Thomast t h o u g h t s on - =%*

3 7

' t h e r e l a t i v e attractiveness of fixed money payments i n t h e I ,r e

t w e l f t h century: amongs t other t h i n g s , Nor th a n d ?Thomas s u g g e s t ' - d

t h a t t h e v a l u e o f l a b o u r d u e s was d e c l i n i n g o v e r t h e t w e l f t h , .

' c e n t u r y - i,e,, t h e y asskme d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s -to have been i n -" ( \.

f o r c e , g h a t e v i d e n c e d o t h e y h a v e t o s y b s d a n t i a t e t h e notion o f p-

a t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d s u b j e c t t o d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s ? No - evidence i s s u b ~ i t t e d , I n a case, assnaing d i r i n i s h i n g '

*- . r e t u r n s and i n t h e a b s e n c e of i s f l a t i o n , t h e R o r t h and Thomas.

3

model of wage d e t e r m i n a t i o n would have u s e x p e c t d e c l i n i n g real

v a g s s ; under' t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , why p a waqe l a b o u r ?

3 n t h e arguments a b o u t t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y England

T h e e x i s t e n c e of d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s is much more k v i d e n t f o r +?

t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y - hence, t h e whole d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e

r i s i n g v a l u e o f d e a e s n e l a n d s . Bat t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e i ~ p l i c a -

t i o n s of t h e r i s i n g v a l u e of demesne l a n d s - a n a n a l y s i s under- -

t a k e n b y B o r t h and Thomas - r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n o f the r i s i n g

v a l n e qf the c u s t o a a r y h o l d i n q ~ . *And, i n this res ect , ' t h e 1 9

B o r t h and Thomas model is ' i n c o s ~ l e t e . 3 1t { h e s n o t teU u s .

- really how, or v h e t h e r , t h e l o r d s tried t o capture t h e i n c r e a s e

-. in t h i s va lue . Is the a s s u n p t i o n that t h e l o r d s were r e s i g n e d

2 See c h a p t e r 11, pp- 24-25,

3 S e e C. B e e d l s u n p u b l i s h e d paper, p. 1 4 , see a l s o my p r e v i o u s conaeqts on p: 53 o f thesis.

t o s e e i n g t h i s i n c r e a s e e l u d e them b e c a u s e of the e x i s t e n c e of

c u s t o a a r y c o n s t r a i n t s ? The s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h e k i n d s o f r i g h t s

t h a t t h e l o r d s c l a i m e d ( o r , f o r t h a t matter, f a i l e d t o c l a i m )

o v e r c u s t o a a r y h o l d i n g s would b e h e l p f u l i f o n e is t o e x p l o r e

" t h i s q u e s t i o n f u r t h e r ,

T h a t s h o r t - t e ~ leases on demesne l a n d s were w i d e s p r e a d o b v i -

ously u e a k e n s t h e H o r t h a n d Thomas a r g u m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e t h i r -

t e e p t h - c e n t u r y r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v * a t i o n a s i t

veakens a l % a r g u m e n t s r e s t i n g on t h e a s s u m p t i o n of c u s t o m a r y '

c o n s t r a i n t s on d e ~ e s n e l e a s i n g (see,' f o r i n s t a n c e , Reed a n d

B n d e r s o n * ~ p a p e r f ,

A s f o r t h e North-Thomas ' e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e r e v e r s i o n t o

l a b o u r dues : t h e e v i d e n c e o n which i t is b a s e d a p p e a r s t o ' b e

u n c e r t a i n , The e x p l a n a t i o n i+ i ,n terms o f t h e s e v e r i t y o f

i n f l a t i o n a n d i ts effects on a o n e y uages . The l o r d is s u p p o s e d

t o h a v e d e c i d e d i n f a v o u r of l a b o u r d u e s b y c o m p a r i n g f i x e d com-

m u t a t i o n p a y m e n t s w i t h t h e v a l u e of l a b o u r d u e s a s e x p r e s s e d by

t h 9 , c a r r e n t a o n e y wage ra te , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g s u b j e c t e d to t h e

two o p p o s i t e p u l l s o f i n f l a t i o n a n d d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s , Nor th

a n d Thomas s u r m i s e t h a t t h e i n f l a t i o n a r y p u l l p r e d o a i n a t e d , . -

T h e i r s p e c i f i c a r g u m e n t is t h a t t h e v a l u e of l a b o u r dues a s

measured by c u r r e n t wages ros? relative t o t h e fixed c o m a u t a t i o n '. '/ p a y n e n t s - a n a r g u m e n t t h a t is common b o t h t o Harvey and t o

P e n o a l t e a ( e x c e p t that t h e l a t t e r a l l o w s e x p l i c i t l y for t h e pos-

s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e 10-rd c l a i m e d t h e l a b o u r dues i n o r d e r t o re- - sell them a g a b +a y g h e r price). B u t t h e r e are d i v e r g e n t

k - L

v i e w s a s t o what '-happened t o money wages i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

A \

Eng land . And, b e s i d e s t h e f ac t t h a t w h a t happened t o money A wages is n o t o b v i o u s , c o m p a r i n g c o a m u t a t i o n payments w i t h labour

d u e s v a l u e d pg c u r r e n t waqes p o s e s d e f i n i t e p r o b l e m s - some of - -- which I w o u l d l i k e t o i n d i c a t e b e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g v a r i o u s s o u r c e s

on rsoveetents i n money wages. f o r t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

i L a b o u r d u e s a r e g e n e r a l l y h e l d t o h a v e been less p r o d u c t i v e

t h a n wage l a b o u r (or, t o h a v e b e e n more c o s t l y t o s u p e r v i s e ) - To u s e c u r r e n t wages a s a p r o x y for t h e v a l u e ' of l a b o u r d u e s

would o v e r s t a t e t h i s v a l u e , u n l e s s a d j u s t m e n t s f o r t h e d i f f e r - * .-I

encss i n p r o d u c t i v i t y l e v e l s were made, A b i a s i n t h e o t h e r

d i r e c t i o n stems f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t money wages d i d n o t a l w a y s

c o n s t i t u t e t h e w h o l e o f t h e p a y m 8 n t s made t o a l a b o u r e r , I n

fazt, Hiller and H a t c h e r r e m a r k t h a t , *money wages were n o t

uncommonly a m i n o r e l e m e n t i n t h e r e w a r d s of t h e f a m o l i . " * I n

s o a s c a s e s thep, w e would be u n d e r s t a t i n g t h e v a l u e of l a b o u r *

s e r v i c e s by r e l y i n g s o l e l y on d a t a o n money Pages , Note t h a t

p a y m e n t s i n k i n d were n o t immune to * d e v a l u a t i o n * s i n c e t h e * -

l o r 3 s c o u l d , a n d d i d , s u b s t i t u t e cheaper f o r d e a r e r g o o d s a s

well a s r e d u c e t h e s i z e o f t h e paymen t s i n times of i n f 1 a t k o n . s

F i n a l l y , t h e cos t o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s ( f o o d s h e a v e s , e t c , ) t o / 'k

which t e n a n t s p e r f o r p i n g l a b o u r s e r v i c e s were c u s t o m a r i l y e n t i -

t l e d is a n o t h e r c o m p o n e n t t h t would h a v e t o be c o n s i d e r e d . 6

4 Hi l ler a n d H a t c h e r , R e d i e v a l Enqland: R u r a l S o c i e t l p g EE- nomic Chanqe 1 0 8 6 - 1 3 4 k { ~ o n d o n , 1978) , p. 51. --

6 G, Lfuby, R u r a l Econoap and C o u n t r y l i f e &g n e d i e v d Vest ( C o l u a b i a , S - C . , 1 9 6 8 ) , p, 268,

( F o r a n e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s p o i n t , refer t o Append ix 11) 9

If c u r t a i l i n g t h e s e p r o v i s i o n s p r o v e d t o he more t r o u b l e s o m e -

(more c o s t l y ) t o t h e l o r d t h a n r e d u c i n g t h e s ize o f t h e p a y m e n t s

mads t o c a s u a l l a b o u r e r s s a n d d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s we would e x p e c t .

t h e l o r d , i n a p e r i o d of r i s i n g p r i c e s , t o view l a b o u r d u e s much I

less f a v o u r a b l y ( u n l e s s h e c o u l d demand a n d o b t a i n more l a b o u r

d u e s f r o m h i s c u s t o m a r y t e n a n t s i n which case o n e would wonder .

though why h e c o u l d n o t i n s t e a d p r o v i d e them w i t h less p r o v i -

sions). I n sum, t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e b i a s i m p a g t e d t o t h e d a t a ,-

b e c a u s e of s u c h o m i s s i o n s i s n o t q p r i o r 1 d e t e r m i n a b l e .

R e t u r n i n g , Yo t h e ' q u e s t i o n of what happened t o money uages:

t h e d a t a , on u h i c h N o r t h a n d Thomas base t h e i r a r g u m e n t , a r e

summar ized i b t h e i r R i s e o_f the M e s t e r n W r l d a n d are drawn f r o m

J . E . T h o r o l d R o g e r s 1 and L o r d B e v e r i d g e l s u o r k s . 7 F o r t h e . t h i r -

t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e trends a p p e a r t o h a v e been t h e f o l l o w i n g :

r i s i n g w h e a t p r i c e s , r i s i n g Boney wages a n d f a l l i n g r ea l uages ,

A n o t e t h a t w i l l p r o v e t o be of some s i g n i f i c a n c e : t h e work -by

L o t d B e v e r i d g e t h a t is r e f e r r e d t o i n N o r t h a n d Thomas is a

s t u i i o n ~ e s t m i n s t e r w a q ~ , To what e x t e n t d o o t h e r s o u r c e s

c o n f i r m t h e s e t r e n d s ? E v i d e n c e t h a t money u a g e s r e m a i n e d s t a b l e

over t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y would t e n d t o u n d e r m i n e t h e N o r t h

a n d Thomas e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s . What

a b o u t d i s a g r e e a e n t o v e r what h a p p e n e d t o r e a l u a g e s ? Some h a v e

suggested t h a t r ea l wages rose over t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , p a r -

,.-

7 D. S o r t h a n d R1 Thomas, The R i s e of the & s t e r n Y o r l d (Cam- b r i d g e ; 1973) , p. 14,

/-

PAGE 131

titularly a f t e r 1250!8 ~vidence of r i s i n g r e a l wages u o u l d p o s e /

less of a t h r e a t t o t h e l o g i c of t h e N o r t h Znd Thomas a rgumen t .

a b o u t t h e r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s t h a n t h a t of s t a b l e money

wages u o u l d , O f c o u r s e , r i s i n g rea l wages m i g h t b e s e e n a s

i n c o m p a t i b l e v i t h t h e e x i s t e n c e of , d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s ; on t h e

o t h e r hand , t h e y m i g h t be s e e n as h i n t i n g a t t e c h n o l o g i c a l

c h a n g e s - i n w h i c h c a s e t h e q u e s t i o n would be: whgnce t h e s e

c h a n g e s ? 9

U h e r e a s P o s t a n a s se r t s t h a t money wages were s t a t i o n a r y -or

t h a t ' t h e y c h a n g e d v e r y l i t t l e o v e r t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e i t u r y , 10

Harvey a d v a n c e s t h a t M a g r i c u l t u r a l wages r o s e i n t h i s p e r i o d i n

very much t h e same p r o p o r t i o n a s a y r i c u l t u z a l p r i c e s , 1111 Accord-

i n g t o Harvey, t h e v a l u e of t h e work owed t o t h e l o r d c e r t a i n l y

e x c e e d e d t h e c o m m u t a t i o n paymen t s , I 3 T i t o w ' s - E n g l i s h R u r a l

S o c i e t j 1200-1350, p o p u l a t i o n F r e s s u r e is d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g

" k e p t wages a t a s t e a d y l e v e l ( i n f a c t , f a l l i n g i n r ea l t e r m s )

well i n t o t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h u s c o n t r i b u t i n g i n d i r e c t l y

8 U i l h e l n Abe l , A a r i c u l t u r a l ~ l u c t n a t i o n s i n E u r o p e ; f r o a t h e T h i r t e e n t h to the T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r i e g , tr.?;g 0, O r d i s h v i t h a --- f o r e w o r d and a b i b l i o g r a p h y b y J o a n T h i r s k (London, l 98O) , p. 33; B . 8 . S l i c h e r Van Ba th , - The A q r a r i a n H i s t o r y of U e s t e r n Eurqps &@. 500-1850, tr. by 0, O r d i s h (London, [963) . pp- 104-106, p, 125,

9 See B b e l , p, 34 and s o a e f u r t h e r r e m a r k s on t h e q u e s t i o n b e l o u .

1 . P o s t a n , H e d i e v a l Ecoeoay a n d S o c i e t y , p. 2 7 4 ; see a l s o h i s The F a n n l u s (Econ. E i s t . Rev, S u p p l e m e n t No. 2 , 1 9 5 5 ) p. 42, p. 37 a n d pp. 7-2-33,

11 POD, 8. Harvey, HThe E n g l i s h In•’ l a t i o n of 1 180-122On, P e a s a n t K n i q h t s Heretics e d . by H i l t o n (Cambr idge , ' 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 72-73.

t o t h e i n c r e a s e d p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f direct c u l t i v a t i o n . " l 2

F i n a l l y , we a re t o l d oy H i l l e C a n d H a t c h e r t h a t n e i t h e r the m- c 2s- d a t a u s e d by P o s t a n n o r t h e W e s t m i n s t e r d a t a f i . e - , Bev- -? e + d g e e s d a t a t h a t u n d e r l y N o r t h a n d Thomas* a r g u m e n t ) s h o u l d b e

r e g a r d e d as t y p i c a l o f E n g l i s h u a g e s ! They a z g u e t h a t t h e Bin-

c h e s t e r v a g e s n p r o b a b l y p r e s e n t t o o p e s s i m i s t i c a p i c t u r e o-f t h e

f o r t u n e s of t h e E n g l i s h l a b o u r e P 8 l 3 ( t h e i r r i g i d i t y s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t , on U i n c h e s t e r manors , u a g e s were b e i n g " f i x e d b y c u s t o m 7

r a t h e r t h a n by m a r k e t f o r c e s m ) . I & Now, o n t h e W e s t m i n s t e r man- 6

o r s , s i t u a t e d close to London, wages d i d f o l l o w a v e r y d i f f e r e n t

c o u r s e ; b u t H i l l e r a n d H a t c h e r b e l i e v e t h a t these wages were - p r o b a b l y # a l o n e i n t h e i r t e n d e n c y t o ma tch p r i c e i n c r e a s e ~ . ~ 1 s

( A p p a r e n t l y , "wages i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e c a p i t a l were f a r

h i g h e r t h a n e l s e w h e r e . " ) 16 T h u s f a r , the d i s c u s s i o n h a s been

a b o u t wages e a r n e d b y c a s u a l l a k o u r e r s . nuch h a r d e r t o assess

a r e t h e e a r n i n g s o f f u l l - t i m e m a n o r i a l e m 2 l o y e e s ( t h e f a m u l i )

s i n c e money c o n s t i t u t e d o n l y a small p o r t i o n o f t h e s e e a r n i n g s .

Again , a c c o r d i n g t o Hiller a n d H a t c h e r , n t h e r e n a y w e l l h a v e

been a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e money wages (of t h e f a u u l i ) t o se t t l e

12 J.2, T i t o v , E n q l i s h E u r a l S o c i e t y 1200-1230 (London, 1969) ,. p - 46- l o t e T i t o u t s f u r t h e r r e m a r k s o n t h e s a n e page : " T h i s , a t l e a s t , i s my own r e a d i n g of t h e W e s t m i n s t e r e v i d e n c e on w a g e s t h o u g h L o r d B e v e r i d g e h a s f o u n d i t o t h e r w i s e , "

1 3 Bil le r a n d H a t c h e r , B e d i e m g n q l a n d ,, ., p- 50,

1 4 i b i d .

15 i b i d ,

down a t a c u s t o m a r y f i g u r e , " 1 7

To c o n c i u d e , a r g u ~ e n t s based on t h e s u p p o s i t i o n of a r i s i n g

v a l n e of l a b o u r d u e s , i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d , a re seri-

o u s l y f l a v e d on t h e g r o u n d s of i n c ~ n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e .

On whether *the Continental d a t a * fits i n t o . the Borth and Thomas f rameuork of analysis

The f i r s t t h i n g t o n o t e a b o u t f e u d a l - m a n o r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s

on t h e C o n t i n e n t i s t h a t l a b o u r d u e s were not t h e i r c e n t r a l fea-

t u r e : t h e y were n o t t h e c o r e ~ a y m e n t e x a c t e d frora m a n o r i a l

d e p e n d a n t s , Ue know t h a t I- d u r i n g t h e t e n t h , e l e v e n t h and t w e l f t h

c e n t u r i e s , i n d i r e c t m e t h o d s of c u l t i v a t i o n were g a i n i n g a s c e n -

d a n c e i n I t a l y , t h a t r e n t s p r e v a i l e d o v e r l a b o u r d u e s i n G e r -

many, that the F r e n c h s e i g n e a r i e was becoming s i g n i f i c a n t l y less . d e p e n d e n t o n l a b o u r d u e s t h a n had b e e n t h e c a s e i n t h e n i n t h

c e n t u r y , a n d t h a t a g . r i c n l t u r a 1 l a b o u r s e r v i c e s were r e d u c e d i n

t h e Low C o u n t r i e s , I n N o r t h ' s o p i n i o n , t h i s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of

t h e s y s t e m of l a b o u r d u e s c o u l d - h a v e r e s u l t e d from a r e l a t i v e l y

e a r l y ~ * ~ r o u t h of t r a d e a n d m o n e t a r y e x c h a n g e i n b o t h l a c t o r a n d

p r o d u c t m a r k e t s u l e - a p o s s , l b i l i t y t h a t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h " t h e , .--

v i e ~ that t h e earlier e x i s t e n c e cf l a b o u r s e r v i c e s c o u l d h a v e

coma f r o a h i g h t r a n s a c t i o n c o s t s b e f o r e t h e g r o w t h of t h e money

17 i b i d . , p . 51. Havigg l o o k e d a t P o s t a n ' s s e c t i o n on t h e Co t - t e n h a m evidence I a e still u n a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n s f o r which Harvey d i s a g r e e s w i t h him, To emit a n o p i n i o n o n the a r g u m e n t i n v o l v e d I wou ld h a v e t o go back, p e r h a p s , t o a study by P r a n c e s 9. P a g e s from which P o s t a n d r a w s s o n e of h i s d a t a . I f i n d H a r v e y ' s r e m a r k s on P o s t a n c r y p t i c . C l e a r l y t h o u g h , Harvey d o e s g i v e s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e s of manors where t h e v a l n e of labour dues a t contemporary ra tes ( m i d - t h i r - t e e n t h c e n t u r y rates) u a s f a r a b o v e t h e c o s m u t a t i o n paymen t s .

18 B o r t h , S t r u c t u r e , , . , p. 130.

economy."l9 The a r g u m e n t is p l a u s i b l e , yet a g a i n quite h y p o t h e t -

i c a l , I t may w e l l be t h a t I t a l y ' s u r b a n p a s t p r e d i s p o s e d i t t o

a n e a r l i e r r e s u p t i o n o f m a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s b u t what a b o u t

F r a n c e , Geraany a n d t h e Low C o u n t r i e s ? I am n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h

d a t a t h a t wou ld s u g g e s t t h a t the o n s e t of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h o r a

r e t u r n t o r e l a t i v e l y more p e a c e f u l c o n d i t i o n s ( t h e v a r i a b l e s i n

t e r a s of wh ich N o r t h a n d Thomas explain t h e rise of m a r k e t s ) 3

o c c u r r e d e a r l i e r i n t h e s e r e g i o n s than they d i d i n E n g l a n d .

Also, f o r t h e l i o r t h a n d Thomas model t o r e t a i n i ts b a s i c con-

tours, N o r t h a n d Thomas would h a v e t o d e m c n s t r a t e t h a t t h e par-

t i c u l a r p o l i t i c a l s t e u c t u r e t h e y a s s o c i i t e w i t h classical .am-

r i a l i s n uas i n e x i s t e n c e p r i o r t o t h e d e c l i n e i n l a b o u r d u e s .

And, t h e C a r o l i n g i a n p e r i o d - p r o b a b l y t h e p e r i o d of most p r e -

p o n d e r a n t l a b o u r d u e s - d o e s n o t q u i t e fit t h e N o r t h a n d Thomas

p o r t r a y a l o f c l a s s i ca l r a a n o r i a l i s m a s a s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

e x t e n s i v e p o l i t i c a l d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n ; i t d i d n o t e n t a i l a s much

diffusion of p o w e r s a s t h e p o s t - C a r o l i n g i a n d a y s would experi-

e n c e .

The w i d e s p r e a d e x i s t e n c e o_f s .hor t- term leases on demesne

l a n d s (be i t P r a n c e , I t a l y , Germany o r t h e Low C o u n t r i e s ) con-

stitutes f u r t h e r evidence t h a t t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y West Euro-

pean m a n o r i a l economy accommodated s u c h p r a c t i c e s - h e n c e , t h e

f r a j i l i t y of a r g u m e n t s in t e r n s of c u s t o m a r y c o n s t r a i n t s on 7

-4'

demesne l e a s i n g . B e s i d e s , the v a r i e t y of p r a c t i c e s a p p e a r i n g i n

d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s a n d r e g i o n s , r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s a s t o t h e nse -

1 9 ibid.

f u l n e s s of t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t , i n h i s wealt h- iuaximiz ing

b e h a v i o u r , t h e m a n o r i a l l o r d was c o n s t r a i n e d b y cus tom. To

t r e a t m a n o r i a l c u s t o m a s a d e t e r m i n i n g a n d e x o g e n o u s v a r i a b l e

l e a v e s a l o t u n e r p l a i n e d . 2 0 Not o n l y was t h e - d e m e s n e l e a s e d & B

u n h e r d i f f e r e n t a r r a n g e m e n t s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f Western

Europe ( s h a r e c r o p p i n g , f i x e d c r o p p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s , etc.) b u t

c o n d i t i o n s o f c u s t o m a r y t e n u r e were a l s o s u b j e c t t o v a r i a t i o n s : - -

f o r i n s t a n c e , c h a m p a r t y t e n u r e was q u i t e common i n F r a n c e ; not

s o i n England . Even more i n t e r e s t i n g , i t a p p e a r s t h a t , i n some P

p a r t s o f Germany, c u s t o m a r y t e n u r e s became associated w i t h f i x e d

'term leases. Are w e t h e n t a l k i n g a b o u t d i f f e r e n t a a n o r i a l c u s -

toms? Nor th a n d Thomas s h o u l d h a v e i n d i c a t e d p e r h a p s t h e manner

i n w h i c h c u s t o m a r y c 0 n s . t r a i n . t ~ c o u l d b e made e n d o g e n o u s i n t h e i r

model.

R e g a r d i n g t h e l a c k o f a n o b v i o u s moveaent t o w a r d s r e v i v i n g or

i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e u s e of l a b o u r d u e s i n t h i r t g e n t h - c e n t u r y

P r a n c e , I t a l y , Germany a n d t h e Low C o u n t r i e s : * 1 what do we know

a b o u t t h e v a l u e of l a b o u r dueso a n d a b o u t c h a n g e s i n t h e l e v e l of

wages and p r i c e s i n t h e s e r e g i o n s ? From my r e a d i n g s , t h e f o l -

l o w i n g c a n b e e x t r a c t e d : p r i c e d did r i s e o v e r t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y b u t p e r h a p s n o t a s d r a m a t i c a l l y a s i n England .22 I n

p a r t s of P r a n c e a n d Germany, t h e ' rise . i n p r i c e s became s t e e p e r

20 F e n o a l t e a p o i n t s t h i s o u t i n "The Rise a n d F a l l of a T h e o r e t - i c a l Hodeln.

2 1 # h e r e t h e demesne r e m a i n e d , its d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n u a s i n c r e a s i n g l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e u s e of wage l a b o u r

22 The d a t a on p r i c e s i s m o s t l y eon a g r i c u l t u r a l p r i c e s .

a t . the e p d of t h e t h i r t e e n t h and i n t h e e a r l y f o u r t e e n t h

c e n t u r i e s - s t e e p e r b u t p r o b a b l y n o t a s s t r o n g a s we b e l i e v e t h e .

E n g l i s h i n f l a t i o n o f the t u r n o f t h e t w e l f g h c e n t u r y t o h a v e

been. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n h i s work on Rornrandy,, Bois refers t o t h e

f 8 s t a g f l a t i o n ' 8 of t h e end of t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 2 3 Duby n o t e s

t h a t " i n a p e r i o d of c o n t i n u o u s l y r i s i n g p r i c e s '.. . t h e r e a l

v a l u e o f money r e n t s f e l l c o n s t a n t l y i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n -

t t 1 r y . ~ 2 4 B o u t r u c h e a n d Van B a t h t a l k a b o u t a t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

r i s e i n p r i c e s a s t h o u g h i t a p p l i e d t o t h e P e s t e r n European

m a h o r i a ~ ~ ~ e ~ o n o a ~ i n g e n e r a l . 2 5 And, i n a h i s t o r y o f p r i c e s , Ear l

J.- H a m i l t o n s ta tes t h a t "if t h e f r a g t a e n t a r y p r i c e s c o l l e c t e d f o r

F r a n c e by Vicomte d ' k v e n e l ,,. a r e a c c u r a t e , i t seems t h a t t h e

p r i c e l e v e l was a r o u n d 14 p e r c e n t h i g h e r i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e of

t h - t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a n i n t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r of t h e c e n t u r y \

a n d a v e r a g e d a b o u t 16 p e r cent hi 'gher i n 1301-1350 t h a n i n

1291- 1300. Aga in i f d 8 A v e n e 1 8 s s t a t i s t i c s a re r e l i a b l e , F r e n c h

p r k e s wre a b o u t o n - t h i r d h i g h e r on t h e a v e r a g e i n 1301-1350'

t h a n i n 120 1-1225- "26

2 3 Guy B o i s , srise &J Fegqalismg, ( P a r i s , 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 241-3 a n d p . 246,

2 4 Duby, a u r a l Economy .. ., p. 238.

2 5 B o u t r u c h e , S e i q n e u r i g F e o d a l i t e ( P a r i s , 1968) Vol, 2, pp, 104-106; Van B a t h , T& A q r a r i a n ... pp. 100-108.

26 E a r l J. H a m i l t o n , V h e H i s t o r y . o f P r i c e s b e f o r e 1750,*@ Inter- &&- g o n q r e s s of H i s t o r i c a l S c i e n c e s & Sweden = gap- ~ o r t s H e t h o d o l o q i g = i i js toire+des U n i v e r s i t e g = Histoire & P r i x a v a n t 1750 . (Stockholm-, 21-28 Aout 1960) p. 146. -IC -- - Hore f r o m Hamilton, i b i d : I n d e x number s f o r fif t y - y e a r p e r i o d s c o n s t r u c t e d by S i r U i l l i a a B e v e r i d g e f r o m d i s c o n t i n u o u s quo- t a t i o n s f o r 6 c o m m o d i t i e s s u g g e s t t h a t E n g l i s h p r i c e s mere a b o u t 1 /3 h i g h e r i n 1250-1299 t h a n i n 1200-1249 a n d 1 5 p e r

Did s a g r i c u l t u r a l wages fol low s u i t ? Yas t h e v a l u e of l a b o u r

d u e s r i s i n g ? Were t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e t o p o i n t c l e a r l y t o a ris-

ing v a l u e of l a b o u r d u e s , t h e n t h e a b s e n c e of a movement back t o

l a b u r d u e s (or a t l e a s t of v i g o r o u s a t t e m p t s a t r e v i v i n g l a b o u r

d u e s ) would , i n d i r e c t l y a n d i n terms of its own p r e m i s e s , s h e d

d o u b t s on t h e a d e q u a c y of t h e N o r t h a n d Thomas t y p e of a r g u m e n t

r e g a r d i n g t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Eng land- U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e is

as auch d i s a g r e e m e n t a b o u t t h e ' C o n t i n e n t a l ' d a t a a s t h e r e is

a b o u t t h e E n g l i s h d a t a - B o i s , f o r o n e , d o e s n o t h a v e homogene-

o u s ser ies of a g r i c u l t u r a l wages f o r t h e p e r i o d we a r e i n t e r -

e s t e d in, The ser ies w i t h wh ich h e a c q u a i n t s u s go back o n l y t o

t h e 146OVs.27 The e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d be low w i l l t h u s c o n s i s t o f

o n l y v e r y g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s drawn f rom a v a r i e t y of s o n r c e s -

Here, t h e s t a b i l i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r a l wages - a s t a b i l i t y t h a t ,

a c c o r d i n g t o B o u t r u c h e a n d o t h e r s , was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e

t h i f t e e n t b c e n t u r y 2 6 - Gould n o t p r e s e n t a problem t o t h e Worth

a n d T h o a a s a r g n a e n t . O n t h e o t h e r hand,' ' r i s i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l

wages would. Now, J o n e s ( i n r e l a t i o n t o I t a l y ) , A b e l ('.n r e l a -

c e n t h i g h e r in 1300-1349 t h a n i n 1250-1299; But S i r V i l l i a a uas commendably s c e p t i c a l a s t o t h e q u a l i t y of h i s i n d i c e s - Apparentay w h e a t p r i c e s i n Eng land rose a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t from 1260-1270 t o 1310-1320 a n d f e l l b y r o u g h l y 30 p e r c e n t f r o m t h e n u n t i l 1340-1350.n

27 B o i s , C r i s e du ... p. 104; on p - 244 Bois makes a v e r y gen- e r a l s t a t e m e n t r e g a r d i n g f a l l i n g r e a l y a g e s i n t h e e a r l y

- f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n h i s classic s t u d y o n Normandy, E t u d e s s x C o n d i t i o n d e &p C l a s s e Aqricole & L * E t a t & J9Aqri- z - u l ture en g o r m a h E e , Leopo l d Delisle asser ts t h a t c o n c l u -

- s i o n s o n movement i n u a g e s f o r t h e p r e - f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y p e r i o d c a n n o t be d r a v n b e c a u s e t h e d a t a a r e v e r y i n a d e q u a t e . ( p , 6221,

t i o n t o England; F r a n c e a n d Germany) a n d , l i k e w i s e Van B a t h ,

~ o i s s o n n a d e , Ganshof a n d V e r k u l s t a l l m e n t i o n r i s i n g a g r i c u l - w

t n r a l wages i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , z 9 And, a s n o t e d earlier,

Van B a t h a n d Abel g o a s f a r a s a s s e r t i n g t h a t real w a g e s rose!

( T o b e more a c c u r a t e , Abel c o n c l u d e s t h a t E n g l i s h r e a l wages

rose a s of t h e m i d d l e of t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h i l e Pan Bath

s u g g e s t s t h a t r i s i n g r ea l wages were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e t h i r -

t e e n t h c e n t u r y - U e s t e r n E u r o p e a n m a n o r i a l e c o n o a y i n g e n e r a l - A b

c o u p l e of r e m a r k s : t h e n o t i o n o f g i s i n q pa& waqes i n t h e t h i r -

t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m a n o r i a l economy i s e n t e r t a i n e d by v e r y f e u ,

Y h i l e Abe l and Van B a t h i n t i m a t e t h a t t h e demand f o r l a b o u r

m i g h t h a v e b e e n s h i f t i n g a n d t h a t t h e r i s e i n r e a l wages was 4*

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s a n d a n i n c r e a s i n g d k v i -

s i o n of l a b o u r , i n t h e North azld Thomas model, _ t h e l o r d s seem t o

b e o p e r a t i n g a l o n g a g i v e n demand c u r v e . )

PEIDAL!TE&*S ARGfJEEETS

C l o s e r s c r u t i n y of F e n o a l t e a n s h y p o t h e s i s r e g a r d i n g t h e pos -

s i b l e b e n e f i t s of a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e l a b o u r force raises n u a e r - '

o u s q u e s t i o n s ; some of t h e s e r e v o l v e a r o u n d t h e c o n n e c t i o n he

d r a w s b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l d i s o r d e r a & t h e e x a c t i o n of l a b o u r d u e s

as a way of e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e ru1 ,d g would d e v e l o p s u b s e r v i e n t 4

a t t i t u d e s ; t h e o t h e r q u e s t i o n s stem f r o m F e n o a l t e a ' s con j e c t u r e

29 J o n e s , # I t a l y 8 * 'iq The Cambridgg Ecanomic H i s t _ a r v , Vol. I, p. 411 ; Abel, A c r r i c y t n r a l F l u c t u a t i o n s ,,-, pp. 33-34; Van . B a t h , A g r a r i a n ' - - Historx .-,, p- 1 0 4 , p , 106, p . 125; on r i s i n g a g r i - z u l t a r a l wages. S e e a l s o Ganshof a n d V e r h u l s t i n m- b r i d s -- Hconom& H i s t o r y , Vol, 1, p, 326 a n d Pierre Boisso- n a d e , L i f e a n d Work in dedievaJ. Europe (New P o r k , 19641, p. 2 59,

- PAGE 139

r e g a r d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l l i t e r a c y , g r o w t h a n d t h e d i m i n u t i o n of

wart a re , r ifts a n d i n s t a b i l i t y , F i r s t , would f e n o a l t e a want t o

a r g u e t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y abandonmen t of t h e s y s t e a of

l a b o u r s e r v i c e s , i n p a r t s o f W e s t e r n Europe , r e s u l t e d from a n

e a r l y r e t u r n t o Bore s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ? In o t h e r

words, v o o l d h e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e e l e v e n t h - or t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y

l o r l s o f t h e s e r e g i o n s had fewer r e a s o n s n t o v a l u e t h e impact of

- s e r v i l e r o l e p l a y i n g on the- fo rma m e n t i s of t h e l a b o u r i n g

p o o r n 3 0 t h a n t h e i r E n g l i s h c o u n t e r p a r t s h a d , a t t h e time? And,

would F e n o a l t e a s i n u l t a n e o u s l y a d v a n c e t h a t a g r i c u x t u r a l li ter-

a c y ( a n d h e n c e , l e a s i n g ) s p r e a d faster i n t h e s e r e g i o n s on

a c c o u n t of h i g h e r p ~ o d n c t i v i t y l e v e l s d e r i v i n g f r o u more peace -

f u l k o n d i t i s n s ? I n c i d e n t a l l y , i f l a b o u r d u e s were s u c h a n

e a n s of i m p r i n t i n g s e r v i l i t y i n p e o p l e * s c o n s > i o u s - -

n e s s , why. d i d t h e y f a i l t o e a e r g e a s t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c -

t e r i s t ic of s e r v i l i t y i n s e v e r a l p a r t s o f E u r o p e ? S e c o n d l y , was

t h e p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h e x p e r i e n c e d by. P r a n c e , Germany, etc., n o t

s u b s t a n t i a l enough t o c a l l fo r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new t e c h - i

n i q u e s - new t e c h h i q u e s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o F e n o a l t e a , s h o u l d

have i n t u r n c a l l e d f o r t h e e x p a n s i o n o f d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a - -

t i o n ? O r were t h e lessees b e t t e r e q u i p p e d t o i a p l e m e n t the new P

t e c h n i q u e s ' - Le., were t h e y , f o r some r e a s o n , less i n need o f

s u p e r v i s i o n ? O r m i g h t d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n h a v e been o n l y

o n e o f the p o s s i b l e ways i n wh ich t h e l o r d s cou ld . r e t a i n c o n t r o l

39 Feaoaltea, w A n t b o r i t y , E f f i c i e n c y a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a - tion i n H e d i e v a l E n g l a n d a n d Beyond: A ~ y p o t h e g i s , ~ J o u r n a l of Economic H i s t o r y (December , l97S), p - 698.

t

o v e r t h e i r demesne l an 'd s?

Regarding sore aspects of Peacmltea's d i s c u s s i o n ' of t k pre- t h i r t e e n t h century period

4

I p e r c e i v e a p r o b l e m w i t h F e n o a l t e a 8 s h y p o t h e s i s r e g a r d i n g * - ..

t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of soc ig 1 -roles. H i s s u g g e s t i o n i s t h a t - l a b u r d u e s might h a v e t h e l o r d s w i t h a means t o s tabi - 9

l i z e social roles; " f n r t h e r , h e b e l i e v e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s , u n d e r

w h i s h mporrer is i n s e p a r a b l e from t h e a p p e a r a n c e of p*ver , %and

a u t h o r i t y from t h e v i s i b l e s u b m i s s i c n of o t h e r s " , 31 t o b e char-

acteristic o f tines when " t h e r u l e of l a w is a b s e n t or weak or

uhen i t t e n d s t o deny p r e r o g a t i v e s t h a t e x i s t & facto,*I32 If.

P e n ~ a l t e a i s t r y i n g t o d i s t i n g n i ' s h b e t w e e n t r a n s i t i o n a l n o m e n t s

d u g n g which, f o r instance, a homogeneous a n d unified g r o u p

takes o v e r t h e r e i g n s of power ' ( a n e x a m p l e ' b e i n g t h e Norman COB- * >

q u e s t t o which F e n o a l t e a d o e s r e f e r ) a n d more a n a r c h i c a l tiraes . t

d u r i n g which s t r u g g l e s for poster are scatterea 'and disordeqf y, I '

o n e c a n n o t h e l p b u t wonder w h e t h e r , i n t h e . l a t t e r c a s e , t h e i 1

t

lor3s would& n o t e n c o u n t e r s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n enforcing

l a b US dues. A c e ~ t a i n am-ount o f p o l i t i c a l . o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d I

coherence -would s e e n n e c e s s a r y f o r a s y s t e m b a s e d on t h e e x t e n - - s i v e u s e of l a b o u r dues t o be v i a b l e , It is p e r h a p s n o t coinci-

dental t h a t t h e Carolingian v i l l a (that r e l i e d v e r y h e a v i l y o n

l a b ~ u r d u e s ) h a d a s b a c k g r o n n d a g o v e r n m e n t a n d a b u r u c r a c y 'T vhich (however feeble) were more o r g a n i z e d a n d more c e n t r a l i z e d

31 i b i d . , p , 715.

32 ibid.

G

than t h e v p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s t h a t u o n l d emerge i n t h e t e n t h i

c e n t u r y and p r e v a i l up u n t i l t h e t u e l f t h . c e n t u r y . O f some e q r - ' *. .:, ing t o this whole i s s u e , is a, Blocli's stress t h a t " t h e En'gl ish

' - lord was much more s u c c e s s f u l t h a n h i s c o n t i n e n t a l n e i g h b o a r i n

' -

r e t a i n i n g h i s serfs a n d e v e n ' h i s o r d i n a r y t e n a n t s on his -

e s t a t e f t - 3 3 ( T h i s u o h l d see@ t o b e ' p r e c i s e l y t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e f o 1

e x a c t i n g a n d eqforcing l a b o u r d u e s ) , Why uas t h e E n g l i s h lord

more snccessful?,' B e c a u s e of t h e p o w e r s o f t h e k i n g whose

a u t h o r i t y , B loch s p e c i f i e d , was " s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g t o h a v e - t h e

rumuay serfs t r a c k e d down a n d t o p u n i s h t h o s e uhu h a d h a r b o u r e d

t h e k n 3 4 ; also because of the i a s t i t u t i o n of * f r a n k p l e d g e c - an i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t e n t a i l e d some form of o r g a n i z a t i o n a s well as

sme degree o f s t a b i l i t y . 3 s

B o t e t h a t l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s well e s t a b l i s h e d a n d sxten-

s i v e l y used i n E n g l a n d l o n g befo Norman C o n q u e s t , P e n o a l -

tea would p r o b a b l y e x p l a i n t h e i r p r o v a l e n c e t h e n by f a l l i n g back

on his a g r i c u l t u r a l l i t e r a c y h y p o t h e s i s a s h e d o e s when -he dis- €j

c u s s e s the l o n g r e l i a n c e . of t h e C a r c l i n g i a n v i l l a on l a b o u r ser- P

v i c e s . 2 ~ b o u t F ' 4 h e c a c i l i n g i a n v i l l a . his g u e s s is t h a t , " d e s p i t e *? -

the e s s e n t i a l s t a b i l i t y of b o t h s e t t l e m e n t a n d t e c h n o l o g y t n , 36

t h e p i a s a n t s ' s i m b l y f a i i e d t o 7 .aster t h e c o a p a r a t i r e + y sophis*- . c T

=ate& techniques u s e d o n demesne l a n d s s i n c e t h e i r k i p o s u r @ t o

33 ?!arc Bfcrch, F e u d a l Societx, Val, I (Ch icago , 1964), p 271, . ,

34 i b i d . .

1

t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s uas # n e i t h e r s u s t a i n e d n o r s y s t e m a t i c . * 3 7 { T h i s

e x p l a n a t i o n a s s u m e s away wage l a b o u r a s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o l a b o n r

s e r v i c e s , )

I n t h e a b s e n c e of -a more a c c u r a t e e x p o s i t i o n of what h e means

~y p o l i t i c a l a n a r c h y a n d t h e s t a b 5 l i z a t i o n of s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y ,

P e n o a l t e a r i s k s being i n t e r p r e t e d t o i n p l y t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y

ear l ie r d e c l i n e of d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n a n d of t h e u s e o f

i a b u r d u e s i n p a r t s of I t a l y , t h e Low C o u n t r i e s and ~ r a n c e was

r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y ear l ier p a c i f i c a t i o n a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n

of p o l i t i V c a ' l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e s e areas, ( I n F e n o a l t e a t s models ,

the s p r e a d o f a g r i c u l t n r e t e c h n i g u e s is a f u n c t i o n of p a c i f i c a -

t i o n v i a e c o n o n i c g r o w t h a n d a g r o w i n g d i s i n t e r e s t i n l a b o u r *

d ~ e s would reflect g r e a t e r s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y ; ) Nor, t h i s w o u l d

~e a q u e s t i o n a b l e h y p o t h e s i s : t h e s e a reas w i t n e s s e d i n t h e

t e n t h , e l e v e n t h and e v e n e a r l y t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s w i d e s p r e a d

s t r u g g l e s c o n s e q u e n t upon the o f t e n s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t s of terr i-

t o r i a l l o r d s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e i r t a x i n g pou-

ers.

~ e b a r d i n g t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y arguments in F e n o a l t e a

A s f o r t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n is

whether tkere were less p r e s s u r e s fo r i n n o v a t i o n a n d , i n gea-

era1 , f o r a a n o r i a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n n o r t h e r n I t a l y , F r a n c e ,

G e r n a n y and t h e Lou C a u n t r i e s t h a n i n ' England. The e v i d e n c e

3oes show L o r d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y e c c l e s i a s t i c a l l o r d s , t r y i n g t o

re-srganize their es t a t e s [ t h r o u g h *inventozries, r e g r o u p i n g of .

4'

37 ibid., p. 717-

p r o p e r t i e s ; [ a n d ] a r i g o ~ o r r s c o n t r o l of r e v e n u e s n 3 8 a s well a s

t r y i n g t o r e g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r their d e m e s n e l a n d s a n d t h e manors I

t h a t h a d b e e n u s u r p e d by t h e i r estate o f f i c i a l s ( s t e w a r d , b a i l -

i f f s a n d a v o n e s ) , I n , t h e c a u r s e o f t h i s r e o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

t h e most v i s i b l e a e a s u r e i m p l e m e n t e d by t h e l o r d s was t h e p o l i c y

of f i x e d term leases - . a p o l i c y t h a t a l l o w e d . , them, in most

/ cases, t o re ta in a s a y i n t h e r u n n i n g of t h e i r demesne l a n d s ,

As e x p l a i n e d by Ganshof a n d V e r h u P s t , the leases "had a l so t h e

a d v a n t a g e of a l l o w i n g t h e l o r d t o c h o o s e a 'farmerr or a meta'yer

f o r his p e r s o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ,,, a n d t o g e t r i d w i t h o u t d i f -

f i c u l t y of a e n who d i d n o t c a r r y o u t t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s . * * 3 9 The

r e a s o n f o r which- E n g l i s h l o r d s s h o u l d h a v e r e g a r d e d d i r e c t 4

de-mesne c u l t i v a t i o n a s means i l i lp lement c h a n g e s i n demesne

c u l t i v a t i o n is n o t clear - t h a t is, assuming t h a t s u c h c h a n g e s

d i d t a k e place. T h e r e e x i s t e d a l t e r n a t i v e ways f o r t h e l o r d s t o

r e e u i n c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e deaesne - ways t h a t a p p e a r t o

h a v e b e e n a d o p t e d o n t h e C o n t i n e n t . I n f a c t , J o n e s j u d g e s t h e

neu f o r m of commercial 'leases t h a t s p r e a d i n n o r t h e r n Italy t o

h a v e a l l o ~ e d ' * ~ t h e owner o f t e n ,,. t o assume the p a r t of e n t r e -

p r e n e u r . n 4 0 H e e v e n c o n c l u d e s : # t e n a n t - f arming . . . was being

d e v e l o p e d a s a s u b s t i t u t e ; h t a n a l t e r n a t i v e , of d e m e s n e faro- -- i

d

38 Z a n s h o f and V e r h u l s t , t s F r a n c e , t h e Low C o u n t r i e s .,.", The C a n b r i d q e - .,,, Vol.' I , p . 321 . We a r e t a l k i n g h e r e m o s t l y about l a r g e es ta tes and l a r g e demesnes . Small and medium-

-

s i z e d d e m e s n e s h a d o f t e n r e m a i n e d , a n d were t o r e m a i n , u n d e r direct management up u n t i l t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , see Duby, R u r a l . . . , p- 273.

#I 39 Ganshof and V e r h n l s t , " F r a n c e .., , p- 326.

4 0 Jones, * I t a l y H , p. 412,

R e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f l a r g e es ta tes t h e r e was, o n t h e ~ o n c i n e n t ,

b u t u e r e t h e r e a l so e n d e a v o u r s t o i g t r o d u c e new a g r i c u l t u r a l C

t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o c o u n t e r a c t d i m i n i s h i n g

r e t u r n s ? H y r e a d i n g s d o n o t s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e was aore c o n c e r n

f o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e per gg i n n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a n

t h e r e had b e e n i n p r e v i o u s c e f i t u r i e s , N O W , t h i s c o u l d b e

l i n k e d , i n a F e n o a l t e a - l i k e manne r , . t o t h e a b s e n c e of a a o v e a e n t

t o w a r d s the r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n .

f a r from e v i d e n t t h a t t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h r e s u m p t i o n

of' d i r e c t d e a e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n was i t se l f a c c o m p a n i e d by' t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n of new t e c h n i q u e s , By i n v o k i n g some of P o s t a n t s

a n d H i l t o n ' s d i s c u s s i o n s , C. B e e d s h e d s d o u b t s o n t h e i d e a t h a t i

new t e c h n i g u e s ( i n t h e way of i m p l e m e n t s , o f t h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s

of p l a n t i n g , etc,) uere i n t r o d u c e d i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Eng-

land.4.2 And, i f i n d e e d t h e more o b v i o u s c h a n g e s i n I3rigland were

i n t . h e management a n d i n t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of f i e l d s 4 3 t h e n , v h a t

t o o k p l a c e i n F r a n c e , W e s t e r n Germany etc, , was not v a s t l y d i f -

f e r e n t . T h e r e , t h e e f f o r t s a t r e o r g a n i z i n g demesne l a n d s a n d

l a r g e es t a t e s were i n e s s e n c e m a n a g e r i a l , I n Sum, F e n o a l t e a 8 s

h y p o t h e s e s f o r t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y r u n i n t o t r o u b l e s inasmuch

a s t h e y i m p l y a movement b a c k t o d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n o n

t h e C o n t i n e n t f o r which t h e r e is n o , e v i d e n c e ; i n a s m u c h a s t h e y I

42 Beed, m T o v a r d s a T r a n s a c t i o n s p. 22.

s i d e s t e p t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f i x e d term leases t o a q u a l i f i e d

f a r m e r a s a s u b s t i t u t e t o d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n a n d inas-

much a s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of new t e c h n i q u e s i n E n g l a n d r e m a i n s a n

u n c e r t a i n p r o p o s i t i o n , Also, a s n o t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e P

H o r t h a n d Thomas model, t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of t h a t d a t a o n money

v a g e s damages F e n o a l t e a ' s e x p l a n a t i o n of why l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s

were r e i n s t i t u t e d . d -. T h o u g h t s emanat ing from Fenoaltea's foo tno te expresding h i s scepticism a b o u t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s y m b o l i c rites i n shap- i n g s e r v i l e a t t i t u d e s and ~ e n t a l i t i e s ,

Not o n l y is t h e r e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t , on t h e C o n t i n e n t ,

t h e l o r d s ( b a n a u x a n d o t h e r s ) r e s o r t e d p r i m a r i l y t o t h e i m p o s i - j

t i o n of a number o f t a r e s a n d d u t i e s tb c o n f i r m t h e i r d o r i t y

over t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s b u t t h e r e is a l s o e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t i n g t h a t I .

the p e r t o r m a a c e a n d p e r s i s t e n c e of l a b o u r d u e s n e e d n q t h a v e

e n t a i l e d a s p e c i f i c a l l y s e r v i l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o r p a r t i c u l a r l y

s e r v i l e r e 1 a t i o n s h i . p ~ ) , F o r e x a e p l e t h e #orman p e a s a n t r y - r e p u t e d t o h a v e b e e n a m o n g s t t h e # * f r e e s t n o f t h e c o n t i n e & i n

t h e e l e v e n t h , t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s - h a d n o t e 0

a c q u i r e d t h i s r e p u t a t i o n b e c a u s e i t was f r e e from t h e p e r f o r a -

ance of l a b o u r d u e s . Labou-r d u e s p e r s i s t e d t h e r e , i n a more o r

l ess a t t e n u a t e d for^, well i n t o the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . * * I t

a p p e a r s t h a t i n Normandy most o f t h e v a r i o u s d u e s a n d s e r v i c e s

. owed by t h e t e n a n t s were l i n k e d t o p o s s e s s i o n of a t e n u r e ; f e u

u e r s p e r s o n a l , I t ' i s i n t h i s s e n s e t h a t some t a l k a b o u t t h e

e a r l y d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f serf d o a ( s e r v a g e ) i n Normandy. 4 5 A l s o , --

4 4 D u b y , R u r a l Economy . . ,, pa 269,

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e 6 l o r d a n d t e n a n t s was' a p p a r e n t l y con- f

s p i c o o u s l y free f r o m a r b i t r a r i n e s s a n d t e n a n t s c o u l d move a t

u i l l (1) - a l l t h i s a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of a r e l a t i v e l y c e n -

t r a l i z e d g o v e r n m e n t , t h e duchy o f Normandy.

EARVET @ S ABGUBEITS BEQ.IEUED AID EXTEIDED ,

I n P , D . A , H a r v e y e s a r g u m e n t i n f l a t i o n e x p l a i n s t h e r e s u m p t i o n

o f d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n , t h e r e t u r n t o l a b o u r d u e s u h e r -

e v e r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f l a b o u r was a c t u a l l y r e i m p o s e d and t h e

l e g a l a n d sacial w o r s e n i n g o f t h e v i l l e i n s ' c o n d i t i o n s - a wors-

e n i n g t h a t was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e new d e n a r c a t i o n of t h e category

o f v i l l e i n a g e w i t h l a b o u r d u e s a s o n e o f t h e tests of nnf r e e d o ~ ,

H a r v e y ' s c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t " d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y t h e i n f l a -

t i o n d e l a y e d t h e e f f e c t i v e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f l a b o u r s e r v i c e s f rom-

E n g l a n d by some two h u n d r e d y e a r s . " * * The c r u x of h i s a r g u m e n t

i s c o n t a i n e d b o t h i n t h i s s t a t e m e n t a n d i n his. s u g g e s t i o n t h a t 4

d

i n f l a t i o n mas e x c l u s i v e l y a n E n g l i s h phenomenon.47 E a r l y i n h i s

a r t i c l e , Ha rvey c o n j e c t n r e s o n bow t h e rise i n p r i c e s - '"prob-

a b l y a p u r e l y E n g l i s h phenomenonn*8 e x p l a i n s t h e a d o p t i o n o f

demzsne, c u l t i v a t i o n , ' B e a l s o n o t e s t h a t " i n other p a r t s of

E u r o p e t o o t h e r e was a t e n d e n c y a t t h i s time f o r leases t o

become h e r e d i t a r y b u t t h a t o n l y i n E n g l a n d was t h i s t e n d e n c y

h a l t e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d i r e c t management of e s t a t e s , " * 9 --

4 5 Delisle, E t u d e .,., X X X V I I , , pp, 18-26, pp- 132-5.

46 Harvey , p- 77-

4 7 i b i d , , p. 80.

4 8 i b i d , , p. 81,

4 9 - i b i d .

A l t h o u g h H a r v e y d o e s n o t c l a i ~ t o b e f o r m u l a t i n g a g e n e r a l

h y p o t h e & a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n i n f l a t i o n , d e n e s n e

c u l t i v a t i o n a n d l a b o u r d u e s i n t h e m e d i e v a l economy, h i s a n a l y -

sis c a n be seen a s h a v i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s q u i t e b e y o n d t h e E n g l i s h

c a s e , T h e v e r y i n s i s t e n c e w i t h w h i c h be c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e

i n f l a t i o n a s h a v i a g b e e n e x c l u s i v e l y E n g l i s h s h o u l d justify

a t t e a p t s t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h h i s model , i n t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t o f

t h e W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n m a n o r i a l economy. Data r e f u t i n g ' h i s c o n - 9 *

0 t e n t i o n t h a t t h e i n f l a t i o n was c o n f i n e d t o E n g l a n d w o u l d s h e d

d o u b t s on h i s a r g u m e n t s , A t t h e v e r y l e a s t , t h e d a t a w o u l d

re jec t i n f l a t i o n as a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n \ % r t h e b e h a v i o n r o f

t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h l o r d s . T h e p r i c e da t a I u a s able t o

f in3 a p p e a r i n c o n s i s t e n t v i t h H a r v e y ' s s t a t e m e n t s , However ,

s i n c e t h e s e d a t a a r e s p a r s e a n d u n c e r t a i n , a i i r m c o n c l u s i o n is

n o t j u s t i f i e d . I n s t e a d , I w o u l d l i k e t o e x a m i H a r v e y g s a r t i -

c l e i n a Bore r o u n d a b o u t f a s h i o n by e x p l o r i n g t h e n a t u r e of t h e

c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t are embedded i n his a r g u m e n t s a n d 1

t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o o t h e r areas o f A e s t e r n E u r o p e .

Harvey o n t h e r e s u m p t i o n of direct d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n

Before p u r s u i n g t h e v e r y s p e c u l a t i v e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t m i g h t

h a v e c a u s e d t h e r e t u r n t o l a b o u r dues, I would l i k e t o d i s c u s s

t h e s o m e u h a t e q u i v o c a l o b s e r v a t i o n made by H a r v e y , t h a t is, t h e

o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t o n l y i n E n g l a n d u a s t h e t e n d e n c y f o r leases t o

become h e r e d i t a r y h a l t e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d i r e c t manage-

a e n t of e s t a t e s - t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e b e i n g t h e t h i r t e e n t h - ; e n -

t u r y i n f l a t i o n . g h a t H a r v e y u n d o u b t e d l y asserts is t h a t h e r e d i -

t a r y leases o n d e m e s n e l a n d s n e v e r d e v e l o p e d i n E p g l a n d - t h a t ,

0: r

PAGE 148 .

i n E n g l a n d , i n f l a t i o n c a u s e d t h e r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t demesne

c u l t i v a t i o n . What is less o b v i o u s i s w h e t h e r h e i s s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t , o n t h e C o n t i n e n t , manor s and demesne l a n d s were, l e a s e d o n -..

a l o n g - term ( e v e n t u a l l y h e r e d i t a r y ) b a s i s , or w h e t h e r l o n g - term

l e a s e s were s u p p l a n t e d t h e r e by s h o r t - t e r m leases ( a l t h o u g h no&

by a s y s t e m o f d i r e c t kanagemeht of e s t a t e s ) . I f t h e s u g g e s t i o n

is (1) t h a t t h e s y s t e m o f l e a s i n g ( b o t h o f demesne l a n d s a n d o f

manor s i n g e n e r a l ) e n t a i l e d l o n g , h e r e d i t a r y leases i n Europe

a n d ( 2 ) t h a t t h i s c o n s t i t u t e s , i n d i r e c t l y , s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e

o f s t a b l e p r i c e s ( o f no i n f l a t i o n ) , t h e r e is a n o b v i o u s f a c t u a l

p rob lem: i n s e v e r a l p a r t s o f thirteen th-ceo t u r y Europe , demesne

l a n d s ( even whole manors ) mere g r a n t e d o n a n o n - h e r e d i t a r y b a s i s

- s o m e t i m e s a s l i f e leases b u t more o f t e n f o r s h o r t e r terrns,$P

I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s u g g e s t i o n is t h a t h e r e d i t a r y l e a s e s

were r e p l a c e d by s h o r t - t e r m leases, t h e q u e s t i o n becomes: assum-

i n g t h a t t h e r i s e i n p r i c e s was c o n f i n e d t o Eng land , why was t h e

t e n d e n c y t o wards l o n g a n d p o t e n t i a l l y h e r e d i t a r y leases r e v e r s e d

on t h e C o n t i n e n t ? H a r v e y ' s a r g u m e n t s g i v e u s n o i n s i g h t s i n t o

t h i s q u e s t i o n . ./ u

Searching f o r y e t a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e mean ing b e h i n d H a r v e y ' s

s t a t e m e n t : t h e e v o l u t i o n o f leases o n c u s t o m a r y h o l d i n g s c o u l d

l e n d some s u p p o r t t o t h e t h e s i s of d i v e r g e n t e v o l u t i o n s be tween

Englanc% a n d t h e C o n t i n e n t , T h i s t h e s i s c o u l d be exp lo ' r ed

a g a i n s t t h e b a c t g r h o f P o s t a n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n two b r o a d

c a t e g o r i e s o f m a n o r i a l leases f o r England: " t h e p u r e i y coamer-

50 S e e t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d i n c h a p t e r s I V a n d V o f t h e d i s - s e r t a t i o n ,

R

c i a 1 l e t t i n g s ( f a r m s ) , u s u a l l y f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s , a n d t h e l i f e

leases, The former were m o s t l y $0 b e ' f o u n d o n d e m e s n e l q n d s let

o u t t o v i l l a g e r s , o r o n some n e w l y r e c l a i m e d w a s t e s , o r o n sur-

plus p a s t u r e s . -, The w h o l e s a l e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f l i f e leases was

o b v i o u s l y a s s o c i a t e d vi t h t h e c o a m u t a t i o n of l a b o u r s e r v i c e s

s i n c e t h e new leases almost i n v a r i a b l y came i n a s r e p l a c e m e n t s

for t h e o l d c u s t o m a r y h o l d i n g s b u r d e n e d w i t h l a b o u r . * d u e s , n s l .

A p p a r e n t l y , ' these l i f e leases s p r e a d a t t h e end o f t h e t h i r -

t e e n t h a n d d u r i n g t h e f i rs t h a l f of t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s 2

P o s t a n " p r o v i d e s u s w i t h a r a t h e r c a u t i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n of why.

t h i s c h a n g e t o o k p l a c e , H i s " t e n t a t i v e a n s w e r s t h a t the t e n - 4 ares were t h u s t r a a s f o r ~ e d o n t h e l o r d ' s i n i t i a t i v e , a n d t h a t

t h e i r o b j e c t was t o p r e s e r v e f o r t h e l o r d a chance of going b a c k B

on t h e c o m m u t a t i o n s a t a f u t u r e d a t e , T h e e m p h a s i s i n t h e

leases is o n t h e i r s h o r t s p a n - a s a r u l e o n e l i f e s p a n o n l y - a n d on t h e l o r d ' s w i l l a s t h e so le a u t h o r i t y b e h i n d i t , 1 4 5 3 Would

t h e s e l i f e leases make much o f a d i f f e r e n c e u l t i m a t e l y t o t h e

peasants1 c o n d i t i o n s ? P o s t a n ' s c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e y would

n o t s i n c e " t h e t e n u r e s t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d became as permanent a s

t h e c u s t o m a r y h o l d i n g s of o l d and were f r e q u e n t l y a s s i a i l a t e d

w i t h t h e c o p y h o l d s o f t h e l a t e f i f t e e n t h a n d s i x t e e n t h c e n -

-

- =

51 P o s t a n , C a m b r i d g e Economic hi story,^ p. 615.

52 i b i d , ;

53 P o s t a n , i b i d . , p- 6 1 6 ,

5 4 i b i d . ; S e e F o n r g n i n , &eg P a y s a n s .-., p. 126, ,

Hence , when talking a b o u t a h a l t i n t h e tendency t o u a r d j ;

h e r e d i t a r y leases i n E n g l a n d o n e , c o u l d be r e f e r r i n g t o t h e

c h a n g e i n t h e f o r ina l s t a t u s o f some c u s t o n a t y h o l d i n g s a s these

were b e i n g r e l e a s e d from l a b o u r dues. Yet s u c h a dev-e lopment s

was n o t e x c l u s i v e t o E n g l a n d , I n , n o r t h e r n I t a l y a s well a s i n

Gertsan y t h e r e were i n s t a n c e s o f cus to iua ry . h o l d i n g s u n d e r g o i n g a

s imi lar a n d s o m e t i m e s a n e v e a more d r a s t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s u b -

s e q u e n t t o t h e c o m m u t a t i o n o f l a b o u r d u e s , On t h e o t h e r hand ,

in F r a n c e t h e movement t o w a r d s t h e p e r p e t u i t y , h e r i t a b i l i t y a n d

t h e a l i e n a b i l i t y of t h e c e n s i v e p r o c e e d e d u n c h e c k e d f r o m t he

e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d s - 5 5 So, i n r e g a r d s t c t h e terms o n which

ons to rna ry t e n e m e n t s came t o b e h e l d , E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h d e v e l o p -

m e n t s d i d e x h i b i t d i v e r g i n g t e n d e n c i e s . Note , t h o u g h , that tne

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f l i f e leases on c u s t o m a r y h o l d i n g s ( i n E n g l a n d )

is i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e i s s u e o f a r e t u r n t o t h e d i r e c t ~ a n a g e R e n t -a

o f demesne l a n d s - t h e l a t t e r b e i n g t h e phenomenon t h a t Harvey

s e e k s t o e x p l a i n i n terms of i n f l a t i o n . I n f a c t , t h e p e r i o d

d u r i n g which t h e s e l i f e leases g a i n e d most g r o u n d s c o i n c i d e d

w i t h t h e p e r i o d d u r i n g wh ich t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f d i r e c t demesne

c u l t i v a t i o n is t h o u g h t t o h a v e l o s t some o f its momentum. Fur -

t h e r more, Harveyo s leases X-m h a r d l y b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h leases

t h a t were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c c m m u t a t i o of l a b o u r d u e s (1-e., "4 P o s t a n 9 s " l i f e leaseti) s i n c e l i a rvey sets o u t t o e x p l a i n b o t h the

. r e s u e p t i o n of ' d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n a n d t h e r e t u r n t o '

l a b o u r d u e s i n terms of i n f l a t i o n . I t d o e s seem t h i t t h e

55 F o u r q u i n , Les P a y s a n s ..., p. 126.

d i v e r g i n g e v o l u t i o n s i n t h e s t a t u s o f c u 3 t o ~ a r y t e n e m e n t s c a n n o t

be a t the b a s i s of H a r v e y ' s - c o m p a r a t i v e s t a t e m e n t a b o u t heredi -

t a r y leases, C

To sum up; t h e r e a s o n b e h i n d t h e a d o p t i o n of s h o r t e r , non-he-

r e d i t a r y leases i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e i s n o t a p p a r e n t

w i t h i n H a r v e y C s a n a l y s i s , A s f o r h i s a r g u m e n t a b o u t the E n g l i s h

r e t u r n t o d i r e c t d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i c n , i t r e v o l v e s a r o u n d i n f l a - -*

t i o n : o n c e i n f l a t i o n h a d set i n "it was v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o d i s -

c o & w h a t new l e v e l s of rent w o u l d b e f a i r to l a n d l o r d a n d les-

see a l i k e w , S 6 B u t c o n t r a s t t h i s v i e w w i t h D u b y g s e a p h a s i s o n t h e

v e r s a t i l i t y of f a r m leases i n e a r l y f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y F r a n c e - a v e r s a t i l i t i t h a t h e i l l u s t r a t e s by g i v i n g t h e e x a m p l e of t h e

r n o n ~ s t e r y of S t . H a r t i n d e T o f l r n a i , A p p a r e n t l y , n o t o n l y d i d

t h e monks of S t - H a r t i n r e q u i r e that the farm s h o u l d be p a i d

p a r t i a l l y w i t h cereals b u t " t h e y a l s o r e q u i r e d t h e i r lessees a n d

s p e c i f i e d i n t h e c o n t r a c t t h a t t h e r e m a i n i n g s u m s s h o u l d be cal- I.. .

c u l l t e a w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e market v a l u e of t h e c u r r e n c y and n o t 7 merely t o its l e g a l v a l u e : a s i a F l e p r e c a u t i o n a g a i n s t m o n e t a r y

i n s t a b i l i t y . ~ s r

E a r r e p o n labour dues i n t h e i r assoc ia t ion w i t h t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t nry villeinage

H a r v e y c o n s i d e r s t h e h a l t i n c o m m u t a t i o n t o h a v e r e f l e c t e d

f a r - r e a c h i n g l e g a l a n d s o c i a l c h a n g e s - a n i s s u e t h a t s t a n d s

q u i t e a p a r t from t h e w h o l e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h

l a b o u r d u e s were a c t u a l l y u s e d on r e c o n s t i t u t e d d e m e s n e l a n a s .

56 H a r v e y , p. 62-63,

57 Duby , R u r a l Economy, p, 319,

P r e s u a a b l y , t h e s e c h a n g e s were i n t e n d e d to i n c r e a s e t h e l o r d s a

power t o e x t r a c t i n c o m e froa t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s . (As s p e c i f i e d

e a r l i e r , i n Harvey * s words., t h e c h a n g e s c o n s t i t u t e d " t h e l a n d -

l o r d s * r e s p o n s e t o a s i t u a t i o n where m a n o r i a l custom combined

w i t h t h e d e c r e a s i n g v a l u e of money was e n d a n g e r i n g t h e i r income

from t h e i r t enan t s .Ws8 ) The assumed c q u s a l role of i n f l a t i o n

c o u l d be, however , q u e s t i o n e d , The l o r d s g b e h a v i o u r c o u l d b e

e x p l a i n e d s o l e l y i n terms o f c h a n g i n g f a c t o r p r o p o r t i o n s . Thus , i

i t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d l e g a l a n d s o c i a l

c h a n g e s r e f l e c t e d t h e l o r d s * a t t e m p t t o c a p t u r e t h e i n c r e a s e i n

t h e v a l u e of c u s t o m a r y t e n e m e n t s - t h e l o r d s b e i n g c o n s t r a i n e d

b y t h e p e a s a n t s ' r e s i s t a n c e t o c h a n g e s i n t h e terms of c u s t o m a r y

t e n u r e . 59 Would t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s p a s s t h e c o m p a r a t i v e

7 t e s t ? &-i t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , a l l t h a t u i l i b e s a i d , a t t h i s p o i n t , -

4s t h a t t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e d i d e x p e r i e n c e heavy p o p u l a - .

L t i o n p r e s s u r e s a n d t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e of a l t e r n a t i v e i n c o m e gen-

e r a t i n g r e s o u r c e s could : well a c c o u n t - f o r t h e a b s e n c e o f an Eng-

l i s h - l i k e aovemen t o f l e g a l and soc ia l change . Hany l o r d s were

i p o f a c t o i n a p o s i t i o n t o i ~ c r e a s e t h e i r i n c o m e t h r o u g h s e i g - , - n e u r i a l l e v i e s ( i n t h e f o r m o f k a n a l i t e s , etc,) ; A marked

i n c r e a s e i n t h e size o f t h e s e l e v i e s wou'ld b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

t h i s h y p o t h e s i s w h i l e u n a c c o u n t e d f o r i n H a r v e y ' s f r amework of

a n a l y s i s - U n l e s s H a r v e y ' s a r g u m e n t is t h a t E n g l i s h l o r d s were - n o t p r o f i t m a x i m i z e r s o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h a t t h e y d i d n o t

5 8 H a r v e y , p. 76.

5 9 S e e Reed ' s a r g u m e n t o n pa 55 of thesis,

a l w a y s a s s e s s t h e i r p o s i t i o n a c c u r a t e l y a n d t h a t o n l y a

c o m p e l l i n g phenomenon ( l i k e i n f l a t i o n j c o u l d f o r c e n p o a t h e n t h e /- "

r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r d e t e r i o r a t i n g p o s i t i o n , i n f l a t i o n a s a n e c - *

e s s a r y c a u s e o f t h e l e g a l a n d s o c i a l c h a n g e s e x p e ~ i e n c e by Eng-

l a n d i s p r o b l e m a t i c ,

The q u e s t i o n t h e n r e m z i n s a s t o w h e t h e r i n f l a t i o n c o u l d st i l l -z

be z a u s a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e E n g l i s h l o r d s t e n d e a v o u r s t o e x t e n d

t h e i r f o r m a l p o w e r s o v e r t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s w i t h a v i e w t o

i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r i ncome , In•’ l a t i o n a s o n l y a q u f f i c i e n t c o n d i -

t i o n f o r t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t seems a s t r a i g h t f o r u a r d a n d a p p e a l i n g

p r o p o s i t i o n , Yet, on c l o s e i n s p e c t i o n , it p r o v e s t o be, I

t h i n k , q u i t e c o a p l e x , G i v e n f i x e d c o m m u t a t i o n p a y a e n t s , i t is

n o t o b v i o u s t h a t i n f l a t i o n s h o u l d h a v e c a l l e d f o r t h a n i n c r e a s e

i n t h e s i z e o f t h e p a y m e n t s a s much a s i t s h o u l d h a v e d i c t a t e d

t h e i r r e s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n k i n d . A l s o , vhen t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e

l s s u e i n c o m p a r a t i v e terms, ' i n f l a t i o n b p p e a r s * a t b e s t a s o n l y a

p a r t o f a set of c o n d i t i o n s which when t a k e n t o g e t h e r m i g h t - --

explain t h e E n g l i s h p h e of l a b o u r d u e s 1 r e i n s t a t e m e n t a s

a means of e x t r a c t i n g Consider t h e f a c t t h a t Con-

t i n e n t a l l o r d s m i g h t h a v e e n j o y e d w i d e r - r a n g i n g a n d more d i r e c t 4

powers of t a x a t i o n t o which c o r r e s ~ c n d e d more l i m i t e d r o y a l pow- -

ers, Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e c o s t l y Erocess o f f o r m a l i z - I

ing r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f d e p e n d e q c e w i t h a v iew t o e x t r a c t i n g more -

Y

i n c o m e would h a v e been s u p e r f l u o u s , S i m i l a r l y , o n e of t h e hgp L t h e t i c a l c h a n n e l s t h r o u g h which i n f l a t i o n i s deemed t o h a v e had

t h e o b s e r v e d effect of a r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s i n Eng land

m i g h t n%t h a v e a p p l i e d e l s e w h e r e . Why t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l c h a n n e l

v o u l d h a v e f a i l e d t o o p e r a t e , i n F r a n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e , w i l l be '3

t h e s u b j e c t of t h e rest of my d i s c u s s i o n . An, i m p o r t a n t c l a r i f i -

c a t i o n : w h i l e t h e d i s c u s s i o n . be low e m a n a t e s - f r o m H a r v e y ' s a r t i - -

cle i n t h a t i t i n v o l v e s some of the f a c t s t h a t h e u n v e i l s , a s -

well a s s o u r c e s t h a t h e c i tes , $he a r g u m e n t . t h a t w i l l b e ' -

e x p l o r e d a i s n o t Harvegks as much a s i t is R. ,B i l t on l s . B e a l l y ,

t h e a r g u m e n t is a n amalgam of v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e s e writersg a

aB t h o u g h t s . -

S t i l l on labour dues and v i l l e i n a g e : B, E i l t o n ! s a r g u m e n t s i n relation to Harvey's and beyond

-

R. H i l t o n h i n t s a t a somewhat d i f f e r e n t c a u s a l c o n n e c t i o n 4

b e t w e e n i n f l a t i o n a n d t h e r e v e r s i o n t o - l a b o u r d u e s when h e

stresses, a s Harvey p o i n t s o u t , " t h e r i s i n g p r i c e s , t h e i n t e n s e

f i s c a l p r e s s u r e , @ # 6 0 . Is i t p o s s i b l e to . d e v e l o p a n a r g u m e n t i n

whizh i n f l a t i o n wou ld emerge , v i a f i s c a l p r e s s u r e s , a s a s u f f i -

c i e n t r e a s o n f o r t h e l e g a l r e i n s t a t e m e n t of l a b o u r d u e s ? What

would b e t h e p r e m i s e s o f s u c h a n argument?; F i r s t , t h e i n c r e a s e

i n t h e C r o u n g s f i n a n c i a l e x a c t i o n s wh ich i s very much high- 9

9 l i g h t e d by Harvey a n d wh ich h e a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e C r o v n ' s i n a b i l -

* i t y t o i n c r e a s e t h e i n c o m e d e r i v e d f r o m r o y a l estates, Harvey

t e l l s ;s r e p e a t e d l y t h a t t h e c rown p r o v e d u n a b l e - t o r e g a i n - 7

d i r e c t c o n t r z i of i ts estates a n d t h u s t o resume the practice;of

d i r e c t d e m s $ ' , c u l t i v a t i o n ; t h e sheriffs rho v e r y l i k e l y

" a d h e r e d t o a s y s t e n of l e a s i n g .,. suffered t h e s a a e disadvan-

. t a g e s a s l a ~ l o r d s who l e a s e d o u t . t h e i r estates ... The o t h e r - -. -&A - r e s o u r c e s o f u $hhe c rown f o r which t h e s h e r i f f a n s w e r e d oq h i s

* c I

;, ?$ -- ?

- C

4

6 0 Hi l toa a s q u o t e d b y Harvey on p. ( 7 7 ) .

\

I

farm+ p r o b a b l y even l o s s a i e n a b l e t h a n t b g r o y a l demesne t o increased p r o f i t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e rise . in p*rices: thg rev-,

0 P -A

e n u e s f roa t h e b o r o u g h s were f i x e d b p 7 c u s t o m and s o too , v e r y

p r o b a b l y , were the f i n e s and assessnie'~ts of t h e local c o u r t s s o

t h a t a n y i n c r e a s e , , . would ap2ear grossly e x t o r t i o n a t e . - \ L e t a e p u t a s i d e t h e more c c n t r o v e r s i a l a s p e c t o f H a r v e y ' s

9

#

s t a t e m e n t r e g a r d i n g the d i s a d v a n t a g e s of the s y s t e m of l e a s i n g , . :* %

r e t i ~ i n the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e C r a m met its i n f l a t e d commit- - n e n t s t h r o u g h ' i n c r e a s e d t a x a t i o n &id' a d d t h e h y p o t h e s i s ( H i l -

\

t o n ' s ) t h a t t h e social a n d lehl c h a n g e s desired b y t h e l o r d s 2

were ways of p a s s i n g t h e increased' f i n a n c i a l b u r d e n o n t o aaoo-

r i a l d e p e n d a n t s , Would s u c h a s c e n a r i o j u s t i f y s i n g l i n g o u t

i n f l a t i o n a s t h e e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e f o r t h e u n i q u e l y E n g l i s h Y

p a t t e r n o f - , soc ia l a n d l e g a l c h a n g e s t h a t e n t a i l e d ' t h e &e of

l a b o u r d u e s a s a t es t o f u n f r e e d o e ? The q u e s t i o n I aa t r y i n g t o

ra i se is t h e ' f o l l o w i n g : s u p p o s i n g for t h e moment, t h a t i n f l a t i o n

.was a u h i q u e l y E n g l i s h phenomenoa and t h a t its r e p e r c u s s i o n s _I

were v i a f i s c a l E r e s s u r e s , c o u l d its h y p o t h e t i c a l a p p e a r a n c e i* -

C o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e have h a d p a r a l l e l e f f e c t s ? I w i l l v e n t u r e t o

a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n posed i n t h e n e g a t i v e a n d t o assert ' t h a t , a t

l ea s t u p u n t i l t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e c o n d i t i o n s a n d pres-

s o r e s und& which E n g l i s h arid C o n t i n e n t a l l o r d s were o p e r a t i n g

differed q u i t e s u s t a n t i a l l y - an a s s e r t i o n t h a t b r i n g s to t h e

f o r e t h e l a r g e r i s s u e of t h e d i f f e r e n t * i a k e - u p of r o y a l f i n a n d i s

i n E n g l a n d and on the C o n t i n e n t . 3 o r e specifically, a n d cir -cum-

61 Harvey , p = ( 6 6 ) .

s c r i b i n g ay p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n t o a b r o a d o v e r v i e w of t h e

e v o l u t i o n o f E n g l i s h a n d 'F rench r o y % l f i n a n c e s , , i t s h o u l d be

o b v i o u s t h a t , , g i v e n t h e s t r u c t u r e - of F r e n c h roya l f i n a n c e s ( i n

t h e t u e l f t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ) , F r e n c h l o r d s s u b j e c t e d t o

h e i g h t e n e d r o y a l e x a c t i o n s ( b e c a u s e of i n f l a t i o n ) would ' be a n

u n l i k e l y s c e n a r i o , The p e c 2 l i a r i t y o f E n g l i s h d e v e l o p m e n t s map

s e l l h a v e l a i n i n t h e c o , n s t i t u t i c n o f t h e ~ h ~ l i s h r o y a l p u r s e - a p o i n t t h a t i s f o r c i b l y ,made b y B . P . Wolffe :hose u o r k is .

a m o n g s t Harvey s s o u r c e s , 6 2 e

A cursory first look at English a n d French royal finances in t h e twelfth and thirteenth centuries as d e p i c t e d by Wolffe

B r o a d l y , & U o l f f e ' s r e s e a r c h a n d a r g u m e n t a t i o n c h a l l e n g e t h e 9

c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n drawn be tween o r d i n a r y a n d e x t r a o r d i -

n a r y s o u r c e s o f r o y a l r e v e n u e s when a p p l i e d t o t h e Norman a n d

B n g z v i n p e r i o d s , It casts d o u b t s on t h e a o t i o n t h a t Norman a h d

A n g e v i n s k i n g s were s u p p o s e d t o l i v e o f f t h e i r oun ( e , o f f

t h e p r o c e e d s of t h e i r l a n d ) a n d t o r e s o r t t o t a x a t i o n o n l y u n d e r

e x c e p t i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Uolffe s t r i v e s t o show - t h a t " t h e

p o t e n t i a l r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o the Angevins t h r o u g h t h e i r Z

p o l i t i c a l power a & k i n g s were s o g r e a t t h a t , by c o m p a r i s o n ,

t h e i r f i n a n c i a i r e s o u r c e s a s ' l a n d l o r d s were i n s i g n i f i c a n t , H s 3

t h a t "it is a m i s d i r e c t e d e x e r c i s e t o s e a r c h the r e c o r d s of Eng-

l i s h g o v e r n m e n t b e f o r e t h e l a t e r •’if t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r e v i d e n c e

of a n y s u s t a i n e d e f f o r t t o make a r o y a l demesne yield by e s t a t e

s a m g e a m t a c a s h i a c o ~ e o n a scafe c o s ~ p a r a b l e t o wha t r o y a l

6 2 H a r v e y , p. 66

6 3 g o l f f e , The Boya l Demesne - .- , p - 2 2 .

J

t a x a t i o n , d i r e c t a n d l a t e r , i n d i r e c t , p r o v i d e d , or t o t r y t o -

i d e n t i f y l o s t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s u c h a p o l i c y , " 6 4 t h a t I t t h e

f i n a n c e s of E n g l i s h g o r p r n o e n t w i t h i n a few years o f t h e con-

q u e s t were b a s e d f a i r l y a n d s g u & e l y o o c e e d s of t a x a t i o n '

i n its v a r i o u s formsH65 a n d f i n a l l y t h a t nif w e are t o speak *of 5

.a p o s t - c o n q u e s t r o y a l demesne i n E n g l a n d a s t h e e q u i v a l e n t of

t h e C a p e t i a n royal domaine in F r a n c e t h e n i t s h o u l d l o g i c a l l y b e

o f t h e . w h o l e c o u n t r y , w h e t h e r e n f e o f f e d o r n o t . " 6 6

On- t h e o t h e r hand , i n F r a n c e , " d u r i n g t h e f i r s t three c e n t u -

ries o f C a p e t i a n r u l e from 987 . . i n c o m e from t h e i r doma ine

c o n s t i t u t e d t h e i r [ t h e . k i n g s * ] total f i n a n c i a l ;esource. -1t. was

almost i m p o s s i b l e I?.. f o r t h e W e n c h k i n g to e s t a b l i s h d i r e c t r e l a - ~, *

t i o n s h i p s w i t h h i s subjects o u t s i d e t h e domaine . , . u n t i l h e had

~ 8 n n e n e d a p a r t i c u l a r t e r r i t o r y of f i e f t o h i s doma ine ., , Donai-

n a l r e v e n u e s were i h d e e d t h e F r e n c h k i n g ' s * o r d i n a r y 1 r e v e n u e

but t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n o n l y came t o h a v e s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h t h q

a c q u i s i t i o n o f a n ' e x t r a o r d i n a r y ' r e v e n u e f o r t h e f i r s t tiae,

b e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a s t y e a r s of t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and

d e r i v e d f r o m the whole kingdom o f F r a n c e i n t h e s h a p e o f d i r e c t

a n d i n d i r e c t t a x a t i o n , t h e tailles a n d t h e a i d e s , The very

b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e s e n a t i o n a l , ' e x t r a o r d i n a r y ' r e v e n u e s , a s

o p p o s e d t o d o m a i n a l , o r d i n a r y , r e v e n u e s Mere t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f

P h i l i p t h e f a i r ,,, The same d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e rest of t h e

64 i , b i d l , p. 35.

65 i b i d . , p - 34 . 6 6 i b i d .

. PAGE 158

F r e n c h kingdom a n d the domaine a l s o a p p l i e d i n t h e r e a h of

j u s t i c e r W 6 ? I -

Where to, fro. here?

L e t me r e c a p i t u l a t e t h e p o i n t s embedded i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n

'regarding i n f l a t i o n a n d t h e r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t i n l a b o u r dues .

H a r v e y ' s s p e c i f i c a r g u m e n t i s & r e e f o l d : a s a test of u n f r e e d o w , >

L a b u r d u e s h e l p e d . i m p l e m e n t v a s t l e g a l a n d s o c i a l -changes- ;

t h e s e c h a n g e s a r e deemed t o h a v e p u t t h e l o r d s i n a p o s i t i o n t o

i n c r e a s e t h e i r m a n o r i a l incorae a n d i n f l a t i o n is s u p p o s e d t o h a v e -

m o t i v a t e d t h e l o r d s ' b e h a v i o u r , Two s e t s of q u e s t i o n s e a e r g e

t h e r e f r o m , A s a first set of q u e s t i o n s , why were l a b o u r d u e s ,

s p e c i f i c a l l y , u s e d a s a test of nnf reedom? Why were v a s t l e g a l

a n d s o c i a l changes n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r f o r t h e l o r d s t o t a x t h e i r

' d e p e n d a n t s more h e a v i l y ? And- s e c o n d l y , how do ue c h o o s e b e t w e e n

i n f l a t i o n a n d t h e c h a n g i n g l a n d / l a b o u r r a t i o a s a l t e r n a t i v e

e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e l o r d s ' b e h a v i o u r ? B p o s s i b l e a p p r o a c h t o

the l a t t e r question would b e t o t r y ' t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r t h e

l o r d s 8 a t t e m p t s t o i n c r e a s e t h e s i z e of t h e i r m a n o r i a l r e v e n u e s

v e r l , a t t h e t i a e , a uniquely E n g l i s h phenom&on, I f s u c h

a t t e m p t s h a d a E u r o p e a n d i m e n s i o n t h e n o n e would h a v e t o d i s c a r d

either H a r v e y ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e i n f l a t i o n was c o n • ’ i n e d t o

Engf a n d o r , h i s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i n f l a t i o n u a s t h e e x p l a n a t o r y

v a r i a b l e ,

--

67 i b i d , , pp. 38-39,

A.

PAGE ' 159

An a r g u m e n t i n terms o f i n f l a t i o n t h a t would h i n g e on t h e

i m p o s i t i o n of a d d e d f i s c a l b u r d e n s o n m a n o r i a l l o r d s ( n o t e t h a t

t h i s is & H a r v e y ' s a r g u m e n t ) would a l so - r a i s e t h e p u e s t i o a o f

why t h e l o r d s had t o resort t o l e g a l c h a n g e s t o 7 i n c r e a s e t h e i r

m a n o r i a l r e v e n u e s , N o w , g i v e n t h e nake-ug of t h e E n g l i s h r o y a l . p u r s e , it would seem r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t a rise i n p r i c e s

r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r f i s c a l p r e s s u r e o n l o r d s whose r e a c t i o n was

- t h u s t o s e e k some c o n p e n s a t i o n t h r o u g h h e a v i e r m a n o r i a 1 e x a c -

t i o n s . T o a l l o w f o r t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y opens t h e d o o r t o e x p l a n a -

t i o n s whose f o c u s would be t h e s p e c i f i c f e u d a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n

w i t h i n which t h e rise i n prices made i t s e l f f e l t , By " f e u d a l

c o n f i g u r a t i o n f i t I mean t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f fiscal, j u r i d i c a l ( a s

well: a s o t h e r ) p o w e r s b e t w e e n k i n g and . l o r d s . From t h i s p e r -

s p e c t i v e , a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e reach o f r o y a l powers of t a x a -

t i o n would c o n t r i b u t e a s much t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e a p p a r -

e n t a b e r r a t i o n i n t h e E n g l i s h c h r o n o l o g y of l a b o u r d u e s a s t h e

fact of in•’ l a t i o h d o e s . It c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t Harvey o b s c u r e d

the r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n v o l v e d by t r e a t i n g a c i r c u a s t a n c e b a s e d o n

a d d e d c a u s a l i t y a s o n e d e r i v i n g f rom o n l y a s i n g l e cause.

T h i s s a i d , I h a v e t o c l a r i t y i m m e d i a t e l y a number o f r e l a t e d

p o i n t s , T h e r e is n o t h i n g n o v e l a b o u t linking f i s c a l p r e s s u r e s

a n d i n f l a t i o n t o t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e d e f i n i t i o n o f v i l l e i n -

a g e a n d t o h e i g h t e n e d m a n o r i a l ' e x a c t i o n s , A s i n d i c a t e d ear l ie r ,

2, • ’ l i l t o n d o e s p r e c i s e l y t h i s i n "Freedom a n d V i l l e i n a g e i n Eng-

l a n d n , & * e x c e p t t h a t h e d o e s not i n s e r t h i s d i s c u s s i o n within

t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f

l a b o u r dues , F u r t h e r , t h a t t h e l e g a l d e p r e s s i o n of m a n o r i a l C

d e p e n d a n t s u a s s o u g h t b y t h e i r l o r ' d s is, i n H i l t o n 1 s a c c o u n t ,

p r o b a b l y a m e a s u r e of t h e d e p e n d a n t s 8 r e s i s t a n c e t o h e a v i e r

i m p o s i t i o n s , The view t h a t t h e p r o c e s s of r e d e f i n i t i o n of v i l -

l e i n a g e was a cos t i n f l i c t e d b y m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s o n t h e i r

l o r d s is equ-y e n b r a c e d by C. Reed whose h y p o t h e s i s is, hov-

e v e r , more s p e c i f i c i n t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e is e x p l a i n e d a s

r e s i s t a n c e t o c h a n g e s in t h e l e v e l o f c u s t o m a r y r e n t s , A p o s s i -

b l e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s l a s t h y p o t h e s i s is t h a t i t may n o t b e

a l t o g e t h e r c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w h a t o c c u r r e d l a t e r i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y when some d e p e n d a n t s saw t h e i r l a b o u r d u e s b e i n g com-

muted i n r e t u r n f o r l i f e leases which P o s t a n d e s c r i b e s a s h a v i n g

been, i n t h e o r y a t l eas t , a more p r e c a r i o u s form of . h o l d i n g , I f

i n d e e d a more p r e c a r i o u s form o f h o l d i n g , t h e s e l i f e l e a s e s

would p r o v e awkward t o e x p l a i n i n l i g h t o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t a

h u n d r e d years ear l i e r t h e d e p e n d a n t s h a d b e e n - w i l l i n g u l t i m a t e l y

t o s h o u l d e r l e g a l un f r eedom a n d l a b o u r d u e s i n r e t u r n f o r more

s e c u r i t y . O f c o u r s e , i t c o u l d be a r g u e d t h a t l i f e l e a s e s were

f o r z e d upon t e n a n t s o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h a t s e c u r i t y o f t e n u r e

b a d become less v a l u a b l e by t h e l a t e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y - t h e "

l a t t e r be ing , however , r a t h e r i a p r o b a b l e o n e c o n o m i c g r o u n d s , 6 9

f i n a l l y , o n e q u e s t i o n n e e d s t o b e posed: would t h e i d e a r e g a r d - P

ing t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e x p l o r i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f powers

a m o n g s t t h e r u l i n g c lass c o l l a p s e i n t h e f a c e o f e v i d e n c e r e f u t -

6 9 F u r t h e r research on t h e n a t u r e of t h e s e l i f e leases - would b e needed for a more c o m p l e t e a s s e s s m e n t of Reed's h y p o t h e s i s . - ~ -

PAGE -161

i n g t h e c o n t e n t i o n of u n u s u a l l y h e a v y r o y a l e x a c t i o n s i n t h e w L k l a t e t w e l f t h a n d i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ? I am rais- , ,

i - - '

i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n s i n c e t h e r e is, t o my k n o u l e d g e , a t l ea s t o n e - 't ., - h i s t o r i a n who h a s r e c e n t l y s u g g e s t e d t h a t we s h o u l d p e r h a p s

t 8 r e - e v a l u a t e t r a d i t i o n a l i m p r e s s i o n s of t h e b u r d e n s o a e nature of

t h e A n g e v i n m o n a r c h y i n g e n e r a l , " ? o An a n s v e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n s=

8

just p o s e d c a l l s f o r a moment of r e f l e c t i o n on t h e v a r i o u s ways

i n w h i c h a n e x p a n s i o n i n r dya l f i s c a l p o w e r s c o u l d h a v e made

i t s e l f f e l t ,

Up u n t i l now, I h a v e i n d i c a t e d how, a c c o r d i n g t o o n e p l a u s i - 7

b l e c h a i n of e v e n t s , i n c r e a s e d f i s c a l p r e s s u r e s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o

i n c r e a s e d m a n o r i a l e x a c t i o n s w i t h l e g a l c h a n g e s as t h e o u t c o m e

o f p e a s a n t s * r e s i s t a n c e , B u t t h u s s t a t e d , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e

v e r y c r u d e , The i n c r e a s e d f i s c a l p r e s s u r e s c o u l d h a v e b e e n

e x e r t e d t h r o u g h e x i s t i n g l e v i e s o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h r o u g h t h e

i i a p o s i t i o n o f a l t o g e t h e r new forms of t a x a t i o n t h a t m i g h t h a v e

e n t a i l e d t h e e x t e n s i o n of' r o y a l f i s c a l powers i n a n e v d i r e c t i o n .\

i n v o l v i n g the d i r e c t t a x a t i o n o f m ' a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s , I n o t h e r

u o r d s , we s h o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h b e t u e e n r o y a l a t t e m p t s t o a g g r a v a t e

e x i s t i n g l e v i e s a n d t h e d e v e l o ~ ~ e n t of new r o y a l t a x e s d i r e c t l y

af f e c t i q b a r o n s a n d l o r d s a n d / o r t h e i r m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s .

C o n c e i v a b l y , . a s h i f t i n t h e b a s i s of r oya l p o w e r s of t a x a t i o n

c o u l d h a v e g o n e u n a c c o m p a n i e d by i n c r e a s e s i n . t h e t o t a l s i z e o f

r o y a l i m p o s i t i o n s a s f a r a s t h e lords were d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d ,

7 0 Keefe, F e u d a l A s s e s s m e n t s aq_d the m i t i c a l Communi ty u n d e r i i e n r p IZ: a n d H i s S o n s , (Berkeley, 1983). p. 140- -

T o t h i n k a b o u ~ t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e s e t e ra s t h r o w s a P

s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e a t l i g h t o n them, A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e l o r d s b a d - r e a s o n s t o fear r o y a l i n c a r s i o n s i n t h e i r m a n o r s , o n e u o u l d

e x p e c t them t o s e i z e a n y o c c a s i o n to s e c u r e f i r m l y t h e i r p o w e r s

. o f t a x a t i o n o v e r t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s - i .e, , t o t t y t o r e a o v e mano-

r i a l d e p e n d a n t s f r o m r o y a l f i s c a l r e a c h 01, a t l eas t , t o l a y

c l a i ~ s f o r m - a l l y t o p a r t of t h e i r i n c o m e b e f o r e t h e k i n g est,ab-

l i s h e d c o m p e t i n g r i g h t s , F rom t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e l e g a l

c h a n g e s c r y s t a l l i z i n g i n t h e r e d e f i n i t i o n of v i l l e i n a g e , c a n b e

v i e w e d , i n p a r t , a s a c o 9 t i n c u r r e d 6y m a n o r i a l l o r d s i n t h e i r /

a t t e i a p t s a t e r e c t i n g a f e n c e t h a t would p r o t e c t t h e i r t a x a t i o n

r i g h t s . _ F o r t h i s t o h a v e b e e n t h e case it i s by no m e a n s n e c e s -

s a r y t o a s s u m e t h a t r o y a l p o w e r s o f t a x a t i o n ' were g r o w i n g v e r y

r a p i d l y , W i t h i n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , a1 1 t h a t is r e q u i r e d a re

l o r d s w i t h e n o u g h f o r e s i g h t t o i n v e s t i n a p r o c e s s u p h o l d i n g t h e

p r i n c i p l e of a u t h o r i t y o v e r t e n a n t s ( r e n e m b e r t h a t what c o n s t i -

t u t e d v i l l e i n t e n u r e was t h e p r i m o r d i a l q u e s t i o n ! ) o v e r t h e bud-

d i n g n a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e o f r o y a l ( h e n c e , a l s o f i s c a l ) a u t h o r i t y

o v e r s n b j e c ts.

T h i s way of l o o k i n g a t t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e d e f i n i t i o n of

v i l l e i n a g e is g e n e r a l e n o u g h t o c o e x i s t w i t h r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t

h y p o t h e s e s . So, i t is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e n o t i o n t h a t l o r d s a n d

b a r o n s ' were b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o u n u s u a l l y e x t o r t i o n a t e r o y a l

d e m a n d s b u t it d o e s n o t r e q u i r e t h i s n o t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , i t is

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e v i l l e i n s '

s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g b u t i t d o e s n o t h i n g e upon it. F i n a l l y , , p n d

p e r h a p s l ess o b v i o u s l y , i t d o e s n o t a s s u m e o v e r t l y c o n f l i c t u a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n l o r d s a n d k i n g .

B u t how d o l a b o u r d u e s f i t i n t o t h i s d i s c u s s i o n ? Here, t h e

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n l a b o n r d u e s a s a t e s t o f un f r eedom a n d t h e 4,

a c t u a l o b l i g a t i o n t o p e r f orm week-uork71 becomes c r i t i c a l , An

o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n is why would t h e l i a b i d i t y t o p e r f o r m week-work

b e u s e d a s a t e s t o f u n f r e e d o i ~ , s u p p o s i n g t h a t l a b o u r d u e s had

L been s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o ~ r a u t e d i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . I f t h a t was

i n d e e d t h e case, t h e l i a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m l a b o u r d u e s would

p r o b a b l y -be d i f f i c u l t t o trace, F i r s t o f a l l , o t h ~ r p o s s i b l e

t es ts i n v o l v i n g c u s t o a s l i k e a e r c h e t a n d t a l l a g e . c o u l d h a v e b e e n u

even more cumbersome ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e s e c u s t o m s were n o t

cometon b e f o r e t E e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) - 7 2 Horeove r , g r a n t e d a

r e s u a p t i o d ~ of demesne c u l t i v a t i o n d h r i n g t h e f irst h a l f o f t h e

t h i r t e e Q n t h c e n t u r y , t h a t many a l o r d s h o u l d h a v e c o n s i d e r e d it

a d v a n t a g e o u s t o r e i n s t i t u t e l a b o u r ' dues ( w h e t h e r t o depend o n

them a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o r w h e t h e r t o u s e them a s a r e s e r v e or a

s u p p l e m e n t t o h i r e d l a b o u r ) is p l a u s i b l e , 7 3 I t is p e r h a p s n o t e - P

wor thy t h a t ' c u s t o r q s l i k e m e r c h e t were becoming %more w i d e s p r e a d i

i n d i c a t o r s of v i l l e i n t e n u r e a f t e r t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y a n d t h a t t h i s was p r a l l e l e d by a s l o u i n g down i n t h e

a o v e n e n t back t o demesne c u l t i v a t i o n , A s i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r , I

d o n.ot know w h e t h e r t h e s e c u s t o m s c o m p l e a e n t e d or w h e t h e r t h e y

m o s t l y d i s p l a c e d t h e l i a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m l a b o u r d u e s a s tests

71 Veek-work was t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o work on t h e demesne o n a reg- n l a r , w e e k l y b a s i s ( u s u a l l y t h r e e times a week) .

72 H i l t o n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y were n o t ; f o r a d i s s e n t i n g o p i n i o n on t h e a a t t e r see p p , 180- 181 of t h e s i s on H a t c h e r .

73 Biller a n d H a t c h e r , pp. 221-224.

o f unfreedoni . One would t h i n k t h o u g h that w i t h demesne

c u l t i v a t i o n r e c e d i n g i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d , l a b o u r d u e s a s a test of -

unfreedom would l o s e some o f t h e i r a p p e a l , I n a n y ' c a s e , t h e /

p r o c e s s o f r e d e f i n i t i o n of v i l l e i n a g e seems to h a v e o u t l i v e d t h e

r e v i v a l o f l a b o u r d u e s f o r a c t u a l ( e v e n tho&ugh p r o b a b l y l i m i t e d )

u s e on r e c o n s t i t u t e d d e n e s n e l a n d s , And i t may h a v e a l s o o u t -

l i v e d t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e of l a b o u r d u e s a s a tes t of n n f reedom.

( I n c i d e n t a l l y : i f i n f l a t i o n r e a l l y e x p l a i n s t h i s move meat o f

s o c i a l and l e g a l c h a n g e s , w h y d i d t h i s movement p e r s i s t a f t e r

a t h e i n f l a t i o n s u b s i d e d ? T h i s ~ o i n t is n o t e l u c i d a t e d i n Har-

I p r o p o s e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h r e e b r o a d a n a l y s e s of t h e

t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e m p h a s i s on l a b o u r d u e s i n England . C e n t r a l

t o t h e f irst t y p e o f a n a l y s i s a r e l a b o u r d u e s i n u s e on demesne

l a n d s a n d / o r t h e i r c h a n g i n g v a l u e o v e r time. B r i d b u r y n s c h r o -

n o l o g y of e v e n t s would be i n c o n s i s t e - n t w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t s sub-

sumed u n d e r t h i s c a t e g o r y Which i m ~ l i e s t h e n o t i o n o f a r e v i v a l

o f l a b o u r d u e s a n d i n which I would p u t , of c o u r s e , P o s t a n 1 s

a c c o u n t , t h e N o r t h and Thomas e x p l a n a t i o n ( a t l e a s t o n e of its

v e r s i o n s ) a n d F e n o a l t e a n s a r g u m e n t . Here, t h e i s s u e of l a b o u r

d u e s a s a test o f u n f r e e d o m is n o t c o n f r o n t e d ; t h e w h o l e g u e s -

t i o n of why v i l l e i n a g e u a s c o d i f i e d i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y is

l e f t nn t o u c hed. A f o c u s on t h i s q u e s t i o n is p r o v i d e d by H i l -

t o n ' s , B e e d ' s a n d , t o a lesser e x t e n t , H a r v e y n s a c c o u n t s . f rom

u h i z h t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i l l e i n a g e e m e r g e s a s a means t o

h e i g h t e n e d m a n o r i a l e x a c t i o n s , And, w i t h i n t h i s a p p r o a c h , t h e r e

D

PAGE 165

is less p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h l a b o u r d u e s i n u s e o n d e m e s n e l a n d s

o r w i t h t h e i r c h a n g i n g v a l u e , A t h i r d p o s s i b i l i t y would b e t o

view the r e d e f i n i t i o n o f v i l l e i n a g e a s d e r i v i n g f r o n t h e l o r d s s

e f f o r t s t o p r e s e r v e m a n o r i a 1 r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y

t h e r e i n - i n t h e f a c e of g r a d u a l l y d i s i n t e g r a t i n g f e u d a l r e l a -

t i o n s h i p s , The s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , t h i s p o s s i -

b i l i t y h a s been e i t h e r e n t i r e l y n e g l e c t e d o r g l o s s e d o v e r b y t h e

r e v i e w e d e x p l a n a t i o n s of t h e r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s ; a n d y e t

some of these e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e e n h a n c e d by a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f

. t h e r e p e r c u s s i o n s of a n e v o l v i n g f e u d a l i s m on- t h e t w e l f t h - a n d

t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h manor,

CEIAPTBB V I I -- - THE EFFECTS Sg43J EDBHATIOE I B T O -

P A G E 166

STUDIES Ql EAHORIAL BEB4Qe4EBT

T h i s c h a p t e r r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e b r o a d h y p o t h e s i s t h a t m o d e l s

whizh f a i l t o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n c ' h a a g e s , . different-es a n d

v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e r u l i n g classes e i t h e r mis-

l e a d o r are i n c o m p l e t e . Hy i n t e n t i o n is t o e x p l o r e f u r t h e r t h e

i d e a t h a t t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e ( a n d t h u s i n d i -

r e c t l y l a b o u r d u e s a s , a test o f u n f r e e d o n ) were p e r h a p s a s much

t h e p r o d u c t o f c h a n g e s i n t h e Lower s t r u c t u r e a t t h e l e v e l of

t h e r u l i n g c lass a s t h e s o l u t i o n t o p r o b l e m s ' p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e

m a n o r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p peg se ( e . t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

l o r d a n d t e n a n t ) , I s h o u l d c l a r i f y t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n I just

made is n o t a d i s t i n c t i o n w h e r e b y I set t h e 8 p o l i t i c a l ' d i n e n -

s i o n o p p o s i t e t o t h e ' e c o n o m i c ' o n e , T o t a l k a b o u t ' c h a n g e s i n

t h e p o w e r s t r u c t u r e a t t h e l e v e l of t h e r u l i n g class* d o e s n o t h

restr ict t h e a n a l y s i s t o p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d d r a t i o n s s i n c e e c o n o m i c

f a c t s c o u l d h a v e u n d e r l a i n s u c h c h a n g e s . S i m i l a r l y , c h a n g e s i n

t h e m a n o r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y b e r e l a t e d t o non-

e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s ; some of F e n o a l t e a ' s a r g u m e n t s e x e m p l i f y t h i s .

Two d i f f e r e n t y e t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a n t i t h e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s

w i l l u n d e r l y t h e c h a p t e r . T h e first of t h e t w o p r o p o s i t i o n s is,

I m u l d s a y , t h e b o l d e r . Its p u r p o s e is t;d\ link t h i r t e e n t h - c e n -

t u r y E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e to o t h e r , p o s s i b l y p a r a l l e l , W e s t e r n

- E u r o p e a n phenomena a n d t o p r e s e n t t h i s ~ n g l i s % - ' o c c u r r e n c e a s

p a r t o f a r a t h e r b r o a d movement , T h e s e c o n d p r o p o s i t i o n m i l l

a p p e a r t o be g o i n g i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s i n c e its i n t e n t i o n .

i s t o p a r t i c u l a r i z e what h a p p e n e d i n E n g l a n d . A d i s c u s s i o n by

il. B l o c h w i l l s e r v e a s its s t a r t i n g p o i n t t o w h i c h w ~ l l b e a d d e d

some; o f t h e t h o u g h t s I p u t f o r t h i n r e g a r d s t o t h e f i s c a l

a d v a n c e o f t h e E n g l i s h m o n a r c h . But l e t me n o t a n t i c i p a t e a n d

l e t me g o b a c k t o w h a t I c h a r a c t e r i z e d as, t h e b o l d e r o f t h e two

p r o p o s i t i o n s .

VILLBIBZLGB AS A K I N TO THE CHARTERS A I D TO THE UEISTUHER

f s u g g e s t e d ea r l i e r i n my t h e s i s t h a t , i n s t e a d of p u t t i n g

t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e on par w i t h w h a t u a s l e f t .

of the F r e n c h s e r v a g e i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h a n d f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s

( o r , f o r t h a t matter, the German R o r g k e i t a n d L e i b e i g e n s c h a f t) , it m i g h t b e more f r u i t f u l t o c o m F a r e E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e u i t h t h e

F r e n c h c h a r t e r s o f l i b e r t i e s . 1 T o some e x t e n t , t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s

c a n b e p u t i n t h e same c a t e g o r y - a c a t e g o r y t h a t w o u l d a l s o

i n c l u d e t h e ~ e r i a i n W e k t u m e r a n d t h e I t a l i a n communes1 e x t e n s i o n

of l i b e r t i e s t o t h e c o n t a d o . O f c o u r s e , t o d o t h i s is q u i t e

c o n t e n t i o u s s i n c e % ~ n g l i s x v i l l e i n a g e h a s b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y I

k known a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n u i t h ' ; ? x t t h e v e r y l e a s t , l e g a l l y d e b i l i -

t a t i n g e f f e c t s on m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n i s w h e r e a s ' t h e F r e n c h char-

ters h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d , m o s t o f t e n , as a d v a n t a g e o u s t o the

F r e n c h p e a s a n t r y ( c o n t e n t i o u s a l s o t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t v i l l e i n a g e

i n v o l v e d l i t i g a t i o n w h i l e t h e c h a r t e r s a n d t h e ~ e i s t u ~ e r ena-

1 S e e pp. 26-28 of t h e s e c t i o n o n F r a n c e . Note t h o u g h t h a t one s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e c h a r t e r s u s u a l l y i n v o l v e d com- m u n i t i e s ( h e n c e , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a p p e l a t i o n of m c o m m u n i t y

; f r a n c h i s e s " ) , v i l l e i n a g e was e s t a b l i s h e d o n a n - i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s .

n a t e d .f rora n e g o t i a t i o n ) , .

What s t r i k e s me abo&t t h e c h a r t e r s o f l i b e r t i e s ( F r e n c h a n d

I t a l i a n ) ; t h e Weis tumer a n d t h e E n g l i s h villeinage of t h e t h i r - . -

t e e n t h c e n t u r y is t h a t t h e y u e r e a l l a f f i r m a t i v e of s o m e , l o r d s *

t a x 3 t i o n p r i v i l e g e s ( t h a t is, of ' s e i g n i o r i a l p a y m e n t s s ) ; i n t h e -

c a s e of I t a l y , ue c a n t h i n k of t h e u r b a n commune a s i m p e r s o n a t -

i n g a l o r d . What c o u l d h a v e i n d u c e d s u c h a movemen t3 By nou a 4

f ami l i a r a r g u m e n t is t h a t t h e l o r d s a s s e r t e d t h e s e p r i v i l e g e s i n

o r d e r t o r a i s e more t a x e s a n d t h a t t h e s e t a x e s a c t e d i n l i e u of

r e n t a l income u h i c h , f o r some r e a s o n , was n o t a& e x p a n d a b l e , .

T h i s , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t of t h e s p e c i f i c r e a s o n s t h a t .c

p r e s u m a b l y s t i m u l a t e d t h e l o r d s i n t o t r y i n g t o -ease t h e i r

i n c o m e , would c o n s t i t u t e o n e p o s s i b l e a p p r o a c h t o t h e q u e s t i o n

posed , T h e o b v i o u s s t u m b l i n g b l o c k though i n p r e s e n t i n g t h e

c h a r t e r s , t h e Heistamer a n d v i l l e i n a g e a s a n a f f i r m a t i o n of t h e

l o r 3 s 1 t a x a t i o n p r i v i l e g e s whose e x v e s s p u r p o s e y a ~ to s u b j e c t

t h e ' m a n o r i a l economy t p h e a v i e ~ i r a p o s i t i o n s i s t h a t t h e r e is -- --- h a r d l y a c o n s e n s u s as t o w h e t h e r t h i s p u r F o s e was i n d e e d r e a l - .

i z e d ( b e i t i n t h e case of tfie Ue i s tu ine r , t h e F r e n c h c h a r t e r s ,

o r even i n t h e case , o f t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e , ) 2

i

An a p p r o a c h e q u a t i n g - 1 e i n a g e t o ' t h e c h a r t e r s a n d t o t h e Yeis- \

turner , on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y were a l l d e s i g n e d t o h e l p t h e -I

l o r a s i n c r e a s e t h e i r m a n o r i a l i n t a k e , would b e t h u s v u l n e r a b l e ,

from t h e s t a r t , u n l e s s it uere b a s e d o~ new e v i d e n c e , O r e lse, -- -

2 See , f o r - i n s t a n c e , J. H a t c h e r o n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of v i l l e i n - a3e i n n E n g l i s h S e r f d o m a n d V i l l e i n a g e : Towards a Reassess- uien tu ; n o t e a l s o t h a t Doby's d i s c u s s i o n of t h e F r e n c h c h a r t e r s ( i n Rural Economy ,. ,) s u q q e s t g were d e a r l y bought .

0

i t wou ld h a v e t o i n c o r p o r a t e a n a r g u m e n t e x p l a i n i n g t h e d i f f e r -

e n t d e g r e e s o f success ( o r of I h i f o r e ) of t h e l o r d s i n ' e a c h of L

the F r e n c h , German, I t a l i a n and E n g l i s h s i t u a t i o n s ( i f i n d e e d

d i f f e r e n c e s t h e r e were).

T h e r e e x i s t s , however , a n o t h e r way of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g ' t h e

loriis* d e t e r a i n a t i o n t o f o r aa l i z e and t h e r e b y assert, t h e ' i r taxa-

t i o n " p r i v i l e g e s - t h r o u g h v i l l e i n a g e , t h e Weisturner or t h r o u g h

c h a r t e r s of l i b e r t i e s , C o u l d we t h i n k of t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s a s

p a r t o f a series of a t t e m p t s by l o r d s t o e f fec t a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n

of i n c o p e aqong t h e m s e l v e s o r p e r h a p s a s p a r t of a t t e a p t s t o '

p r e v e n t s u c h a r e d i g t r i b u t i o n ? F o r a u l a t e d more p o s i t i v e l y , the .

h y p o t h e s i s , h e r e , is t h a t , t h e r e a p p e a r a n c e crf t h e p r i n c i p l e of C

€1 '_ "

t a r u t i o n by some s o v e r e i g n p o w e r - a p r i n c i p l e t h r e a t e n i n g t h e

e x i s t e n c e of l a n d e d l o r d s h i p a s a p o l i t i c a l l o r d s h i p - m i g h t

h a v e e l i c i t e d a number of r e s p o n s e s among t h e r u l i n g classes of

v h i z h v i l l e i n a g e , the c h a r t e r s , a n d the i de i s tumer were a l l f a c - Ir

e ts. O r , s t a t e d i n a somewhat - d i f f e r e n t manner, t h e s u g g e s t e d

a n a l y t i c a l f o c u s is on t h e S e i s t n n e r , v i l l e i n a g e a n d t h e c h a r -

ters a s t h e o u t c o ~ e of i n t e r p l a y be tween t h e p r i n c i p l e of terri-

t o r i a l l o r d s h i p a n d l a n d e d lords hi^ i n i t s , p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t .

The Ueistnaer

What do we know, f o r i n s t a n c e , a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s of t h e Weis- t .

t u a e r a n d what , i n s u b s t d n c e , d i d t h e y e n u n c i a t e ? They were

r e c ~ r d s of l c n s t o a s * t h a t s p r e a d i n t h e t w e l f t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r i e s 3 - r e c o r d s that d o - n o t seem t o have been e m a n c i p a t i n g %7

3 P e r r i n , RLe g r a n d d o a a i n e e n B l l e a a g n e w , p. 144. P e r r i n sug- g e s t s t h a t t h e first Y e i s t u n e r a p p e a r e d a t t h e close of t h e

B 8

i n t h e sense of c o a f e r t i n g f r e e d o m (or its a u r a ) u p o n t h e inhab-

i t a n t s of a s e i g n e u r i e . T h e s e r e c o r d s of r i g h t s a n d o b l i g a t i o n s

s a i d a p p a r e n t l y very l i t t l e a b o u t issues a n d ~ c u s t o m s w r e l a t i n g

t o the management of t h e d e ~ e s n e l a n d s , * I n s t e a d , t h e i r o b j e c t

was, a c c o r d i h g t o P e r r i n , f f to s p e c i f y t h e e x t r a - d o m a i n i a l r i g h t s

of t h e l o r d q 1 5 ' w h i c h , I p r e s u m e , includes a v a r i e t y o f t a x e s ,

i n h z r i t a n c e f j n e s , m o n o p o l y p r i v i l e g e s , etc. A s i n d i c a t e d ear-

l i e r i n t h e t h e s i s , e t h e s e r e c o r d s were i n i t i a t e d by l o r d s , 1 6

o f t e n ecclesiastics, "as a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e p r e t e n s i o n s o f .I

t h e i r a m u e s . R 7 Who were t h e s e a v o u e s ? Ia t h e c o n t e x t of a dis-

c u s s i o n o n t h e o r i g i n s of t h e G e r ~ a n t e r r i t o r i a l i p r i n c i p a l i t i e s ,

G. B a r r a c l o u g h e x p l a i n s how, from t h e l a t e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y

o n u ~ r d s ; g r e a t a r i s t o c r a k i c families t r i e d t o e x t e n d t h e i r pou-

ers of ( j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d - to e x e r c i s e t h e i r r i g h t s of b o v e r n m e n t

o v e r e n t i r e te r r i tor ies .8 H e a l s o s p e c i f i e s t h a i "the most

i m p o r t a n t s h rce of j u r i s d i c t i o n was a d v o c a c y o v e r m o n a s t e r i e s

a n d a o n a s t i c l a n d s ... ( t h a t ) t h e p e r i o d o f t h e I n v e s t i t u r e Con-

t e s t saw a v i d e e x t e n s i o n of s u c h r i g h t s .'.. (and t h a t ) i n t h i s

way t h e p e r i o d o f t h e I n v e s t i t u r e C o n t e s t saw t h e e s g a b l i s h r a e n t

t v e l f t h c e n t u r y .

4 i b i d . R e m e a b e r that, b y t h e n , t h e d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e d e a e s n e H a s o n the vane:

I, 5 i b i d ; (ay literal t r a n s l a t i o n o f P e r r i n w s s t a t e m e n t ) ,

6 See t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n o n Germany, pp. 107-108.

- 7 Ganshof a n d V e r h u l s t i n the C a m b r i d q g E c o n o ~ i c H i s t o r y of Eurozg (&) p. 321- -7

8 G. B a r r a c l o u g h , The = g i n s of Y o d e r n Germanx ( O x f o r d , l 9 6 6 ) , p* 145.

. , , , of new t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t s , a n d t h e s e u n i t s were , t h e n u c l e i

from w h i c h were c r e a t e d t h e p r i n c i p a l i t i e s of l d t e m e d i e v a l Ger- -

I t is; a l s o w o r t h u h i l ' e r e c o l l e c t i n g , i n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h a t

r e n e w e d c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n l a n d e d , j u r i d i c i a l ' a n d u l t i m a t e l y ter-

r i t o r i a l l o r d s was t o g i v e r ise t o t h e s p e c i a l form o f p e r s o n a l

d e p e n d e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p a r t s o f f i f t e e n t h a n d s i x t e e n t h

c e n t u r y G e r ~ a n y - t h a t is, t h e L e i b e i g e n s c h a f t t h a t w o u l d a l l o w -l

C sorae t e r r i t o r i a l p r i n c e s t o e s t a b l i s h f u l l y t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y

a n d , t h e r e f ore, t h e i r f i s c a l a n d j u d i c i a l p o w e r s o v e r self -con-

t a i n e d t e r r i t o r i e s , 1 0 The u s e of this f o r m of L e i b e i g e n s c h a f t

f o l l o w e d a , p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h t h e p r i n c e s ' p o w e r h a d b e e n h e l d

i n c h e c k a p p a r e n t l y by the c o m b i n e d forces of n i a n o r i a l l o r d s a n d

t o w n s ; d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , " e x c e p t o n h i s own d e m e s n e s , t h e

p r i n c e c o u l d i n g e n e r a l o n l y c o n t a c t ' t h e c m m o n p e o y l e ' e i t h e r

t h r ~ u g h t h e town a u t h o r i t i e s o r t h r o u g h t h e m a n o r i a l l o r d s ,

c l e r i c a l a n d l a y ; i n p a r t i c u l a r it was o n l y t h r o u g h a n d w i t h t h e

c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e intermediary p o w e r s t h a t h e c o u l d o b t a i n pay-

m e n t s a n d s e r v i c e s , "11

I n sum, a t t h e o r i g i n s of t h e U e i s t u n e r ( i n t h e . l a t e e l e v e n t h

a n d i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s ) - t h e r e was c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n mano-

r i a l l o r d s ( m o s t l y c ler ical) a n d l o r d s i n p o s s e s - s i o n o f s p e c i a l

---

9 i b i d . , pp, 145-46.

1 0 See pp, 117- 18 o f t h e t h e s i s , i n t h e s e c t i o n o n G e r n a n y .

1 1 B a r r a c l o u g h , p . 331 , An i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n of t h e German e s t a t e s of t h e t h i r t e e n t h a n d f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s i s o n pp, 3 2 0 - 3 3 1 o f B a r r a c l o u g h l s work.

-

PAGE 172

r i g h t s o f j u r i s d i c t i o n , B u t , d i d t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

U e i s t u m e r , s p e c i f i c a l l y , c o n t i n u e t o b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h c o n • ’ l i c t s

b e t w e e n a a n o r i a l l o r d s h i p s ( l a y c l e r i c a l ) a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y

a s s e r t i v e t e r r i t o r i a l l o r d s h i p s ? T 'h i s , I b a n n o t a f f i r m b u t it

would seem p l a u s i b l e t h a t t h e y were t h u s c o n n e c t e d s i n c e , up

'f u n t i l the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ( s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ? ) , m a n o r i a l r

\

l o r d s , i n g e n e r a l , seem to h a v e p r s u e d t h e g e n e r a l p o l i c y o f

e r e z t i n g a s c r e e n between t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s a n d t e r r i t o r i a l

l o r d s , T h e Weisturner c o u l d be t h o u g h t o f a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n i -

t i a t e d by a a n o r i a l l o r d s t o g u a r d a g a i n s t t h e t e r r i t o r i a l l o r d -

s h i p s 8 encroachments - a s t e p t h a t i n v o l v e d s e c u r i n g t h e i r own

r i g h t s on t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s , The n e x t s t e p would i n v o l v e p r o -

tec t i n g t h e i r t a x a b l e b a s i s f r o m d e p r e d a t i o n s b y t h i s c o m p e t i n g

s o u r c e of power , I n w h a t f a s h i o n ? By " l i m i t i n g - t h e p r i n c e ' s -

right t o r a i se t a x e s t o c e r t a i n . . s p e c i f i e d cases a n d p r e v e n t i n g

t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a g e n e r a l power o f t a x a t i o n , " l * I t a p p e a r s

t h a t , for a w h i l e , t h e e s t a t e s formed' i n t h i r t e e n t h - -and' f o u r -

t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Germany s e r v e d t h i s FurGose r a t h e r e f f e c t i v e l y . 1 3

Italian and French charters

I n France -and I t a l y , a d i f f e r e n t p a t t e x n e ~ e r g e d i n t h a t t h e

c h a r t e r s of l i b e r t y were u s u a l l y g r a n t e d by t h e p o s s e s s o r s ' of

t h e t e r r i t o r i a 4 ban. a u t , l i k e t h e Gernian H e i s t u n e r , t h e c h a r - C

ters a l s o r e v o l v e d , i n t h e .main, a r b u n d " t h e e x e r c i s e of t h e ,

r i g h t s of b a n n l * - t h a t .is, rights o f t e r r i t o r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n

12 i ~ i d , , f o o t n o t e 1 on p, 3 3 2 ,

a n d t h u s u l t i a a t e l y rights of t a x a t i o n .

I a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d l s how, i n I t a l y , a r k a n c o a m n i t i e s a p p r o -

p r i a t e d t h e r i g h t s of the'qpan o v e r t h e s & r o u n d i n g c o n t a d o a n d \ " \

h o u t h e y used t h e c h a r t e r s bf l i b e r t i e s t o e x t i n g u i s h t h e p r i -

v a t e r i g h t s of j n r i s d i c t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l a n d l o r d s h i p - a \ -'- \

move t h a t allowed t h e m t o i m p l a % \ t ' h e i r own r i g h t s i n t h e c o n -

tad^. 1 6 I n t e r e s t i n g is t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f the e a r l y a s s o c i a t r i o n s -

from w h i c h t h e communal movement s p r a n g . T h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s

b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r k n i g h t s whose o b j e c t wos very d e f i n i t e l y t o

l i m i t t h e power of t h e i r o v e r l o r d s ( o f t e n b i s h o p s ) a n d w h o s e

" s t r u g g l e c e n t e r e d on t h e c i t ies b e c a u s e i n I t a l y t h e c i t ies ,

t h e r e s i d e n c e s of c o u n t s a n d b i s h o ~ s , were t h e s e a t s o f g o v e r n -

r n e ~ t . ~ ~ l 7 I t is t r u e t h a t o t h e r e l e m e n t s p l a y e d a role i n t h e

t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y communes, T h e i n c r e a s i n g l y f o r c e f u l p r e s e n c e

of ~ B n t m e r c i a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l f o r c e s e x p l a i n s , f o r i n s t a n c e , why

s o n 2 c o a m u n e s e n c o u r a g e d p e a s a n t r a o b i L i t y - 1 8 B u t t h i s s h o u l d n o t

o b s c u r e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o B s u n e s were i n i t i a l l y t h e o u t c o m e of

a s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e lesser l_and'ouning a r i s t o c r a c y a n d t h e

g r e a t e r n o b i l i t y - a s t r u g g l e o v e r t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h e p o w e r s of

1 4 See, f o r i n s t a n c e , . F o u r q u i n a s L o r d s h i e gr& ~ e u d a l i a in s i d d l e Bges p- 180. --- H i s d i s c u s s i o n , however , . i s o n l y a b o u t t h e F r e n c h f r a n c h i s e s ,

15 See, on I t a l y , p. 1 0 5 of t h e t h e s i s . ,, .

16 T o u b e r t , " H i s t o i r e d e L' I t a l i e m e d i e v a l e ( X e - X I I I e s iecle) *, f o o t n d t e 1 , p- 159.

17 B a r r a c l o u g h , p. 149.- . 8 %

18 T o u b e r t , i b i d , ; some t o w n s were e a g e r t o s e c u r e a s a b u n d a n t a l a b o u r force a s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t e x t i l e i n d u s t r i e s ,

gove rnmen t . The c h a r t e r s c a n n o t be d e t a c b e d , I b e l i e v e , from

t h i s b a c k g r o u n d of s t r i fe o v e r t e r r i t o r i a l l o r d s h i p ,

A s f o r F r a n c e , t h e a n a l y s i s g e t s c o m p l i c a t e d becaus.e, as Duby

p u t s i t , t h e power o f t h e ban was ' d e b a s e d B i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y 1 9 ; t h i s power " c e a s e d t o be a p r i v i l e g e r e s e r v e d f o r a

f e u p o w e r f b l ~ e n , ~ 8 2 0 The p r e r o g a t i v e s d e r i v i n g fro* p o s s e s s i o n

o f t h e l o w e r t e r r i t o r i a l ban - " t h e low j u s t i c e , t h e g i t e , t h e

t a i l l e , t h e d i r e c t i o n of c o u n t r y l i f e n z i - o f t e n d e v o l v e d u n t o

" h u m b l e r master, l o r d s o f s i n g l e F a r i s h e s - o r o f a f e E p e a s a n t . h o u s e h o l d s , 2 2 And, sometimes t h e s e p r e r o g a t i v e s "even became

mixed u p w i t h c h a r g e s o n land.Wz3

T h e e n t r e n c h m e n t of t h e p o w e r s of t h e tan t h r o u g h t h e e x t e n -

s i o n of c h a r t e r s of l i b e r t i e s e m b r a c e d t h u s r a t h e r d i v e r s e

i n t e r e s t s , C o u n t s , p r i n c e s , a s well a s lesser l o r d s ( o f t e n , t h e

d e s c e n d a n t s of c a s t e l l a n s whose power had been \ l a r g e l y r e l i n - b

q n i s h e d t o t h e e i s e r g i n g s ta tes , o r t o t e r r i to r ia l p r i n c e d o m s )

e n t e r e d i n t o t h e s e t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h t h e i r d e p e n d e n t communi- .

I * t ies , To draw g e n ~ r a l c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e m o t i v a t i o n

b e h i n d t h e F r e n c h c h a r t e r s is d i f f i c u l t . T h e r e a r e i n s t a n c e s of

c h a r t e r s g r a n t e d f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s by l o r d s d r i v e n t o r e a s - 5

s e r t t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p s u b s e q u e n t t o p o l i t i c a l s t r i f e and warfare

19 D u b y , a u r a l Economy --,, p. 2 4 6 -

20 i b i d . , Y .. -

,21 i b i d , w

2 2 i b i d ,

wi th r i v a l s - z * Uader t h e s e c i r c u a s t a n c e s , the c h a r t e r s seem t o

have s e r v e d t h e p u r p o s e o f v i n n i n g t h e s u p p o r t of t h e d e p e n d e n t

p o p u l a t i o i l e p r o v i d i n g t h e l o r d w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l c a s h , Ye - a l s o know of t h e g r a n t i n g of e x e m p t i o n s a n d p r i v i l e g e s for t h e

p u r p o s e of e n t i c i n g a m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n t o forested lands - a

p o l i c y f a v o u r e d b y t e r r i t o r i a l l o r d s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f e x t e n d i n g

t h e i r p o w e r s a n d of i n c r e a s i n g t h e number of t h e i r t a x p a y e r s . 2 5 k

I n f a c t , some t e r r i t o r i a l l o f d s v e r y much e n c o u r a g e d p e a s a n t

m o b i l i t y . 2 6 ~ c c o r d i n g t o T. E v e r g a t e s , t h e v e r y fo rma t i o n of

t e r r i t o r i a l s t a t e s w i t h t h e i r " g u a r a n t e e of sa fe p a s s a g e s o v e r

l o n g d i s t a n c e s .,, f a c i l i t a t e d r u r a l m i g r a t i o n a n d o p e n e d a via-

b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , , . u h e t h e r a h a r s h l o r d o r

o v e r c r o w d i n g a t home. " 2 7 To t h i s new d e v e l o p m e n t E v e r g a t e s

a t t r i b u t e s some of t h e lesser l o r d s * r e a d i n e s s t o g r a n t c h a r t e r s . - \i

t o t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s so a s t o s e c u r e t h e i r own claims w h i l e a l s o . s p e c i f y i n g t h e m . 2 8 1

N e x t t o t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s i n terms of t h e g r o w t h o f t e r r i t o -

r i a l s o v e r e i g n t y , i n c r e a s i n g p e a s a n t m i g r a t i o n a n d t h e i n t e r c o n -

n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e two, t h e r e i s a s e p a r a t e a n d more s t r a i g h t -

-8

2 4 E v e r g a t e s , , F e u d a l %%sty in the B a A l i a q s of T r o y e s , ,,, ' p, 4 and p. 2 6 . Q

2 7 i b i d , , p. 55. Here, I aay b e somewhat m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g Ever - g a t e s ' t h o u g h t since his r e m a r k k o n c e r n s o n l y t h e f o r a a t i o n 3f t h e t e r r i t o r i a l s t a t e of Champagne; b u t I see no o b v i o u s r e a s o n w h y h i s s t a t e a e n t c o u l d n o t be g e n e r a l i z e d .

2 8 i b i d . , pp, 56-57.

f o r w a r d a r g u m e n t a b o u t t h e g r a n t i n g of l a t e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y 1

c h a r t e r s , E. P e r r q y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c h a r t e r s were t h e n

p r o a p t e d by a f i n a n c i a l i m p a s s e b r o u g h t a b o u t b y r i s i n g p r i c e s

a n d t h e f i x i t y i n t h e p a y m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c u s t o m a r y t e n -

u r e s ; l o r d s s o l d c h a r t e r s of l i b e r t i e s i n o r d e r +to r e p l e n i s h

t h e i r r e v e n u e s . 2 9 T h e * d e b a s e m e n t * . o f t h e p o w e r s of t h e b a n

( i , t h ' e i r p r i o r a c q u i s i t i o n b y a v a r i e t y o f lesser l o r d s , )

proved to b e most u s e f u l : i n t h e d e v o l u t i o n of t h e b a n l a y the

a u t h o r i t y t o g r a n t c h a r t e r s w h i c h e m b o d i e d and, i n soae s e n s e , B

p e r p e t u a t e d p r i v a t e p o w e r s of t a x a t i o n .

E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e *

I n t r $ n g t o i n s e f t t h e E n g l i s h case, w i t h i n t h i s g e n e r a l

f r a m e w o r k of a n a l y s i s , 1 e n c o u n t e r e d a q u e s t i o n t h a t w i l l b e a t

the c o r e o f t h e e n s u i n g d i s c u s s i o n a n d t o w h i c h I h a v e n o cer-

t a i n a n s w e r , ' I p r o g o s e t b d i s t i l l from t h e v a r i o u s a r g u m e n t s i n

t h e l i t e r a t u r e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n e l e m e n t s o f a n a n s w e r t o t h i s i

q u e s t i o n t h a t is of q u i t e d e f i n i t e b e a r i n g o n h ~ w t o i n t e r p r e t

E n g l i s h v i l l e i n a g e . T h e q u e s t i o n i s t h e f o l l o u i n g : wha t d i d t h e 1 ?

lesser d i s p e r s i o n o f t h e p o w e r of t h e ban i n E n g l a n d a u o u n t t o

(by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h ~ r a n c e , f o r i n s t a o c e ? s o Is i t t h p t E n g l i s h

a a n o r i a l l o r d s were, i n g e n e r a l , q u i t e r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e i r

c a p a c i t y t o t a x t h e i r dependants? D u b y ' s a n s w e r t o t h i s ques-

2 9 E. P e r r o y , n o y e n Age d a n s H i s to i r e G e n e r a l e d e s C j v i l i s a - t i o n s p h b l i e e s o u s l a d i r e c t i o n d e f l a u r i c e C r o u z e t ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 7 ) p. 365,

a a n o . r i a 1 ; l o r d s h a d fever monoyoly p r i v i l e g e s ( o v e r ' t h e m i l l , # 30 ghat d o e s i t a m o u n t t o b e y o n d t h e known f a c t t h a t i n g l i s h .

t h e b a k e r y , e tc .) ? S e e Duby, -- R u r a l - Economy -, ,, p. 228.

t i o n , is a r e s o u n d i n g * y e s g . H e t h u s s t a t e s t h a t t a l l a g e a n d

p r o f i t s f r o m j u s t i c e c o n s t i t u t e d a much smaller c o m p o n e n t of t h e

E n g l i s h l o r d s * r e v e n u e s t h a n t h e y d i d o f t h e F r e n c h l o r d s * r e v -

e n u e s . 3 1 And, h e seems t o e n d o r s e a h y p o t h e s i s f o r m u l a t e d b y E l - P e r r o y - t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t ( i n Duby ' s w o r d s ) " t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

m

i n t h e s y s t e m s o f t a x a t i o n i n F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d ., , [ e x p l a i n ]

t h e d i v e r g e n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e ma nagemen t o f . t h e y r ea t d e m e s n e i n h

t h e two c o u n t r i e s a t t h e e n d of o . t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , If t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f the E n g l i s h m o n a s t i c m a n o r s worked u n c e a s i n ' g l y

- . t o ra ise t h e o u t p u t of t h e m a n o r i a l f i e l d s , i t was b e c a u s e t h e

p o w e r of t h e r o y a l a u t h o r i t y s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d t h e i r r i g h t s of .P

t a x a t i o n , " 3 2 C l e a r l y , t h i s s t a t e r e e n t p o i n t s t o l i m i t e d (weak)

p o v z r s of t a x a t i o n i n t h e h a n d s of E n g l i s h m a n o r i a l l o r d s o f t h e

e n d of t h e t v e l f t h c e n t u r y . B u t more t h a n t h i s , t h e g e n e r a l , b

i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e w e a k n e s s of t h e i r t a x ' c o m p o a e n t

u a s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e E n g l i s h l o r d s * re v e n u e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e

t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y - R e a l l y , t h e n o t i o n e x p r e s s e d by P e r r o y and - -

t a k e n u p b y ~ ' u b y i s that t h i s w e a k n e s s was a t y p i c a l a n d l a s t i n g t

4

f e a t u r e of t h e E n g l i s h m a n o r i a l s c e n e w h i c h w o u l d seem t o p r e -

c l u d e t a x a t i o n a s . t h e m e a n s t h r o u g h w h i c h E n g l i s h l o r d s c o u l d --

31 Duby, Rural E c o n o m y ,. ,, p. 228.

3 2 D u b y , i b i d , : 9, P e r r o y , n S e i g n e u r i e e t B a n o i r , A n n a l e s ; Econ- omies S o c i e t e s , C i v i l i s a t i o n s , 196 1 , p. 119, P e r r o y a l s o -- m e n t i o n s t h e f a c t t h a t F r e n c h s e i g n e u r s were i n p o s s e s s i o n o f l a y t i t h e s w h i c h p r o v i d e d t h e n w i t h a r e g u l a r s u p p l y of pay- m e n t s i n k i n d ; t h i s a c c o r d i n g t o P e r r o y , m i g h t e x p l a i n , i n p a r t , t h e s e i g n e u r s P lesser i n t e r e s t i n d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n . S e e t h e p a r a l l e l d i s c u s s i o n of P o u r q u i n i n L o r d s h i 2 , -., p. 1 7 2 ; here, F o u r q u i n h i g h l i g h t s ( a s a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e w i d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n of b a n a l p o w e r s ) t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of a g r o u p of i n t e r m e d i a r i e s i n cha rge o f a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e s e p o w e r s .

a d j u s t t h e i r i n c o m e , i n r e s p o n s e t o some e x o g e n o u s c h a n g e ; g i v e n

i n e l a s t i c s e i g n i o r i a l p a y m e n t s a n d i n r e s p o n s e t o s u c h a c h a n g e , \ ,

m a n o r i a l l o r d s w o u l d f a l l b a c k o n d i r e c t d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t i o n . f -.

Yith i n this p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f v i l l e i n a g e c o u l d

h a v e s e r v e d ( a m o n g s t o t h e r s ) t h e s p u r p o s e of a f f o r d i n g t h e l o r d s

w i t h s o m e l a b o u r d u e s , Nov t h e t h e o r y b e h i n d t h i s h y p o t h e s i s is

u n c l e a r s i n c e t h e r ' e is n b g p x i o r i r e s o n t o a b e l i e v e t h a t r e n e g o -

t i a t e d s h o r t - t e r m leases o n d e m e s n e l a n d s were n o t a n o p t i o n , o r

t h a t t h e y w o u l d y i e l d l ess , t h a n - M e p r o c e e d s from d i r e c t d e s a s n e

c u l t i v a t i o n ; n o t e a l s o t h a t n e i t h e ; r e n e g o t i a t e d l eases o n

d e m e s n e l a n d s n o r t h e r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t d e m e s n e c u l t i v a t o n

w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a m e a n s t o r e c o u p losses o n o t h e r i n c o m e - g e n e r -

a f i n g asse ts . F i n a l l y , t h i s v i e i r o f ~ n g l l s h m a n o r i a l l o r d s

c o u l d ' b e i n t e r p r e t e d t o imply a n o n - m a x i m i z i n g b e h a v i o u r o n /

t h e i r p a r t , o v e r most o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , P e r h a p s a k i n t o

E. niLler* s a n a l y s i s , t h e P e r r o y - D u b y - F o u r c i u i n p r o p o s i t i o n

could, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h a ' ~ e n o a l t e a - t y p e

a r g u m e n t o n d i f f e r e n t i a l t e c h n i c a l a b i l i t i e s .

An a l t e r n a t i v e a r g u m e n t , b a s e d cn R , H i E t o n g s d a t a , is C. .. -/ ' Reel 's. Its s u b s t a n c e is d e f i n i t e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e P e r r o y -

D u b y - P o u r q u i n p r o p o s i t i o n i n a s m u c h a s i t asserts t h a t , a t t h e

e n d of the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , t h e f o r m a s w e l l a s t h e a a o u n t o f

E n g l i s h m a n o r i a l p a y m e n t s c h a n g e d - t h e t e n d e n c y b e i n g t o w a r d .r *

e x a c t i n g rsore a n d l a r g e r s e i g n i o r i a l ~ a y a e n t s . 33 w i t h i n t h i s -. ,

p e r s p e c t i v e , v i l l e i n a g e a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e * -

33 See my p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n of. t h i s h y p o t h e s i s o n pp- 53-56.

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PAGE 179

l o r d s * d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o o b t a i n h i g h e r p a y ~ e n t s i n t h e face of , *

s u b s t a n t i a l r e s i s t a n c e ; f r o m t h i s , o n e w o u l d d e d u c e t h a t , i n - t h e

l o n g r u n , v i l l e i n a g e s e r v e d a s a c o s t - r e d u c i n g i n s t i t u t i o n . I n

w h a t m a n n e r ? By d e n y i n g t h e d e p e n d a n t s access t o r o y a l c o u r t s

a n d , h e n c e , t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o n t e s t t h e i r l o r d s 1 i m p o s i t i o n s ,

N o t e how t h e n o t i o n of v i l l e i n a g e a s a n e f f i c i e n t means of c o e r -

c i o n i s c r i t i c i s e d by Hyams who q u e s t i o n s , i n h i s work o n t h e

commos law of v i l l e i n a g e , 3 4 t h e e x t e n t t o which " t h e new t h e o r y

o f t h e i r u n l i m i t e d a u t h o r i t y o v e r v i l l e i n 2 a d d e d -.. t o [ t h e

l o r d s 1 1 r e a l p o u e r , N 3 s T h e p o i n t Hyams t r i e s t o make is t h a t

m a n o r i a l l o r d s g o t l i t t l e r o y a l a s s i s t a n c e , i n cases of. i n s u b o r -

d i n a t i o n - t h a t t h e y @#were e x p e c t e d t o d o t h e i r own d i r t y

u o r k , " 3 6 Y e t w h e t h e r common law v i l l e i n a g e f o s t e r e d c o m p l i a n c e

a m o n g s t m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s is a s o m e u h a t d i f f e r e n t a n d p r o b a b l y

more c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n f o r t h e p e r s p e c t i v e u n d e r s c r u t i n y . 'I

A t h i r d p o s i t i o n i s H a t c h e r ' s - H e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a t l ea s t

s o m s s e i g n i o r i a l p a y m e n t s s u c h a s h e r i o t , t a l l a g e a n d l e y w r i t e

a n t e d a t e t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d s u g g e s t s t h a t , i n t h e i r

e a r l y d a y s , h e r i o t a n d t a l l a g e may h a v e been e v e n h e a v i e r a s 4-

well a s more a r b i t r a r y t h a n t h e y would s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c o m e - 3 7 H e

r e c ~ g n i z e s t h a t t h e p r e v a l e n c e a n d w e i g h t o f s e i g n i o r i a l pay-

m e n t s ~ , d u r i n g t h e e l e v e n t h a n d t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s , a r e a a t t e r s o f --

34 ' B y a i s , Kings, Lords an4 P e a s a n t s p* 2 0 2 ,

36 i b i d . , p- 264-65.

37 J a t c h e r ' s s t a t e m e n t is' b a s e d on r e s e a r c h by J. S c a m m e l l . See f o o . t n o t e 10 on p. H a t c h e r ' s M E n g l i s h V i l l e i n a g e ., .",

8

c o n t r o v e r s y ( u h i l e n o t i n g i n p a k s i n g " t h e d a n g e r s from a r g u i n g

f r o m t h e s i l e n c e of r e c o r d s d a t i n g from a n era when r e l a t i v e l y t

l i t t l e u a s c o m m i t t e d t o w r i t i n g N ) -38 Yet he , h i m s e l f , h a s n o

d$ff i c u l t i e s s p & u l a t i n g t h a t t h e s e e x a c t i o n s m i g h t h a v e b e e n

r a t h e r h e a v y i n t h i s e a r l y p e r i o d , T h e g i s t of H a t c h e r ' s a r g u -

ment i s t h a t t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y b r o u g h t a b o u t a c l a r i f i c a -

t i o n of a n e x i s t i n g s t a t e o f a f f a i r s - a c l a r i f i c a t i o n t h a t may

n o t , h a v e b e e n d e v o i d of a p o s i t i v e i m p o r t f o r m a n o r i a l t e n a n t s .

I n H a t c h e r , t h e r e is a n e m p h a s i s o n v i l l e i n a g e a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n 4

t h a t p e r p e t u a t e d c u s t o m . G i v e n t h e p r e v a l e n t d e m o g r a p h i c c o n d i -

t i o n s a n d i n f l a t i o n , H a t c h e r c o n s i d e r s c u s t o m a s s o l i d i f i e d i n I

v i l l e i n a g e t o h a v e b e e n a d v a g t a g e o u s t o m a n o r i a l t e n a n t s , Con-

s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s v i e w w o u l d b e the i d e a t h a t , i n c l a r i f y i n g

e x i s t i n g r e l a t i o n s , v i l l e i n a g e w o u l d a l s o f a c i l i t a t e t h e c o n v e r -

s i o n o f t h e l o r d s 1 p r e r o g a t i v e s i n t o a money-form a n d t h a t , f o r

t h e t e n a n t s , t h i s ,would e v e n t u a l l y mean a g r e a t e r m e a s u r e o f

c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r c h o i c e o f r e s i d e n c e a n d o v e r t h e i r f a m i l y

s i t u a t i o n - 3 9 What is t h e s p e c i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n o f f e r e d fo r t h e '

t i m i n g o f v i l l e i n a g e ( i -e . , f o r t h e t w e l f t h - t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y

p a r t i c u l a r n e e d f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n ) ? H a t c h e r ' s a n s w e r is,

r e a l l y , Hyam9 s: #*The reform a n d e x t e n s i o n o f r o y a l j u s t i c e

n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of r u l e s t o d e t e r m i n e . , v h o had ' t h e -

r i g h t o f access t o i t , It was n e v e r f o ? a moment i n t e n d e a t h a t

c r o w n c o u r t s s h o u l d be o p e n t o a l l l o u l y f o l k a n d t o t h e p e t t y

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38 i b i d , , p , 29

39 H a t c h e r , p. 10.

d i s p u t e s w i t h t h e i r l o r d s ; s u c h a n i u t e n t i o n would n o t o n l y h a v e

been c o m p l e t e l y u n w o r k a b l e i n p r a c t i c e , i t w o u l d h a v e a p p e a r e d

a b s u r d t o c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . ' # * o

C l e a r l y t h e n t h e n o t i o n o f a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c h a r -

ters, the W e i s t u r a e r a n d v i l l e i n a g e u o u l d h a v e t o rest on some

a s s u m p t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e l a t t e r a n d s e i g a i o r -

i a l p a y m e n t s , H o r e a c c u r a t e l y , v i l l e i n a g e w o u l d h a v e t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s a n o c c u s r e n c e o f c o n s e q u e n c e i n terms o f w h a t h a p - * +

p e n e d t o t h e t a x a t i o n p o w e r s o f E n g l i s h m a n o r i a d l o r d s . I n

o t h e r words, s h o u l d u e c h o o s e t c f o l l o w the r o u t e of d r a w i n g a

p a r i l l e l b e t w e e n t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d W e s t e r n - E u r o p e a n o c c u r -

r e n c e s , w e would h a v e t o p u t a s i d e t h e P e r r o y - D u b y - F o u r y u i 4 * f r a m e w o r k o f a n a l y s i s - a r a t h e r b a r r e n f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e pu r -

p o s e o f s e t t i n g u p t h i s p a r a l l e l . The c h o i c e lekt t o u s a p p e a r s 2 t o b e t w o f o l d : t o associa te v i l l e i n a g e e i t h e r w i t h a c o n f i r

- 4 t i o n o r with a n e x t e n s i o n of s e i g n i o r i a l r i g h t s , ( N o t e t h a t i n

i t s e l f , t h e P e r r o y - D u b y - P o u r q u i n h y p o t h e s i s is n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e

w i t h t h e n o t i o n of v i l l e i n a g e a s c c n f i r m a t i o n of e x i s t i n g s e i g -

n i o r i a l r i g h t s - a s s u m i n g a r a t h e r l i r e i t e d se t of s u c h r i g h t s ,

T h e c o n j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e h y p o t h e s i s a n d t h i s n o t i o n is * l o g i c - '

a l l y tenable b u t n o t v e r y l i k e l y , f o r why would m a n o r i a l l o r d s \

'5

a n d t e n a n t s e n g a g e i n q ' u i t e c o s t l y d i s p u t e s i f wh'at was a t s t a k e

u e s e weak t a x a t i o n r i g h t s ? )

4 0 i b i d . , p. 3 4 ,

V i l l e i n a g e a s i n v o l v i n g a c o n f i r a a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g s e i g n i o r - . ,

i a l r i g h s w h e r e b y a r b i t r a r y p e r s o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s were c o n v e r t e d

i n t o a a i m p e r s o n a l f i n a n c i a l b u r d e n w o u l d be a k i n t o t h e -

c h a r t e r s a n d t o t h e Y e i s t u m e r , B u t t h e n we would still h a v e t o 3

a s k o t a ~ ~ e l v e s : why c o u l d n o t a c l a r i f i c a t i o n be o b t a i n e d i n a R'

W e i s t u m - t y p e form? Why d i d it F r o v e t o b e , s o c o s t l y a p r o c e -

d u r ~ , a n d a s a c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h i s q u e s t i o n ; u h y was it c o u c h e d . .

i n terms of u n f r e e d o m ? A s a p l a u s i b l e s e q u e n c e of ' e v e n t s : t h e

a d v a n c e o f r o y a l j u s t i c e - i n t e r p r e t e d as a n n o u n c i n g g r e a t e r

r o y a l f i s c a l l e v e r a g e - a c t e d a s an i n c e n t i v e f o r l o r d s t o clar-

i f y t h e i r t a x a t i o n p r i v i l e g e s . T h i s p r o v e d c o s t l y ( i . e. was

d i s p u t e d ) t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t d e p e n d a n t s s a u , i n t h e r o y a l

c o u r t s , a p o t e n t i a l f o r e v a s i o n . H a t c h e r t e l l s u s t h a t , t h r o u g h

v i l l e i n a g e , m a n o r i a l l o r d s were m e r e l y p r e v e n t i n g t h e i r t e n a n t s

f r o m d i v e s t i n g t h e a s e l v e s f rcm r a t h e r c u s t o m a r y o b l i g a t i o n s .

T h e p r o b l e m w i t h this a r g u m e n t i n w h i c h c l a r i f i c a t i o n i s p r e -

s e n t e d as t h e r e s u l t of the r a t h e r i n n o c u o u s a d v a n c e o f r o y a l

j u s t i c e is t h a t i t d o e s n o t e x p l a i n why r o y a l c o u r t s c o u l d aot

be rel ied u p o n i n cases o f l i t i g a t i o n w i t h m a n o r i a l t e n a n t s , *

E x c l u d i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t v i l l e i n a g e r e p r e s e n t e d a n admin-

i s t r a t i v e s o l u t i o n t o w h a t was p e r c e i v e d a s a p o t e n t i a l o v e r b u r -

d e n i n g of %he r o y a l c o u r t s y s t e m , t h a t t h e l o r d s s t r o v e t o l i m i t

the e x t e n t o f r o y a l i n t e r v e n t l o n i n t h e i r a f f a i r s m i g h t h a v e

i n d i c a t e d t h e i r u n c e r t a i n t y a s t o t h e f u t u r e c o u r s e of s u c h

i n t e r v e n t i o n .

H o w i n Germany , t h e s i t u a t i o n a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e Y e i s t u m e r

d e v e l o p e d was d i f f e r e n t ; t h r o u g h t h e s e r e c o r d s o f - r i g h t s a n d

o b l i g a t i o n s , n a n o r i a l l o r d s were from t h e d e p e n d a n t s ' . p a i n t of

view p e r h a p s h e l p i n g m i t i g a t e t h e o p p r e s s i v e demands e m a n a t i n g

- frpm a t h i r d par- ty - t h a t is, t h e l o r d wi th . t e r r i t o r i a l a a b i - ' I

t i o n s . S t i l l , it c o u l d be a r g u e d t h a t v i l l e i n a g e was c l o s e r t o

t h e Weis$uaer ' t h a n t o the c h a r t e r s - a s s u m i n g t h a t b o t h v i l l e i a - 8

. , age a n d - t4e Wei'stuarer d i d i n d e e d r e f l e c t a t t e m p t s by m a n a r i a l

. - 4 l o r d ? t o prese=% t h e u n i t y be tween p o l i t i c a l and l a n d e d l o r d -

e? 3 * 5' *+ *

s h i p - The c h a r t e r s , on t h e o t h e r hand, were o f t e n d i s q p t i v e of k , -4.

t h a t u n i t y , i n p a r t i c u l h i n I t a l y . 4 1 .... , -. 1

T u r n i n g t o t h e H i l t o n - R e e d v e r s i o n d f , e v e n t s , to t h e e x t e n t

t i a t it. f o c u s e s o n t h e f i n a n c i a l c c n s e g u e n c e s of v i l l e i b a p , it

P i s a o t i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a n a t t e m p t a t l i n k i n g v i l l e i n a g e t o t h e

U e i s t u a e r hnd t o t h e c h a r t e r s . I n f a c t , ' R. H i l t o o d o e s draw a

p a r a l l e l . bet ,ween English a n d ~ r e n c h d e v e l o p m e n t s uhe& s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t t h ' e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n b a n a l e i n F r a n c e

a c c o n i p l i s h e d what v i l l e i n a g e d i 8 i n Edg land : "an e v e n i n g o u t a s '

well a s a r a i s i n g of t h e l e v e l o f s u r p l u s t r a n s f e r from t h e mass

of t h e p e a s a n t r y " . 4 2 ( H i s s o u r c e o n F r a n c e is l i k e l y ~ u b ' y ! ) I f .

c o r r e c t , t h i s s t a t e m e n t y a u l d c e r t a i n l y weaken e x p l a n a t i o n s o f '

v i l l e i n a g e a s a means t o w a r d s h e i g h t e n e d i a p q s i t i o n s i n terms o f ,'

v a r i a b l e s s u p p o s e d l y u n i q u e t o Eng land ( f o r i n s t a n c e , ' i n -terms

4 1 I n c i d e n t a l l y , v i l l e i n a g e f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n p u r p o s e s is n o t i n c o n s i s t e n t u i t h g e n & r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e e v o l o t i m of E n g l i s h r o y a l power o v e r the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . I f t h e tempo- r a r y w e a k e n i n g of r o y a l pover ( a r o u n d t h e mid - twe l f t h c e n - t u r y ) e n t a i l e d a s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e & f a c t o t a x a t i o n lev'- e r a g e of m a n o r i a l l o r d s t h i s c o u l d e x p l a i n why, f o l l o k i n g t h e r e v i v a l o f t h i s power, m a n o r i a l l o r d s would t r y t o r e t a i n t h e i r l e v e r a g e by f o r m a l i z i n g - it.

42 3 i l t o n , The Decline of S e r f d o m .. ,, p. 4,

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a l l o w e d bhe l a r d s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r t a k e ( r e c o g n i s i n g the con-

t r o v e r s i a a s p e c t of t h i s conc lu&on) a s s u e e d i f f e r e n t forms?

VILLEIIAGE. A SI16ULAR BBEBT, $S RELAFBD TO THE CBOUI'S - J U B I D I C ~ AIB FISCAL A D V ~ I C B . IU T E I ~ THELPTB AED THXRTEB~OTB

C B E T ~ ~ R I B S -

v i l l e i n a g e as a s p e c i f i c a l l y ' E n g l i s h i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t s h o u l d L

n o t be t r e d t e d a s t h e [email protected] of t h e French s e r v a g e of t h e b .

thirteenth, f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s is a theme

expoudded by •’4- - B l o c h , i n " C o n t r i b u t i o n toward? a Compara t ive , 9

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tics f rom t e v e r y s p e c i a l ' p o % i t i c a l c i r c n m s t a n c e s i n w h i c h i t i -x

w a s b o r n - Q * * V i l l e i n a g e r e s u l t e d from t h e p r e c o c i o u s deve lopment ,

* - o f r o y a l j u s t i c e - a p r e c o c i o u s n e s s t h a t , however, "had i ts d i s -

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- . a d v a n t a g e s , T h e s t a t e o f , s o c i e t y a s t h e n c o n s t i t u t e d * t s e a n t t h a t - - - - - -- -- - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - -

' t h e ( r o y a l ) j u d g e s cane up a g a i n s t a f r o 7 n t i e r which t h e y were

, n o t a b l e t o c r o s s u n t i l - t h e v e r y end of t h e B i d d l e Ages- They

: had t o -make s u r e n e v e r t o i n t e r v e n e between f e u d a l l o r d s . and ~.

' - t h q s e who held . l a n d from them. i n * v i l l e i n a g e 1 a-, The s t a t u s o f

t h e s e t e n a n t s v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y ,,, B u t a l l of them, w h a t e v e r a

. t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l s t a t u s , were p a s s e d by when it was a q u e s t i o n

4 3 _ Bloch , "A C o n t r i b u t i o n Towards a Compara t ive H i s t o r y of ~ u r o p e h Societiesw, Land &g H e d i a e v a i Europepp S e l e c t e d P a p e r s b~ g, Bloch- tr. by JOE. Anderson (Londoni --

" 1 9 6 7 ) ; See, pp. 58-6.2-

44 i b i d . , p- 59. Bloch t e l l s us , h e r e , t h a t h e is e s s e n t i a l l y r e i t e r a t i n g ~ i n o ~ r a 4 o f f 8 s - p o s i t i o n a s t h i s a p p e a r s in I&- L e i n a q e & Enqland.

w

- of royal j ~ r i s d i c t i a i . 1d their r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r l o rds - -

(and o n l y i n t h e s e ) t h e y u e r e c o m p l e t e l y o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f .

t h e king's c o a e s ,-; The r e s u l t was t h a t i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e - i

. * t h i r t e e n t h c e h f a r g . they ama lgama ted o n t h e b a s i s of t h i s i n c a - I c 5 ". p a c i t y . I n k r l n c e , a n t h e o t h e r hand , r o y a l justice was n u c h

slower i n d e v e l o p i n g . E , v e n t u a l l y t h o u g h , a n d q u i t e in ; id ;ous ly

( t h r o u g h a p p e a l s ) , t h e r o y a l j u d g e s would come i n be tween t h e

s e i g n e u r a n d h i s t e n a n t a n d m i n s o d o i n g t h e 3 made - n o k in$ of

d i s t i n c t i o p betpea. the d e p e n d a n t s of t h e l o r d ; n + ' ,

B p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n a t t h i s p i n t i s w h e t h e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h LJ ' \

. r o y a l justice, r o y a l f i s c a l p o w e r s d e v e l o p e d r e l a t i v e l a e a r l y i n

E n g l a n d a n d ( i f t h e y d i d ) u h e t h e ~ t h i s a d v a n c e a l so s t o p p e d

* shbrt of e i b r a c i n g m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s . BY l a y i n g c l a i a ' t o ad

i n c r e a s i n g number o,f' l a w s u i t s - t h e k i n g (Henry 11) was certainly -.

i n c r e a s i n g his r e v e n u e s w h i l e weaken ing - h i s f ' e , uda l barons .47

But, b e s i d e s t h e f i n a n c i a l g a i n s i m p l i c i t i n t h i s r j u r i d i c a l - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a d v a n c e , were t h e r e , o t h e r ways i n v h i c h t h e raonarchy was break- -

i n g f i s c a l g r o u n d s ? A t i s s u e a r e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n two

d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t . f o rmed , o n . t h e s u r f ace, an u n l i k e l y c o ~ b i n a - .i ' d

t i o n : an i n c r e a s i n g l y . g g c e n t r a l i z e d f e u d a l i s r n n 4 8 a c c o m p a n i e d by

l e g i s l a t i o n s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t " t h e l o r d owns his v i l l e i n

46 ibid, 61, . - - - -

- -- 4 7 S,B- S t r a y e r a n d t h e l a t e Dana C, Mnnro, - The k i d d l e ---

395-1500 ( l e u P o r k , 1 9 5 9 ) , pp. 382-87. - Ages -

48% I h a v e bo r rowed t h e term f roa P. Anderson. S e e h i s N T y p o l o y y of S o c i a l F o r m a t i o n n i n P a s s a q s Prom I j n t i q u i t v to F e u d a l i s m , p - 158,

. -.. +

-$ - PAGE '186 T . !

~ b a t t e l . ~ a 9 (In 8agaa C a r t a t h e v i l l e i n was n p r o t e c t e d on ly as, -

>.--#

p r o p e r t y W s o of h i s l o r d , ) -- -

' T h e r e is l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t , t o w a r d s t h e e n d , of t h e t w e l f t h

c e n t u r y , . r o y a l t a x a t i o n , u a s ' s t i r r i n g a b o u t * ; t h e A n g e v i n kings , ,,, --

/

vere l o o k i n g f o r 'ways t o i n c r e a s e their r e v e n u e s wh ich c o n s i s t e d .

-. of d o n a n i a l , f euada l a n d r e g a l i a n i n c o m e ( t h e l a t t e r d e r i v i n g , - .

s p e c i f i c a l l y , from t h e e x e r c i s e of- r o y a l power) - 5 1 Hence, t h e I ,

d e v e l o p m e n t of g e n e r a l t a x e s o n mov$bles m o a e l l e d , i t seems, i ! These t a x e s - on m o v a b l e s , a f t e r some of t 'he C r u s a d e t i t h e s . i

which d e v e l o p e d q u i t e . r a p i d l y be t ,veen ' t h e 1 1 8 6 ' s a n d t h e i \

1. . 12UOas,s2 p r o v e d to be l a c r a t i v e bu? ~ r e n t a i n e d e x t r a o r d i n a r y and

'

/ I , *

a s s u c h t h e y r e q u i r e d c o n s e n t of ,dhe ,' t a x p a y e r s or t h e i r repre' 4 / '

f 3,

s e n t a t i v e s , n * 3 It is . n o t clear w h e t h e r t h e s e t a x e s were d e r i v e d . %\. f rom feudal c u s t o m o r f r o m Boaaan law, T h e q u e s t i o n is n o t - ~ r i v -

i a l , . . I f d e r i v e d from f e u d a l c u s t o m , t h e s e t a x e s would h a v e t o

be c o n s i d e r e d a s c r u c i a l - l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e c o n s e n t of the g - - -

t e i a n t s - i n - c h i e f . On t h e o t h e r hand , a s t h e o f f s h o o t of Byman \ C.

c o n c e p t s , t h e y would r n r e p r e s e n t t h e s u p e r i o r - r i g h t of t h e ruler

t o i m p o s e b u r d e n s f o r t h e common good when t h e n e c e s s i t y of the

s t a t e demanded ,,, where c o n s e n t was given it v a s t a c i t , formal

49 Hyaas , Kinq , L o r d s and P e a s a n t s ,, p. 2

SO S t r a y e r a n d f lunro, g& B i d d l ~ &%g, p, 293-

'51 P,A C a z e l , T f o y a l T a x a t i o n i n T h - i f t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g f a n & n , -

Leinmt d a n s & c a d r e de &a v i l l e g_t & L 9 E l a t Co l loc rue . Lnternatiopal (Spa , 1964) pp. 101-104,

52 BOP. Eolffe, T h e R o y a l D e m e s n e w h History, p, 27,

5 3 Cazel, p, 106.

PAGE I87

. c o n s e n t t o t h e n e c e s s i t y s u c h as was 7 g i v e n by s u i t e r s - t4-Qe - - -_ < ... ... . . .., judgment of a c o n r t , H s + 4 0 t e t h a t - t h e n o t i o n o f d. common good ,

A

o v e r r i d i n g p r i v a t e r i g h t s h a d been embedded i n t h a t , ~ a n e g e l d * - a '

t a i t h a t v e n t back t o i n g l o - ~ a i o n d a y s and whose j u s t i f i c a t i o . 5

was p o s g i b l e e m e r g e n c i e s a r i s i n g o u t of f o r e i g n a t t a d c s o f t h e +p

real.. l e v i e d on ' p r o p e r t y a n d a p p a r e n t l y n o t v e r y prof i tab lQ, ,

r

t h i s t a x was s h e l v e d i n ' t h e 11 60's; s h o r t l y ' b e f o r e the i n p o s i - I. f *

, t i o n o f t h e new t a x e s o n movables , i t was r e v i v e d u h d e r t h e f o ~ w ' ~ ' <" . i

."

of a C a r u c a g e - 5 s But its y i e l d s t o b e a g a i n q u i t e Bodest .

R o y a l t a l l a g e is a n o t h e r t a x t h a t ' h a s been l i n k e d t o t h e

gzoutt t Of n a t i o n a l t a x a t i o n . R-S, Hoyt , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r g u e s

t h a t " t h e g rowth of th-e iealmn (i-e., t h e p r o c e s s b y which f e u -

d a l r e l a t i o n s w e r e - d i s p l a c e d by r e l a t i o n s between k i n g a n d sub-

ject)s6 was f u r t h e r e d by fiscal d e v e l o p m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

c o l l e c t i o n o f r o y a l t a l l a g e a n d t h a t b o t h t h e t w e l f t h and t h e

P * t h i s t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s were c r u c i a l a s r e g a r d s t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , - -- - -

I n my o p i n i o n , some o f H o y t g s a r g u m e n t s c o u l d l e n d s u p p o r t t o

t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t a c o n t e s t o v e r t a x a t i o n p r e r o g a t i v e s ( a l b e i t P

a t a c i t ' , c o n t e s t ) c o u l d h a v e been. a t t h e s o u r c e o f v i l l e i n a g e ; i w i l l b e s k e t c h i n g t h e s e a r g u m e n t s below b u t u i l l n o t d w e l l on

t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e g r e a t n a t i o n a l t a x e s o f $he f o u r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y a l t i a a t e l y d e r i v e d from r o y a l t a l l a g e . \

T h i s question

-

5 4 C.L. f f a r r i s s , K i n q , ~ a r l i a m ~ g , E u b l i c g i n a ~ e &g n e d i - g=l EncrlanJ 9 I369 ( ~ x f o r d , 1975) ; S e e - t h e c h a p t e r bn *The origins of N a t i o n a l T a x a t i o n n , pp. 3-26* . -

55 C a z e l , p. 104-

56 B.S. 'EIoyt, "Royal T a x a t i o n and t h e Growth o f t h e Reala i n M e d i a e v a l England," SEeculua, Bola 25 (1950) p. 37.

- h a s b e e n d f s c u s s e d at lengths7 b u t is pe r i eh8La1 t o &he obdect

of my i m b e d i a t e ihterest, i t h a t is. ' th% degree ' t o w h i c h r o y a l 1

power *as t r y i n g t o e x t e n d i ts f i s c a l r e a c h a s i t was s i m u l t a n e -

o u s l y d e v e l o p i n g common law p r o c e d ' u r e s , a t t h e close of . t h e

t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . And, t o c a n s i r t h i s , some of t h e f a c t s c o n - de -

c e r n i a g t h e e v o l u t i o n of r o y a l t a l l a g e ( a <

c r i b e d b y Roy-t)

are; I t h i n k , v e r y r e v e a l i n g , work on t h e

E n g l i s h r o y a l demesne, - The c o n c e p t ;of a r o y a l demesne was i n t e r t w i n e d , i n t h e ?,

t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n of . r o y a l

t a l l a g e s o t h a t " t o a s t u d e n t o f g o v e r n m e n t f i n a n c e i t appears

t h a t ' r o y a l demesne* s i g h t i n o r i g i n e v e n be & l e d a f i s c a l

term; that i t was the e v o l u t i o n of r o y a l ' t a l l a g e which i t s e l f

c r e a t e d t h e concept a s a terra i n t h e workings of t h e E n g l i s h

g o v e r n m e n t , ns8 D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , r o y a l demesne, Hwas a f i sc i l

i o n c e h t i d e n t i f i a b l e a s t o e s o r mngrs l i a b l e t o this t an . " 5 9 -

B p r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , it was t o w a r d s t h e l a t e t w e l f e h c e n t u r y t h a t

t h e b o r o u g h s were t r a n s f o r a e d i n t o r o y a l demesne i n o r d e r t o b e

t a l l a g e d . B r i e f l y - t h e n , what were t h e f e a t u r e s of t h i s ta .x t h a t

was l e v i e d on l ~ o v a b l e p r o p e r t y ? e O I t was a r b i t r a r y i n t h e s e n s e I -

57 ~ e ; , f o r i n s t a n c e , ~ a r r h s ' d i s c u s s i o n on p. 14.

58 B,P. Wolffe, The R o y a l Demesne ,.., p. 22 --

% ' -

59 B.P. aolffe, Crornlands 1Gl to L536 (Landan, 197a), p. -

21. Hoyt n o t e s o n p, 317 of The RQpaJ Demesne ., , t h a t **the E n g l i s h monarchy emerged u i t h a n e a r monopoly o f t h e s e i g -

t . r'

n i o r i a l p r o f i t s which c o u l d be e x t r a c t e d from t h e u r b a n areas d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h e i r most r a p i d - g r o u t h a , -

"60 Harriss, p. 14. C o a p a r e t h i s , h o u e v e r , u i t h H o y t l s s t a t e m e n t i n z h e Demesne . . . on p. 118: *#it uas b a s e d upon a l l

that i t n e v e r became s u b j e c t t& c o n s e n t . b l However, its -amount a -

P'

was, . t o Some e x t e n t , d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h n e g o t i a on62 and its '3 assessment u a s e n t r u s t e d to t h e ve ry same offici+ls uho vere

, - L

used i n t h e e x t e n s i o n o f ' r o y a l justice, t h a t is, t h e i t i n e r a n t

justices, 6 3

Was the o n l y l a n d l i a b l e t o be t a l l a g e d l a n d " d i r e c t l y .and ,

whol ly under t h e k ing"?a* T o what e x t e n t c o u l d t h e c o n c e p t of a

r o y a l demesne be stretched p r e c i s e l y f o r t a x a t i o n p u r p o s e s ? So,

f o r i n s t a n c e , c o u l d l a n d s f a l l i n g u n t o t h e Crown by e s c h e a t and

vacancy b e t a l l a g e d ? A l t h o u g h t h e y c o u l d n o t b e f u l l y i n c o r p o - U

r a t e d into t h e r o y a l demesne f means t h a t t h e y r e t a i a e d

some of t h e i r l iber t ies , t h a t t h e i r erms of t e n u r e would n o t be r changed , etc.)6s t h e s e lands v e r e i n d e e d s u b j e c t e d t o t a l l a g e

- - A -

i n p o s i t i o n s . I n f a c t , t h e s e ' l a n d s became known a s ' t e m p o r a r y

demesne ' - a new c a t e g o r y , s p e c i a l l y d e v i s e d for r o y a l t a x a t i o n

p u r p o s e s , 6 6 Even' more s i g n i f i c a n t , I t h i n k , was t h e t h i r t e e n t h - - - - - - - -- - - -

c e n t u r y emergence o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f x ' a n c i e n t demesne' and of u

' t e n u r e i n a n c i e n t demesne.**? Uhat t h e monarchy uas s t r i v i n g t o .

o f t h e w e a l t h o f t h e - p e r s o n t a x e d - . . .", - -

61 Hoyt , The R o y a l :Deaesne . . , F 70% See p, 144 f o r example of hou John r e j e c t e d t h e demand t h a t t a l l a g e be s u b j e c t t o common c o u n s e l o5E t h e realm,

e

,62 ibid,, p. 118-

63 i b i d , , p. 121.

65 i b i d . , pp. 120-121.

66 i b i d , , p. 121, -4

67 Volffe, The Royal Deaesne .-,, pp. 25-27,

L

e s t a b l i s h was t h a t g r a n t s of r o y a l manors d i d n o t s e v e r t h e i r

f i s c a l l i a b i l i t y t o t h e crown: # t a l l a g e was e x t e n d e d t g manors L * ' . . a n d t e n e m e n t s i n o t h e r s ' h a n d s i f ' e v e r t h e y ha.d been ' r o y a l k

demesne a n d had p a i d t a l l a g e k s s u c h ; even- though the;e l a n d s

might be h e l d Jn fee o r i n - free alms. T h i s e x t e n s i o n was

a c h i e v e d , houeper , o n l y a t t h e c o s t of c o n c e d i n g . t h e p r i n c i p l e

, t h a t the t e n a n s t of s u c h a manor o r t e n e m e n t c o u l d , b y t h e pur -

J chase of a writ of t a l l a g e , - ko l l ec t t h e t a x for h i s own use.*be - - -

* - The c a t 3 o r y of ' a n c i e n t ' d e m e s n e - i. d. , o f l a n d p t h a t h a d o n c e

been t h e k i n g ' s - was t h u s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h e Crown's a s s e r t i o n

o f its f i s c a l p r e r o g a t i v e s and it uas also park a n d p a r c e l o f

its p r o g r a a o f j u r i d i c a l e x t e n s i o n - As a s p e c i a l c a t e g o r y t h a t

somehow p r i v i l e ~ e d a segment o f the E n g l i s h p e a s a n t s , ' t e n u r e i n . e b -

L

a n c i e n t demesne' r e f l e c t e d t h e new f i s c a l aQd j u r i d i c a l o r j e n t a -

t i o n o f t h e Crown. B; s e t t i n g a p a r t t h e p e a s a n t r y o f manors N

t h a t h a d o n c e been r o y a l - , i n e f f e c t , a r r o g a t i n g t o i tself the - * .

r i g h t t o i h t e r v e n e between t h i s p e a s a n t r y -and man r i a l l o r d s - P - t h e monarchy was e x t e n d i n g its j u r i d i c a l r e a c h which, of c o u r s e ,

e n t a i l e d r e a l i z i n g some p r o f its. Very s i m p l y , a c c o r d i n g t o -

Hoyt, "for a fee, the r o y a l c o u r t s were , .. q u i t e w i l l i n g t o -. ~ r o t e c t w h a t e v e r p e a s a n t r y t h e y c o u l d ' p r o t e ~ t . ~ 6 9 Fur the r inore ,

68 Hoyt , "Royal T a x a t i o n a n d t h e Growth of t h e Realm . ,.l* p. 4 5,

69 Ropt , Royaf •’lemesae & EnEn-is& , , . , p W , Sore from E o y t , p. 203: # T h e whole growth o f the common law was d e s i g n e d t o b r i n g t h e monarchy i n t o d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s w i t h a l l free men of t h e realm, t o bring r o y a l j u s t i c e t o t h e p r o t e c - t i oa of a l l free t e n e m e n t s i n England - f o r a fee. The mon- a r c h y d i d n o t draw t h e line between th@.@ee a n d u n f r e e r i l l - i n g l y : t h e r o y a l c o u r t s n o t o r i o u s l y far%=qd freedom, assume

h- ' & 4

PAGE I 9 1

- I C

protectioh oT t h e p e a s a n t r y ( a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r we l l -be ing) &.

was of p e c u n i a r y i n t e r e s t t o t h e Crown s i n c e D t h e m p e weal thy 5

/ t h e peasa;ts, t h e higher t h e t a l l a g e which c o u l d ber charged.Hq0

What e m e r g e s from R o y t g s d i s c u s s i o n , i s t h a t m p r o t e c t i o n of t h e '

I

p e a s a n t r y c a n n o t be d i s s y ~ i a t e d from r o y a l r e v e n u e , " 7 1 t h a t t h e 8

&own t r i e d to draw u n d e r its p f o t e c t i r e = u i b r e l l a * ( i f I a a y

say- s o ) a s many manors - a s p o s s i b l e , ? 2 and, hence , t h a t " t h e

q u e s t i o n was, what was t h e r o y a l d e - m e ~ n e ? ~ ? 3 I fee l t h a t Hoyt

a p t l y s u a a a r i z e s t h e ' n n a e r l y i n g i s s u e when p u t t i n g f o r t h t h e

notion t h a t u l t i m a t e l y a n a g g r e s s i v e monarchy was " q u i t e c a p a b l e

o f ;x tend ing t h e r o y a l demesne r i g h t s t o i n c l u d e t h e whole of

C o n q u e r o r ' s l a n d s . \Idhat l a n d s were o n c e manibus p r e d e c - 'P9 + I s s3 r5 a f t e r a l l , depended upon t h e l i m i t o f l e g a l me1nory.~7*

' ~ h l p u ~ h t h e . .;oyal demesne - a c o n c e p t a d j u s t e d t o suit its

c a s h r e v e 6 u e s - t h e Crown was thel i e v i d e n t l y widen ing i t s taxa-

b l e b a s i s and, i n sotae "cases , i n t e r g o s i n g itself be tween v i l - - -

l e i n s and m a n o r i a l l o r d s 7 5 ; t h e f i s c a l l i a b i l i t y of t h o s e

a f f e c t e d by t h i s p r o c e s s uas, i n t h e o r y , a f u n c t i o n of t h e

a man free till c l a i m e d a s . a n d p roved tb he a v i l l e i n , and with r e g a r d f o t h e v i l l e i n s o f t h e r o y a l demesne t h e y b r o u g h t

- r o y a l j u s t i c e t o bear upon v i l l e i n a g e , maybe n o t u n d e r common l a w f o r a s .

70 i b i d . , p- 204.

71 i b i d . , p- 2 0 5 ,

72 i b i d ,

74 i b i d , , p. 206, ( c o n t r a s t t h i s v i t h Wolffels s t a t e m e n t on p- 26 of The B o y a l Denesne -,-).

75 See, on t h i s s u b j e c t , Hyams, pp. 247-48-

7

PAGE j 92

k i n g ' s d i s c r e t i o n , . B u t , s h o u l d we d e d u c e from t h i s t h a t , o u t -

s i d e the r o y a l demesne , v i l l e i n s u e r e t o r e m a i n e n t i r e l y beyond

t h e k i n g ' s d i r e c t f i sca l r e a c h , ue would be m i s t a k e n ! I t t u r n s

o u t t h a t , i n i ts a t t e m p t s t o i n c r e a s e its . c a s h r e v e n u e s , t h e

Crwn did cross t h e a r t i f i c i a l b o u n d a r i e s 'set by t h e . ' r o y a l

demesne ' c a t e g o r y , T h i r t e e n t h - c e n t n r y ~ n ~ l i s h ' v i l l e ' i n s who were

u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e r o y a l demesne (however . v i d e l y t h i s uas ,

d e f i n e d ) uere d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by r o y a l t a x a t i o n : they irere

a f f e c t e d as s u b j e c t s of Exc luded from comnoa law,

rightle-as against $ir l o r d s , t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i l l e i n s

uere, n e v e r t h e l e s s , i m p a r t e d uit6 soRe public o b l i g a t i o n s - s u c h

a s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e a i d s o n movables .76 ( B r a c t o n ' s t h e o r y of

r e l a t i v e v i l l e i n a g e a s a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s e r v i t u d e e x i s t i n g

be tween a s p e c i f i c l o r d a n d h i s d e p e n d a n t a s o p p o s e d t o v i d l e i n -

a g e as a p u b l i c c o n d i t i o n is a l t o g e t h e r c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s

d e v e l o p m e n t , 7 7 ) - - - - -

The p r a c t i c e of d i r e c t r o y a l t a x a t i o n of v i l l e i n s was "first

s e e n among t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r t h e c d r u c a g e of 11*98*78 a n d "&nay

h a v e been i n t e n d e d e v e n b e f o r e 1 l 9 8 , * * 7 9 A S ' f o r t h e t h i r t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y l e v i e s o n movable g o o d s , t h e y n a p p l i e d t o a l l who p o s s -

essed t h e t a x a b l e minimum of w e a l t h w h a t e v e r t h e i r l e g a l s t a t u s

-.- B u t i f t h e v i l l e i n a s s u b j e c t l o o k s t o modern e y e s i n c o m p a t - J --

77 See my s e c t i o n o n , J?ngland, -pa 62 , ' a s w e l l a s Byams, p - 160,

- PAGE 193 '

, 3 ,

I

- -

,< i b l e w i t h t h e * v i l l e i n a s c h a t t e l , c o n t e m p o r a r i e s r e m a i n e d -

u n r u f f l e d . B q a l a d r i s e r L d i d n o t e v e n b o t h e r t o g i v e the s a n e , 1

r j s s t i f i c a t i o n s i o r ' s u c c e s s i v e ' l e v i e s . T h u s v i l l a n i n u a b e r a n o n g

t h o s e s a i d t o h a e e ' g r a n t e d * t h e f o r t i e t h of 1232 , but t h e 1237 - t h i r t i e t h mas c o n f e r r e d by t h e v a r i o u s f ree class 'pro gg et

v i l l a & g u i , ' S o m e t i a e s a l o r d ' p e t i t i o n e d a g a i n s t what h e con-

s i d e r e d t o be d o u b l e t a x a t i o n o r f o r t h e r i g h t t o s u p e r v i s e co l -

l e c t i o n - o v e r h i s own ~ i l l e i n s . ~ e O ~ So, l e v i e s on n t o v a b l e s - t h e r ,

v e r y t a x e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h o u g h t of a s l e a d i n g t o t h e g r e a t p a r - \ ,

l i a ~ e n t k ~ t a x e s - d i d i n v o l v e d i r e c t l y t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i l - -

-

l a n i , ( I n h i s s t u d y of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween t h e E n g l i s h "

p e a s a n t r y a n d t h e Crown, B a d d i c o t t s u g g e s t s tho-ugh, t h a t t$e ,--I

5

Cr,ou nlB t a x a t i o n of t h e p e a s a n t r y ( i n c l u d i n g d i r e c t t a x a t i p n )

became c o n s p i c u o u s l y h e a v y o n l y t o w a r d t h e end of t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y , Note a l s o t h a t , f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of m a n o r i a l 4

+

"p l o s d s , the e l e m e n t of c o n s e n t u n d e r l y i n g t h e l e v i e s o n movab le

goo3 s must h a v e a b a t e d t h e i r a p p r e h e n s i o n s r e g a r d i n g r o y a l

i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e l i v e s of t h e i r , d e p e n d a n t s . And y e t , as

p o i n t e d o u t a b o v e , what e x a c t l y t h i s c o n s e n t : amoun ted t o is f a r -

from clear.81 )

R e c a p i t u l a t i n g : from a r o u n d t h e 1 160s onwards , t h e E n g l i s h S

monarchy. was i n t h e p r o c e s s of e x t e n d i n g i ts a u t h o r i t y t o e n g u l f i

a p e a s a n t r y whose r e s o u r c e s i t h a d n o t , - u p u n t i l t h e n , t a p p e d

d i r e c t l y . a z lB lon f e u d a l n t a x e s were b e i n g i a p o d o n t h i s peas - -- v

81 S e e S t r a y e r s W e s t e r n E u r o p e a &kg flu- ages, p, 173-74.

. <.- .I

PAGE 194

I 3

a n t r p v h e t h e r t h r o u g h ' a n c i e n t deiuesne r i g h t s ' or t h r o u g 5 t h e -

n o v e l t a x e s o n movables . A g a i n s t this b a c k g r o u n d , it i s pla-usi- . '--

ble t h a t m a n o r i a l l o r d s s h o u l d h a v e mdred t o d e m a r c a t e t h e i r own

claims on t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s , I s u g g e s t t h a t it m i g h t b e u o r t h -

L - w h i l e t o v i e w v i l l e i n a g e i n t h e s e terms. ~ f t e r a l l , as s t a t e d

by B a d d i c o t t , e a c h set of demands , r o y a l a n d s e i g n e u r i a l , was

bound t o make t h e o t h e r h a r d e r t o meet.83 U l t i m a t e l y , t h e n e w l y

t h o u g h t - o u t c a t e g o r i e s of * f r e e d o n e a n d ' v i l l e i n a g e * d i d n o t s o

s u c h o b s t r u c t r o y a l t a x a t i o n a s t h e y d i d e n s u r e t h a t , f o r a -

u h i l e , . soae of p e a s a n t r y *s r e s o u r c e s would c o n t i n u e to flow a s u

t a x e s (i-e, , as n o n - r e n t a l i ncome) t o m a n o r i a l l o rds , H a t c h e r ' s & '

a r g u m e n t is t h a t c u s t o m c o u l d , a n d d i d , p r o t e c t ; t h a t v i l l e i n a g e d

= a s w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s of cus tom. By a r g u m e n t is t h a t . v i l l e i n a g e

uas indeed c u s t o m a r y - c u s t o e a r y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it e x p r e s s e d

t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t e n a n t s were, a n d s h o u l d r ema in , i n t h e power

o f t h e i r l o r d s . - A c c o r d i n g t o H a t c h e r , -- - n l o r d s uere c o n c e r n e d f a r

l e s s w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g t h e l i v e s of t h e i r v i l l e i n s t h a n w i t h

p r b f i t i n g from t h e i r r i g h t s . t o d o ~ 0 . ~ 8 4 he h y p o t h e s i s h e r e is

t h a t t o preserve t h e s e r i g h t s t h e y had t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s d e c l a r e d

u n f r e e . ,&P

I w i s h t o a d d o n e more t h o u g h t t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n of what may i h a v e been h a p p e n i n g i n E n g l a n d wi th t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of common

law p r o c e d u r e p , It is a t h o u g h t t r i g g e r e g by my r e a d i n g o f J.R.

S t r a y e r on f e u d a l i s m - . If, a s S t r a y e r p u t it, n t h e e s s e n c e of -

8 2 Hyams, p. 152.

83 M a d d i c o t t , p- 75.

8 4 E ia t che r , p. 10-

7 - f e u l a l i s m was c o n f u s i o n , c o n f u s i o n between t h e o r y a n d practzce;

C

b e t u e e n p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e rights, be tween r o y a l qnd b a r o n i a l .

t o f e u d a l - m a n o r i a l l o r d s , and migh t have, been p e r c e i v e d a s some-

what t h r e a t e n i n g . Pro. t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e l o r d ' s a t t e m p t s t o .

f o r ~ a l i z e ( o r #loff i c i a l i z e m ) r e l a t i o n s h i p s of dependence . ~ a s a

way t6 s a f e g u a r d t h e i r interests + n t r i b o t e w p a r a d o ~ i c a l i y

C t o the e r o s i o n o f f e u d a l r e l a t i o n s !

S O l E A 01 *FEUDAL* DEVLLOPIIBIITS OP TEE COUTIUEBT, I Y PARTICULAB I Y PRAECE

fly _ d i s c u s s i o n of c h a n g e s i n t h e f e u d a l s t r u c t u r e s of t h e ,

other Hestern European c o u n t r i e s I had i n i t i a l 1 1 e x p r e s s e d a n -

i n t e r e s t i n w i l l b e c u r s o r y , N e v e r t h e l e s s , I b e l i e v e t h a t o n 4 .

t h e face of t h e e v i d e n c e e n c o u n t e r e d t h e case - c a n be made t h a t

Eng land uas u n i q u e i n t h e e x t e a t t o which it was b e i n g ndefeu- - - -

dalZzedm a t t h e Qose of t h e t u e l f t h a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e t h i r -

t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . " P r a n c e v i l l e n g a g e most of lay a t t e n t i o n

t h r o u g h o u t t h e d i s c u s s i o n t o come. I f , d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d u n d e r

c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e g rowth o f t h e s t a t e u a s more pronpunced i n

England t h a n i n P r a n c e , t h e n I s u g g e s t t h a t we c o u l d a l s o e x p e c t

i t t o have b e e n l o re pronounced t h a n i n I t a l y and i n Germany

s i n c e i t is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t , . i n t h i s r e s p e c t , England

a n d P r a n c e were i n t h e f o r e f r o n t ,

85 S t r a y e r and a a n r o , p. 373- P

'L - -

On Prance v

One of t h e lawextreme p o s i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the nature of

4 French r o y a l r e v e ues, for t h e p e r i o d s t a r t i n d v i t h ~ i ~ u e s C a p e t

c a n d * e n d i n g wi th P h i l i p t h e Fair ( i -e , , f rom t h e t e n t h to t h e end

of ' t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ) , is e x p r e s s e d by B-A-Po V u i t r y who - -- 0

? b e l i e v e s t h a t , t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d , t h e k i n g ' s r e v e n u e s -

r e m a i n e d s e i g n e u r i a l - f e u d a l , Accogding t d V u i t r y , t h e k i n g ' s .

f i s c a l l e v e r a g e d i d n o t exceed t h a t o f a qrand s e i a n e u r except

1 p e r h a p s d u r i n g a v e r y b r i e f i n t e r l u d e t o w a r d s t h e end, of, t h e 7

t w e l f t h c e n t u r y 8 6 ; t h i s view h a s n o t gone u n c h a l l e n g e d , - For 1

i n s t a n c e , A , L u c h a i r e i n s i s t s t h a t , i n h i s r e l a t i o k h i p w i t h t h e

c h u r c h , t h e ' ; k i n g ' s A i s c a l a u t h o r i t y t r a n s c e n d e d t h a t o f t h e '

b i g h e s t r a n k i n g se igne&. 8 7 It could be t h a t . V u i t r y o v e r l o o k e d

L some r e g a l i a n coiupo&ent i n : r o y a l re*enqes, But on t h e v h o l e , it - A d o e s s e e n t h a t , u n t i l P h i l i p t h e F q i r t s r e i g n , t h e monagchy made

l i t t l e progress in t h e d i r e c t i ' o n o f e s t a b l i s h i n g q e n e r a l &yi& ,

d e r i v e d f rom t h e n o t i o n of a s o h e r e i g n k i n g , Royal income

enr rained d e p e n d e n t on t h e domainese - t h a t is,, on , t h e k i n g e s 9

powers as a s e i g n e u r and a s - s u z e r a i n o v e r l o r d .

86 V u i t r y , E t u d e s & Reqime P inbnc ie f de la F r a n c e Avant R e ! f ~ h t h Q @ 1789 I (Paris 5 8 Z Q F pp, 409-421- -

*

8 7 Achi -Ue L u c h a i s e ,

Deuxiese E d i t i o n , T o s e I ( B u i x e l l e s , 19.641 pp- 124-125. *See, a l s o , pp- 119-32, .P

88 Yolffe, The Royal ~esesne ... , F, 38-40. .:

--

Two twelf t h - c e n t u r y a t t e m p t s a t i m p o s i n g g e n e r a l , l e v i e s of

t h e s o r t t h a t could h a v e l e d t o a permanent a n d f a r - r e a c h i n g - - . -

r o y a l t a x met with li-ttle s u c c e s s . Bow e x t e n s i v e t h e first levy '

was is uncer ta in : . r a i s e d i n 1146 (11472) , a i d a k d c i a t e d w i t h -

t h e C r u s a d e s , i t was t r e a t e d a s a n e x c e p t i o n a l k e a s u r e . 8 e - ~ ~ ~ a ; - t

e n t l y i ts y i e l d p roved d i s a p p o i n t i n g dnd i t g a v e rise t o much

d i s c o n t e n t , Hoxe is knqvn a b o u t t h e - c i r c u m s t a n c e s su r r ' ound ing

P h i l i p Bugust&s' 1188 S a l a d i n T i t h e , _It was "a uniform tax on 4

b o t h income and r e a l e s t a t e m o o p a y a b l e by a l l t h o s e who d i d n o t b - j o i n t h e CrasadesH. ,p l As o p p o s e d . t o b e i n g e n t r u s t e d t o r o y a l

d

off ic ia l s , ' t&e collection of t h i s Z t % t h e was left l a r g e l y ia' the.

h a n d s of l a y a n d c ler ical s e i g n e u r s , Moreover, its y i e l d was t o - be s h a r e d between t h e C r o w a a n d t h e C r u s a d e r s ( k n i g h t s and

s e i g n e u r s ) - , T h a t i t c o n s t i t u t e d a d e z i n i t e b r e a c h w i t h f e u d a l ' Y

cus tom is t h u s d o u b t f u l , I n any c a s e , t h e S a l a d i n T i t h e met

u l t i m a t e l y u i t h s o auch o p p o s i t i o n t h a t P h i l i p A u g u s t u s was

* f o r c e d t o abandon i t .s2 F u r t h e r , h e soo'n r e p u d i a t e d i t i n "no

u n c e r t a i n terms w h i l e u p h o l d i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t - l a n d s . and A ' 3

p e r s o n s were t o remain s u b j e c t o n l y t o the t a x a t i o n o f t h e i r

89 L n c h a i r e s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e l e v y v a s r e s o r t e d t o i n 11 46 (see p. 126 o f His.toire ,,,, I) w h i l e V n i t r y t a l k s a h o u t an 1147 -

levy (see h i s E t u d e s , I p. 3 9 0 ) -

90 S t r a y e r and flunro, p* 242.

-- 91 Vui t ry , I, p, 391, T h e r e were some e x c e p t i o n s , t h o u g h ; a few

a a b b a y s a n d ( P e p r o s e r i e s ) mere e x e s p t e d .

92 hpparentfy , t h e s t r o n g e s t opposition came from t h e Church, See Vuitry , I, f o o t n o t e 1, p. 393' and E l i z a b e t h lL H a l l a m C a p e t i a n F r a n c e 987-3 328 (London, 1980) , F. 164,

- a Z

PAGE 198

T h i s r e l a t i v e v i d k n e s s i t i t h e f i s c a l p o s i t i b n - of t h e French

king (as a t t e s t e d by t h e a b s e n c e of. g e n e r a l . t a x e s a n d by h i s s

c o n t i n u e d dependence on--income from h i s l a d s , " g i f t s N f rom t h e .

i ' I

towns and Chuych g r a n t s ) 9 4 w a s t b l a s t u n t i l t h e c l o s e of t h e 2 4'

P

t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y a t ' u h i c h p o i n t P h i l i p t h e F a i r (128 5-1314)

us%ered i n m e a s u r e s . deemed ,to . h a v e had i m p o r t a n t f i s c a l r e p e r - I

c u s s i o n s . Here a g a i n , and p r e d i c t a b l y , r e a r e f a c e d w i t h p o i n t s

of c o n t r o v e r s y , $ & t i c u l a r l y i n r e g a r d t o P & $ l i p m s l a t e t h i r -

t e e n t h - c e n t u r y g e n e r a l taxes. Here t h e s e t&es r e a l l y d i s t i n c t \

fro. t h e f e u d a l aji3.eored to a feudal o v e r l o r d ? 1.0. Henneman8s ;r

i n t e r p r e t a t i o a se&& t o be t h a t t h e y u q r e d e f i n i t e l y g u i t e d i s - .'. - v.." t i n c t ; by 16vyin'g g e n e r a l t a r e s v a l a o s t a n i n a l l y w i t h o u t g o i n g

' t h r o u g h the f o r m a l i t y o f c a l l i n g out . t h e army , , . [ P h i l i p . was i n

f a c t i n v o k i n g J t h e t h e o r y t h a t a k i n g c o u l d d e c l a r e a n e n e r g e n c y . . 4 and c o l l e c t a t a n fo r t h e d e f e n s e of t h e r e a l m - 7 9 5 And, f o r Hen- - - -

neman, the king's s u b s e q u e n t move t o raise t a x e s by i n v o k i n g t h e

o b l i g a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e was a r e t r o g r e s s i o n t h a t . r e f l e c t e d a weakening of h i s ~ o s i t i o n ' - a weakening b r o u g h t .- k

a b o u t b y i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l crises.96 T h u s i n 1314, when a

F l e m i s h war scare ended i n n e g o t z a t i o n t h e k ing was e a p e c t e d t o ' -$

- < , I $

I

93 Y n i t r y , I, pp. 392-93- P ?

94 S t r a y e r , Weshrtt Burape ,--, p. 168- I

\ 95 J o h n B e l l Henneaan, Roya l T a x a t i o n in F o u r t e e m Cen tury

F r a n c e The Development & &g ~ i n a n c 6 ~ i 3 2 2 - 1356. ( P r i n q e - t o n , 19711, p. 29- I *

9 .

c a n c e l t h e mar s u b s i d y t h a t h e h a d b e e n c o l l e c t i n g . He,

h i m s e l f , h a d set t h i s p r e c e d e n t t h e year b e f o r e when a n earlier

F l e m i s h crisis had e n d e d i n n e g o t i a t i o p . P h i l i p s r e f u s a l t o

cancel t h e ,1314 w m s i d y c r e a t e d a n u p h e a v a l : the n o b i l i t y ' s /

1'- - -

l e a g u e s a g a i n s t t h e Crown were f o r a e d , P h i l i p d i e d a n d h i s s 6 n

r e t u r n e d = t h e s u b s i d y , T h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n c u l m i n a t e d i n , a n d

s u b s i e d with, t h e g r a n t i n g of cha r t e r s t o v a r i o u s d i s a f f e c t e d

r e g i o n s , These c h a r t e r s were b a r g a i n e d a t a r e g i o n a l l e v e l

which r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r terms. 9 7 Bou-

e v e r , S t r a y e r ' s p o i a t of v iew i s t h a t t h e c h a r t e r s were r a t h e r '

less r e s t r i c t i v e t o r o y a l f i s c a l power t h a n one a i g h t b e t e m p t e d

t o c o n c l u d e : " t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e t h a t d e f e n s e o f t h e realm

j u s t i f i e s e x t r a o r d i n a r y a c t i o n s " 9 0 went u n c h a l l e n g e d a n d uho, C

b u t t h e k i n g , was t o j u d g e w h e t h e r t h e r e a l m was i n imniinent

d a n g e r ? -..

v u i t r y ' s r e n d i t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n of t a x a t i o n u n d e r P h i l i p

t h e P a i r differs somewhat f r o m E i e n n e m a n * ~ b e c a u s e he d o e s no t

c o n s i d e r t h e p re -1300 t a x e s t o h a v e d e p a r t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from

f e u d a l aids-99 Also, h e i n d i c a t e s how, i n r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e .

f a c t t h a t g e n e r a l t a x e s mere i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e

97 Froa Hallaa, p. 305: The w i n a b i l i t y o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o f o r m a n a t i o n a l , b r o a d l y b a s e d a n d c o h e r e n t programme a l l o w e d L o u i s X t o n e g o t i a t e s e p a r a t e l y w i t h e a c h g r o u p , a n d g r e a t l y s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s hand i n t h i s , T h e charters form a c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e Great C h a r t e r g i v e n t o ,the E n g l i s h b a r o n s i n 1215, w h i c h contained s t a t e m e n t s of g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e a s w e l l a s t h e r e d r e s s m e n t af s p e c i f i c 1 g r i e v a n c e s . *

98 3 S r a y e r , H e d i e v a l S t a t e c r a f t gig the P e r s p e c t i v e g of History ( P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 299,

u n d e r l y i n g f e u d a l q i d s - t h a t is, t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t the k i n g ,

h a d n o d i r e c t f i s c a l a u t h o r i t y o v e r s u b t e n a n t s a n d s u b v a s s a l s - t h e king t r i e d a t times t o c b n c i l i a t e the l o r d s b y s e t t i n g a s i d e

f o r t h e m ( a t l e a s t t h e most p o u e r f u l , t a m o a g s t them) a s u b s t a n t i a l a::,* '. - -.

B

p o r t i o n of t h e l e v i e s . l o o Wpu, w h a t e v e r t h e n a t u r e of P h i l i p ' s

t a x a t i o n was, o n e p o i n t is o b v i o u s : f o r t h e most p a r t , ' t h e 5

o p p o s i t i o n t o h i s e f f o r t s came from f e u d a l s e i g n e u r s whose sub -

jects -re ' becoming d i r e c t l y e x s o s e d to r o y a l t a x a t i o n , The

1315 c h a r t e r s c o n s t i t u t e d i n p a r t a n a t t e m p t a t r e d r e s s i n g t h i s

s i t u a t i o n , 1 0 1 (Had t h e F r e n c h monarchy e v o l v e d j u r i d i c a

, l i n e s s imilar t o t h e E n g l i s h monarchy , e i g h t t h e P r g n

e n r s h a v e c h o s e n a t t h i s p o i n t t o h a v e t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s r e c o g -

- - n i z e d a s u n f r e e b y t h e r o y a l a u t h o r i t i e s ? )

On Germany

I d e a l l y , a c o m p a r i s o n be tween German d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d , l e t u s

s a y , E n g l i s h o r F r e n c h d e v e l o p m e n t s s h o u l d e n t a i l a n a l y s i s a t

t w o d i s t i n c t r l e v e l s : a t t h e ' l e v e l of t h e German E m p i r e and a t

t h e l e v e l of t h e German p r i n c i p a l i t i e s . Mere o n e t o restrict \

\

t h e a n a l y s i s t o t h e former l e v e l , t h e d i v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n German

and E n g l i s h ve710pments would seela r a t h e r clear: a t t h e c lose ,-/"-- o f t h e t g e l f t h c e n t u r y , a c e n t r i f u g a l f e u d a l i s m was t a k i n g h o l d

o f t h e G e r a a n e m p i r e - a d e l a y e d f e u d a l i s m was a r r i v i n g , o n e

t h a t glwas c o q s t r u c t e d a g a i n s t m o n a r c h i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of the

c o u n t r y , b y c o n t r a s t with E n g l a n d where t h e f e u d a l s o c i a l h i e r -

100 i b i d . , p. 151,

1 0 1 S t r a y e r , p, 299; V u i t r y , 11, pp. 163-70,

- PAGE 20 1

a r c b y was i tself i n s t a l l e d by t h e Norman aonaxchy , or F r a n c e

where i t p r e c e d e d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e monarchy a n d was t h e r e -

.* : a f t e r s l o w l y r e o r i e n t e d r o u n d i t i n t h e process of c o n c e n t r i c --

c e n t r a l i z a t i o n s s , 1 0 2 The c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t , i n twelf t h - c e n t u r y

Germany, u a s l o o s i n g U s p e c i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s a n d ueapoqs of p u b l i c

a i t h o r i t y - of r e g a l i a i n t h e w i d e s t s e n s e , " l * 3 And, for t h e

e. E m p e r o r ' s a u t h o r i t y t o b e c o ~ e e f f e c t i v e , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f ' a

l a r g e r o y a l domain became n e c e s s a r x s i n c e t h i s a u t h o r i t y was now

b a s e d o n f e u d a l s u z e r a i n t y . I t is t h i s neu s i t u a t i o n t h a t d r o v e /

F r e d e r i c k 1 i n t o N o r t h e r n I t a l y w h e r e h e ;had hoped "to b u i l d up ,

,., a c o n p a c t t e r r i t o r y , a d m i n i s t e r e d t h r o u g h a . well o r g a n i z e d . <

b u r e a u c r a c y , u n d e r h i s own i m m e d i a t e ' c o n t r o l . f l l o i liC i m a g i n e $ -

that, u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u ~ s t a n c e s , l i t t l e was t h e d a n g e r t h a t t h e

u n f r e e s e g m e n t of p o p u l a t i o n of t h e German E a p i r e would be sub-

j e c t e d t o d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t w e n t r a l g o v e r n a e n t !

A t t h e close o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , German f e u d a l i s m , a t t h e -

- i m p e r i a l l e v e l , was c e r t a i n l y unl i 'ke E n g l i s h f e u d a l i s a . But '5

u h a t a b o u t f e u d a l i s m a t t h e l e v e l of t h e t e r r i t o r i a l p r i n c i p a l i -

t ies? T h e r e were c e n t r a l i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e f e u d a l i s m dis- -

v & e d , a t t h i s l e v e l , s o t h a t "by a b o u t 1250 , i t was clear t h a t P

the r ise of t h e mbdern s t a t e o n Germany would t a k e p l a c e , n o t i n

t h e E m p i r e a s a whole , b u t w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e s e p a r a t e -- 4 -

102 P e r r y A n d e r s o n , P a s s a q e s ,,,, p, 164.

1 0 3 H. Hitteis, # F e u d a l i s m a n d t h e German. C o n s t i t u t i o n , " S t u d i e s i n B e d i a e v a l History, B e d i a e v a l Germany =_1-1= = Essaxs -- --- -- Q German H i s t o r i a n s , tr, w i t h a n ' 1 n t r o d u c t i o n by G. Bar- - r a c l o u g h ( O x f o r d , 1 9 4 8 ) , p. 266.

104 B a r r a c l o u g h , O r i c r i n s of @ern ge rmany , p, 177.

p r i n c e l y t e r r i t o r i e ~ - ~ l * 5 I t would seem to me t h e n t h a t , i n t h e

German s i t u a t i o n , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f r amework for testing t h e

h y p o t h e s i s i n terms of t h e e v o l u t i o n o f E n g l i s h r o y a l power

would be t h a t o f t h e t e r r i t o r i a l . p r i n c i p a l i t i e s , This s a i d , I

h a v e t o a d d h a s t i l y t h a t my r e s e a r c h on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n be tween

f e u d a l i s m a n d manorial is^, a t t h i s l e v e l , h a s b o r n e f e u f r u i t s ,

B (I do n o t h a v e e n o u g h * f a c t s g to p u t t o g e t h e r , a l t h o u g h same.

/

t h o u g h t s on t h e q u e s t i o n were e x p r e s s e d i n my p r e v i o u s s e c t i c o n

on Seraany a s w e l l a s ear l ie r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . ) 8

On I t a l y - b

I t a l y i n t h e t w e l f t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s : the first 1 I

p.roblem t h a t would h a v e t o . b e d e a l t w i t h were o n e to study t h e

e v o l u t i o n o f I t a l i a n f e u d a l i s m is t h a t t h e r e were s e v e r a l d i f -

f e r e n t 'Italics*, or s e v e r a l s ea t s o f gove rnmen t : t h e e ingdom of

I t a l y , t h e Kingdom of Sicily, t h e P a p a l S t a t e s , t h e R e p u b l i c of

Venice, t h e t o w n s ( i-e. , t h e communes). Uhich o n e d o we h a v e i n

mind when t a l k i n g a b o u t I t a l y ? An i m p o r t e d f e u d a l i s m f l o u r i s h e d

i n icily - a f e u d a l i s . t h a t was p e r m e a t e d w i t h a s t r o n g Byzan-

t i n e t r a d i t i o n a n d Roman law. 1 0 6 G e o g r a p h i c a l l y , t h o u g h , S i c i l y . -

l i e s o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e of my r e s e a r c h . A s f o r P i e d m o n t , i n t h e

n o r t h - e a s t , a l l 1 know is t h a t i t d i d have a f e u d a l L s e i g n e u r i a l

s t r u c t g r e but t h a t it was a p p a r e n t l y "too small a n d t o o p o o r t o

106 P. Anderson , p. 167 ; G. F o u r q u i n i n L o r d s h i p g& Feudalism , . , , (pp. 74-75) questions t h e e x i s t e n c e of na real feadal- i s m H i n S o u t h e r n I t a l y , H e q u e s t i o n s it p r e c i s e l y because of t h e Roman e l e m e n t i n it.

be of any g e n e r a l i m p o r t a n c e i n I t a l y . " 1 0 7 An i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o

t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e P a p a l S t a t e s c o u l d be u s e f u l b u t , a t t h i s

s t a g e , ' 1 a& n o t e v e n c e r t a i n t h a t t h e s e s t a t e s were f e u d a l i n

their o r g a n i z a t i o n , - I

A POCUS 011 THE H U B POIITS OF THIS CBAPTER; AYEHUES FOR PURTHER atsmaca -

E a r l i e r on, i n the c o u r s e of my w r i t i n g , I a l n o s $ i d t ~ i t i v e l ~ .-

r e l a t e d v i l l e i n a g e to t h e F r e n c h c h a r t e r s of l i b e r t i e s - a

* -

t h o u g h t t h a t has l e a d me t o s p e c u l a t e a b o u t (a) t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s /

of t h e charters, t h e Weisturner and v i l l e i n a g e a n d (b) t h e c i r -

c u m s t a n c e s i n wh ich t i ex u n r a v e l l e d ( I p u r p o s e l y ref r a i n , h e r e ,

t a l k i n g a b o u t c a u s a l i t y ) . To draw a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e i r - &'

c o n s e q u e n c e s would i n v o l v e l o o k i n g a t t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h each

o f t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e r e g u l a r i z a t i o n a n d t h e

m o n e t i z a t i o n of a v a r i e t y o f ' r i g h t s n o m i n a l l y a s s o c i a t , e d w i t h

t h e p e r f o r a a n c e of g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e s a n d of, r j g g t 8 k a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h q p e r s o n a l l o r d s h i p o v e r m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s - - t h a t is, of .. -

r i g h t s and p a y m e n t s t h a t were d i s t i n c t from t h e r i g h t s c o n t i n -

g e n t upon l a n d e d l o r d s h i p , A$ f o r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r l y i n g

t h e R e i s t u a e r , t h e char ters a n d v i l l e i n a g e : a n i n t e r e s t i n g

o b s e r ~ a ~ t i o n is t h a t t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s o f t e n e n t a i l e d , or were

c o n j o i n e d w i t h , t h e r e a s s e r t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e of t a x a t i o n b y

t e r r i t o r i a l l o r d s e n g a g e d i n t h e p u r s u i t of e x t e n d i n g (or

s t r e n g t h e n i n g ) t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y . I n t h e case of E n g l a n d , t h e

king i s the t e r r i t o r i a l l o r d I h a v e i n mind; now , u h e t h e r h e d i d

manage t o a p p l y g r e a t e r f i s c a l p r e s s u r e on h i s l o r d s a n d --

107 Ander son , p- (?)

PAGE -204 t

+ \2

w h e t h e r hi? r e a c h was e x t e n d e d t o e n c o a p a s s a l a r g e r noaber of

s u b j e c t s woald o b v i o u s l y matter i n t h e l i g h t of t h e a b o v e

r e m a r k s , t*

S t i l l w i t h i n t h e f r amework of an a p p r o a c h i n - terms o f compet-

i n g f i s c a l a u t h o r i t i e s b u t w i t h a s h i f t i n e m p h a s i s , a p o s s i b l e @ &

-

argnraen t would $nvo&ve c o m p a r i n g t h e a d v a n c e of E n g l i s h r o y a l

power ( i n p a r t i c u l a r , f i s c a l ) * 'w i th r o y a l power i n P r a n c e , Ger- . .

%i many, etc, , whi le a s s e s s i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s . t h e r e f r o m on t h e

e v o r l u t i o n of t h e manor , t h e s e i g n e u r i e etc. D e f i n i t e l y s i m p l e r

i n its c o n c e p t i o n , t h e a r g u m e n t would v e i l , n o n e t h e l e s s , t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e a s s e r t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t e r r i t o r i a l s o v e r - ei

e i g n t y was n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e r o y a l l e v e l ' ; a l s o , i t is, I

feel , i n c i p i e n t l y conducive t o t h e notion of v i l l e i n a g e a s a *

phenomenon s e p a r a t e and d i s s i m i l a r f rom t h e c h a r t e r s a n d t h e

Ye i s tu rne r - a n o t i o n t h a t is worth r e c o n s i d e r i n g , a s I h a v e - ,

t r i e d t o a r g u e above .

C ~ ~ C L U S I O B

A q u i c k i n s p e c t i o n o f * t h e a r g u m e n t a b o u t t h e s o - c a l l e d r e v e r - -

s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e l a b o u r d u e s a t i s s u e , i n

t h e l i t e r a t u r e , a r e many-s ided a n d t h a t more t h a n o n e v a r i a b l e

might h a v e been s u b s u a e d u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of ' l a b o u r dues ' . r

T h e e x p l a n a t i o n s r e v i e w e d h a v e a s sumed a v a r i e t y of for .ms which

I propose t o d e l i n e a t e b r i e f l y . -

Porns of Argumen t s i n t h e Explanations of the Reversion to Labour Dues

( a ) A r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s fo r u s e on demesne l a n d s a s

d e t e r m i n e d by t h e P d e c i s i o n to r e sume d i r e c t demesne c u l t i v a t i o n -

4p

- b e i t a g e n e r a l i z e d r e v e r s i c n , a more l i m i t e d r e v e r s i o n

a f f e c t i n g o n l y a f e u manor s , a r e v e r s i o n e n t a i l i n g a r e t u r n to

heavy d e p e n d e n c e on l a b o u r d u e s ( l a b o u r d u e s a s t h e main s Q u r c e

of labour) , a r e t u r n t o l a b o u r d u e s f o r u s e as a r e s e r v e ,

(b) A reversion d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e return t o direct demesne c u l -

t i v a t i o n - a r e v e r s i o n t h a t need n o t h a v e e n t a i l e d , however , t h e

p e r f o r m a n c e of l a b o u r d u e s b y t h e a • ’ f e c t e d villeins who ,could

h i r e s u b s t i t u t e s t o r e l i e v e t h e m fro. a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e or who

c o u l d c o m p e n s a t e t h e i r l o r d s f o r n o n - p e r f o r m a n c e ( l o r d s who, i n

l i e u of l a b o w d u e s , wou ld t h e m s e l v e s h i r e wage l a b o u r ) ,

(c) The d e c i s i o n t o r e i n s t i t u t e l a b o u r d u e s ( f o l l o w i n g c h a n g e s <

I

i n t h e i r v a l u e ) i n s t i g a t i n g & h e r e s u m p t i o n of d i r e c t demesne

c u l t i v a t i o n ,

(d ) A l t o g e t h e r u n r e l a t e d to d e n e s n e c u l t i v a t o n , a r e v i v a l of

l a b ~ u r d u e s ( f o l l o u i n g c h a n g e s i n t h e i r v a l u e ) t h a t v o u l d r e s u l t

in t h e i r immediate m o n e t i z a t i o n ,

I

( e ) A r e v e r s i o n t o l a b o u r d u e s u n r e l a t e d k o t h t o deraesne c u l t i -

v a t i o n and t o c h a n g e s i n t h e v a l u e o f t h e s e dues: a r e v e r s i o ' n \

t h u s d i c t a t e d by u l t e r i o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,

S i m p l i f y i n g t h e s e a r g u m e n t s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t a c o n d i t i o n f o r

a clearer u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r o l e o f +&e o b l i g a t i o n t o l a b o u r

i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y EngLand i s t o d i s t i n g u i s h ( a l o n g F e n o a l -

t e a ' s l i n e s ) be tween l a b o u r d u e s i n . u s e o n demesne . l a n d s a n d

formal l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s (or l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s f o r t h e i r

i m p l i c a t i o n s ) Once t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n is made, it becomes impor-

t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t d i f f e r e n t f ac tors m i g h t h a v e g o v e r n e d t h e

c h r o n o l o g y of e a c h of these t ~ o ~ v a r i a b l e s a l t h o u g h t h e p o s s i b i l -

i t y t h a t common a n d / o r o v e r l a p ~ i n g c a u s e s - m i g h t h a v e been i n .

f o r c e i s n o t t o be r u l e d o u t , The a r g u m e n t s r e v i e w e d have

t e n d e d t o b l u r t h e t u o v a r i a b l e s o r e l se have u n d e r s t a t e d a n

a n a l y s i s i n terms o f d i f f e r e n t causes. l o t e how t h e very cat-

e g o r y of formal l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s is, i t s e l f , r a t h e r complex a s

i t i n c l u d e s l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s r e q u e s t e d , i n a n d o f t h e m s e l v e s

(on t h e b a s i s of t h e i r c h a n g i n g v a l u e , f o r i n s t a n c e ) , a s well a s

f o r some p o s s i b l e s j d e e f fec ts f l o w i n g f rom t h e i r l e g a l r o l e a s

a t e s t of v i l l e i n a g e ,

A closer l o o k a t f o r m a l l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s f o r l e g a l p u r p o s e s

r e v e a l s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p o t e n t i a l l y c o n p e t i n g s o u r c e s of jnr i s2 -6

d i c t i o h , Whether o r n o t t h e l o r d s 1 i n t e n t i o n was t o i n c r e a s e V

t h e s i z e of t h e i r t a k e , t h e o p p o r t u n i t y c o s t of p a s s i v e a d j u s t -

ment t o t h e s p r e a d o f r o y a l j q s t i c e was h igh . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f

s o w d e f i n i t i o n of r h o was whose d e p e n d a n t ( i-e. o f ' who was a

v i l l e i n ) , the e x i s t e n c e of r o y a l c o u r t s would h a v e . . r a i s e d s i g -

J

n i f i c a n t l y t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s ccrbats of e x t r a c t i n g a a n o r i a l income. -

The c o s t s i n v o l v e d i n h a v i n g m a n o r i a l d e p e n d a n t s d e c l a r e d u n f r e e

c o u l d be l i k e n e d t o c a p i t a l G e x p e n d i t u r e s o r ' s e e d i n g ' c o s t s

i n c u r r e d by l o r d s i n t e n t o n s a f e g u a r d i n g t h e i r t a x a t i o n r i g h t s I d >

a n d o n m i n i m i z i n g t h e l o n g - r u n p r o s p e c t o f h e i g h t e n e d l i t i g a t i o n t

vi,th t h e s e d e p e n d a n t s - a p r o s p e c t a r i s i n g o u t of t h e d e v e l o p - - -

ment of r o y a l justice. Whi l e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h v i l -

l e i n a g e p r e e m p t e d t h u s t h e p e a s a n t r y f r o m t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e of -

P

r o y s l power , i t s i n ~ t a d e o u s l y p r e e m p t e d t h e k i n g f r o m , u n d e r m i n -

i n g t h e l o r d s ' power o n t h e manor: u n c h e c k e d , t h e e x p a n s i o n of

r o y a l power migh t have a l s o i n t e r f e r e d w i t h m a n o r i a l r e l a t i o n - -

s h i p s t h r o u g h more d i r e c t effects o n t h e i n c o g e o f ' m a n o r i a l

d e p e n d a n t s ' (if r o y a l t a x a t i o n is c o n s i d e r e d , a s was d i s c u s s e d i n =

t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r ) . As-a cost f o r c e d on l o r d s b y t h e c o n d i -

t i o n s u n d e r which E n g l i s h f e u d a l i s m was e v o l v i n g , t h e formal

a s s e r t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s of p e r s o n a l d e p e n d e n c e i n E n g l a n d

i n v i t e s c o m p a r i s o n v i t h C o n t i n e n t a l d e , v e l o p a e n t s . I n s e e k i n g t o

e s t a b l i s h , f o r C o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e , t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e d a t a

0 c o n s i d e r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o ~ n ~ l a i d ( l a b o u r dues ; demesne c u l t i v a -

t i o n , modes of m a n o r i a l d e p e n d e n c e , e tc ,) c h a p t e r s I V a n d V of /: 3

t h e d i s s e g t a t i o n l a i d t h e g r o u n d s f o r t h i s c o m p a r i s o n , \

Villeinage Measured Against C o n t i n e n t a l Developments : Diverse A p p r o a c h e s

1. V i l l e i n a g e a s a p a r t o f a b r o a d e r Western E u r o p e a n move-

s e n t . V i l l e i n a g e a s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e c h a r t e r s a n d t o

t h e He i s tu rne r - t h e c o n n e c t i n g t h r e a d b e i n g t h e c l a r i f i -

c a t i on of t a x a t i o n r i g h t s , T h e r e a s o n b e h i n d t h e move

t o w a r d s c l a r i f i c a t i o n : t o b e f o u n d i n t h e c o n f r o n t a h o n , A*

f

or t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s , be tween t e r r i t o r i a k l o r d s h i p a n d ' a .. ,

l a n d e d l o r d s h i p a s t h i s was i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h r i g h t s

d e r i v i n g from t h e so-called e x e r c i s e of gove rnmen t ,

W i t h i n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e E n g l i s h k i n g i s t o be s e e n

a s t h e u l t i m a t e t e r r i t o r i a l l o r d ,

2. V i l l e i n a g e a s a p a r t of a b r o a d e r s e s t e t n E u r o p e a n ~ o v e m e b t

whose p u r p o s e was t o al low l o r d s w i t h v a r y i n g sources -of RY

a u t h o r i tgr t o squeeze t . h e p e a s a n t r y h a r d e r ,

P o s s i b l e v a r i a b l e s a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e h i g h t e n e d p r e s s u r e

of p e a s a n t r y : i n f l a t i o n ? d i a i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s ?

Hhy s h o u l d t h e att6mpts a t e x t r a c t i n g s o r e i n c o m e froin

t h e p e a s a n t r y h a v e a s sumed a n e s p e c i a l l y d e b i l i t a t i n g - .

form i n E n g l a n d ? I n o t h e r words , why was it . p a r t i c u l a r l y

e x p e n s i v e f o r E n g l i s h l o r d s t o effect t h i s r e d i s t r i b u -

t i o n ? B e c a u s e o f t h e a d v a n c e of E n g l i s h r o y a l j u s t i c e ,

3. V i l l e i n a g e a s p a r t of a b r o a d e r W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n movement

meant t o allow m a n o r i a l lords t o s q u e e z e their p e a s a n t r y

h a r d e r ; v i l l e i n a g e as its o n l y i n s t a n c e o f s u c c e s s ,

Again: wha t m i g h t h a v e t r i g g e r e d m a n o r i a l l o r d s i n t o s u c h

a c t i o n ? U h y wes t h e i r o n l y s u c c e s s i n E n g l a n d ? P e a s a n t

r e s i s t a n c e ? The o f c o l l u s i o n be tween l o r d s a n d a

c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y b e i n g t h e ou tcome of

s u c h c o l l u s i o n ?

4 Y i l X e l n a g e a s a s i n g u l a r e v e a t , V i l l e i n a g e a s a s p ~ i f i - C c a l l i E n g l i s h d e v e l o p m e n t - t h e E n g l i s h l o r d s ' a t t e m p t a t

i n c r e a s i n g their revenues b e i n g u n p a r a l l e l e d , a t t h e

*- _ PAGE 209

a , time, T h e l o r d s 1 - a t t e m p t s c a u s e d by: i n f l a t i o n ? dimin,-

1 i s h i n g r e t u r n s , royal f i s c a l p r e s s u r e s ? I m p o r t a n t h e r e

would be t h e o n i g u e n e s s of t h e p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t o r y r

v a r i a b l e s (i-e., their b e i n g r e s t r i c t e d t o E n g l a n d ) , li

Mhy were t h e s e a t t e m p t s s o ' c o s t l y ? (cus tom? t h e r o y a l *

j u r i d i c a l a d v a n c e ? ) %& /' .

f' 5. Vil le inage a s a s i n g u l a r eweipt: t h e English monarchy

acquiring u n u s u a l f i n a n c i a l a n d j u d i c i a l powers, a t t h e

close of t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , t h u s - p r o v o k i n g m a n o r i a l

l o r d s toa d e f i n e a n d t o f o r m a l i z e their r i g h t s i n o r d e r t o

p r e s e r v e them,

A few r e a a r k s r e g a r d i n g . , o r d e r i v i n g from, t h e above c a t e g o - J '

ries: e x c e p t f o r s u g g e s t i n g ' t h a t i n c r e g s e s , - i n the s i z e of. t h e

m a n o r i a l p a y m e n t s e x t r a c t e d n e e d n o t h a v e been a p r i m a r y c o n s i d -

e r a t o n , 5) c o u l d be t r e a t e d a s a s u b s e t of 2). Note t h a t wbat- '!

e v e r a p p r o a c h is a d o p t e d , c o m p l e t e e x p l a n a t i o n s would seem -to

e l i c i t a c o n s i d e r a t 2 o n of t h e royal (= f e u d a l ) " v a r i a b l e , A l s o , *

t o a r g u e t h a t v i l l e i n a g e c o n s o l i d a t e d the E n g l i s h l o r d s * h o l d

o v e r t h e manor c o u l d b e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h t h e d& t h a t ; i n t h e 0 - e

making of v i l l e i n a g e , were l o r d s who, o v e r t h e i r s h o u l d e r , saw

t h e k i n g a p p r o a c h i n g n e a r e r * o w , t h a t t h e f o r m a l d e a a r c a t i o n

of t h e l o r d s a s p h e r e o f a u t h o r i t y would f a c i l i t a t e t h e e x a c t i o n

of l a b o u r d n e s i n u s e t h r o u g h l o v e r e n f o r c e m e n t c o s t s is con-

ceivable, T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y reca l l s B l o c h a s b r o a d comment t h a t - t h e use of l a b o u r d n e s p r e s u p p o s e d some measure of c e n t r a l i z a - . 7

I

$5 ton. 1 I n t h e case of t h i r w e n t h - c e n t u r y England=: b e h i n d ' laboor -- -

d u e s i n use (if a n d t o v h a t e v e r ' e x t e n t t h e were r e v i v e d in t h e A f t h i r t e e n t h century.) were f o r m a l l a b c u r o b l g a t i o n s ; b e h i n d f o r -

mal l a b o u r o b l i g a t i o n s were c e n t r a l i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e s p s -

t e a o f government! Iil

A d d r e s s i n g some of t h e i n i t i a l q u e % i o n s posed i n t h e Z n t r o -

d u c t i o n , z the g e n e r a l ibeg p u t f o r t h .in t h e f i h a l & a p t e r o f

t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n is t h a t m e d i e v a l manors c a n n o t be e a s i l y - Z

d e t a c h e d from s u r r o u n d i n g f e u d a l c o n d i t i o n s : which v a r i e a +and

e v o l v e d , ~ 2 0 s this p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d for t h i s r e a s o n , t h e merg- I

i n g of t h e t w o c o n c e p t s of m a o o r i a l i s ~ and fe<dal%sa m o l d -

F, > Q

i n d e e d .be \ i s l e a d i n g (as i n d i c a t e d b y F e n o a l t e h b u t x i o a' d i f f e r 4 * I ^

e n t c o n t G f t 3 ) T h e r e s e a r c h p o t e n t i a l of t h e d i s s & a t i o n 4 -

s t e m s l f r o m t h i s i d e a , I f the i d e a h a s s e r v e d a p u r p o s e i n h e l p -

i n g a l u c i d a te the s e e m i n g ' a b e r r a t i o a d i s ~ l a y e d by t h e E n g l i s h / . * c h r o n o l o g y of l a b o u r d u e s , i t might be worth c o n s i d e r i n g i n

. o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s a s well., T h e r e ace s e v e 4 l q u e s t i o n s t h a t

- c o u l d be s t u d i e d more a t t e n t i v e l y i n xigt i t o f t h e e f e u d g l i

d imension, . Such q u e s t i o n s migh t i n c l u d e t h e r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y

abandonment of l a b o u r . dues i n use i n C o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e ( a l s o

t h e v e r y fact t h a t l a b o u r d u e s d i d &t c o n s t i t u t e e v e s p h e r e t h e 5

. . " 9 . . ' t y p i c a l form of payments e x t r a c t e d u q d s ' c l a s s i c a l * m a n o r i a l -

* <

-

-. - - 1 I n t h a t r e g a r d , see pp? 140-141 'of t h e s i s .

2 T h e questions arose i n r e l a t i o n t o v i e u s e x p r e s s e d b y B l d c h and F o u r q u i n ; see t h e d i s c n s s i o n i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o a on p,

-f 3 F e n o a l t e a , YPhe Rise a n d F a l l of a Bode l . . . ", p. 408.

a ism) , the absence of c h a r t e r s i n England, t h e p a r t & c u f a r i t y .I

exhibited by orm man derelopaents and c e r t a i n l y the fprther con- -

s e q u e n c e s of d i f P e r e n c e s i n t h e d e v o l u t i o n of r o y a l taxation on

m e d i e v a l lords. Dare I c o n c l u d e by invoking Popper: we d o not \

so lve . problems; w e transform them* ? I hope t h a t the d i s s e r t a - 6

tion has c a p t u r e d t h i s spirit,

4 For a p a s s a g e , i n Popper, t h a t a p p e a r s to convey t h i s message, . see his Unended guest, Illinois, 1976) , p. 132.

, PAGE 2.1 2 4

* ' APPENDICES -

-

Appendix I

3 a Germany east of t h e E l b e : t h e l a r g e es ta tes t h a t were =

b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d . t h e r . e s t a r t i n g i n t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y a r e

n o t a s s i m i l a t e d , i n . t h e l i t e r a t u r e , t o t h e V i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f as-

s u n g . I n s t e a d , t h e y a re r e f e r r e d t o a s G u t s h e r r s c h a f t e n , T h i s 1

is soogevhat p u z z l i n g f o r t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s be tween t h e t u o . k i n d s E .

of . o r g a n i z a t i o n s were s t r o n g . The l a r g e , e s t a t e s o f e a s t . e r n Ger-

many wev, a f t e r a l l , a l s o b a s e d on t h e d i r e c t c u l t i v a t i o n o f 4

e x t e n s i v e d e e e s s e l a n d s - a n d t h e u s e o f l a t o u r dues . Yhy t h e n *

t h e ' n e e d f o r a s e p a r a t e c a t e g o r y ? Dif f e r e a t v a c i a b l e s h a v e b e e n 'I

s t r e s s e d i n support of t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , Unlike t h e V i l l i k a - .

t i o n s v e r f a s s u q g , l a r g e e s t a t e s i n E a s t Germany u e r e o r g a n i z e d

a r o u n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of e x p o r t s ( g r a i n a n d t i m b e r ) t o w e s t e r n -

E a m p e . Some h a v e s e e n i n t h i s m a r k e t o r i e n t a t i w a c&early

d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g f a c t o r . 1 ~ u r t h e r m o r e , i t h a s b e e n a p o i n t e d o u t

t h a t t h e E a s t German es ta tes h a d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r d e m e s n e s

a n d r e l i e d on much h e a v i e r l a b o u r d u e s t h a n t h e V i l l i k a t i o n s v e k -

f a s s u n g ; a s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e t e n a n t s 8

o b l i g a t i o n s on E a s t German e s t a t e s c o n s i s t e d almost e n t i r e l y o'f

l a b u r dues , 2

1 B. H, S l i c h e r Van B a t h , The A g r a r i a n H i s t o r y of & s t e r n E u r o p e tr. by O l i v e O r d i s h (London, ~963y;-~. 157.

2 P e r r i n , "Le g r a n d -domaine ..,#, p. 140. '.

I n a n o t h e r a p p r o a c h t o t h e q u e s t i o n of uhy t h e need f o r the -

-. c a t e g o r y o f * t h e W G u t s h e r r s c h a f t " , t h e f o c u s is o n t h e e x t e n t t o .*.

which eas t German l o r d s of l a r g e e s t a t e s had s u c c e e d e d i n mono- I

p o l i z i n g t h e s t a t e ' s f u n c t i o n s a s c o w p a r e d w i t h west Geraan

l o r d s , ~ u t g e , . v h o s e a r g u m e n t s f a l l w i t b i n t h i s g e n e r a l frame-

work of a n a l y s i s , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e G c u n d h e r r s c h a f t and, 1 would

i ' n f e r , t h e V i l l i k a t i o n s v e r f a s s u n g were o p e n to a n u n s p e c i f i e d -

amount of m a r k e t i n v o l v e m e n t which h e t h u s d i s c o u n t s a s a d i s - --,

t i n g u i s h i h g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . 3 ~ e , as v e l l a s o t h e ' b sf g i v e more 1

p r o m i n e n c e t o t h e fact t h a t t h e East German a s s o l e ruler . ,

i n his e s t a t e , * being t h u s more po-uerf u l t h a n ' a n y West German *r

~ r u n d h e r r ( o r , head of a V i l l i k a t i o n s r e r f a s s u n g ) h a d be'en. H e

e was more p o w e r f u l b e c a u s e h e h a d s u c c e e d e d i n a p p r o p r i a t i n g t h e f t

p r e r o g a t i v e s o f t h e L a n d e s h e r r ( t h e t e r r i t o r i a l p r i n c e ) . A s a *

r e s u l t , h e had a l so s u c c e e d e d i n r e d u c i n g h 2 s d e p e n d a n t i n t o a

c o n d i t i o n of s t r i c t , p e r s o n a l h e r e d i t a r y s e r v i t u d e and i r i c n r - f

t a i l i n g t h e i r r i g h t s o v e r t h e i r t e n u r e ; i n t h e m o s t f a v o u r a b l e i'

of cases, t h e i r t e n u r e was h e r e d i t a r y b u t r e m a i n e d i n a l i e n a b l e . 5

I would l i k e to r e s t a t e , a n d p o s s i b l y c l a r i f y t h e l a s t t v o p o i n t s

3 L u t g e , G e s c h i c h t e *,, , p, 50-51,

4 I n lsEconomic ChangeR, ah Nev C a m b r i d ~ Economic His tory rz () on p. 36 L u t g e r e m a r k s "on t h e t r a n s T o r m a t i o n o f l a n d e d l o r d - s h i p i n t o the s p e c i a l form c a l l e d G u t s h e r r s c h a f t C t h a t J i n t h i s system t h e l o r d h a s rights af l o r d s h i p i n h i s who le ter- r i t o r y o r estate, The es ta te is t h e r e f o r e s o m e t h i n g L i k e a - smal l p o i i t i d % u n i t w i t h i n t h e S t a t e : its inhabitants are

, o n l y i n d i r e c t l y s u b j e c t s o f , t h e t e r r i t o r i a l p r i n c e , " '

5 For a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e powers o f t h e L a n d e s h e r r e n i n different p a r t s of Germany, n e x t t o L n t g e l s a n a l y s i s on p, 53

- of h i s G e s c h i c h t e , , . , see a l s o V. B e l o u ' s G e s c h i c h t e .-. , p. 83 a n d P e r r i n 's n L e q r a h d dornaine . . p- 139,

- 31

d

-

f o r t h e y are cr i t i ca l i n , L u t g e r s a r g u m e n t s . H i s s p e c i f i c a t i o n

of t h e G u t s h e r r s c h a f t c o n b i n e s two e l e m e n t s : t h e e x c e p t i o n a l - - & powers of t h e G u t s h e r r b u t a l s o h e u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e d e g r a d e d

c o n d i t i o n s o f t e n u r e a n d i n t-he s t a t u s of t h e d e p e n d a n t s - a

u n i f o r m i t y t h a t p r e s u m a b l y grew o u t o f t h e s e - p o J e r s , I n o t h e r ' - u o r d s , a c c o r d i n g t o L u t g e , p r e c i s e l y because t h e : V i l l i k a t i o n -

s v e r f a s s u n g was b a s e d on h e t e r o g e n e o u s forms of d e p e n d e n c e i t

c a n n o t be e q u a t e d w i t h t h e G u t s h e r r s c h a f t ,

T h a t ' t h e Yest Gernan l a n d e d l o r d h a d l a c k e d a n u a b e r of t h e

powers a t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e East German l o r d ' s most a r b i t r a r y ,'

i m p o s i t i o n s is n o t i n d o u b t . B U ~ t h e e x t e n t .to which a new c o n - -

c e p t c a n be d e d u c e d % •’ram t h i s f a c t , a n d f rom t h i s f a c t a l o n e , is

less c l e a r . Mere we t o s i n g l e o u t t h e d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n

o f s t a t e f u n c t i o n s - m o s t l y j u s t 2 c e ( i . e . , power i n f euda l -med i - %

e v a l t i a e s ) .- i n t h e h a n d s of t h e l a n d e d l o r d a s a c r i t e r i o n f o r

d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e t v e e n forms o f a g r a r i a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d d i s -

r e g a r d , o r j u s t de- .emphas ize t h e p u r p o s e of p r o d u c t i o n , we might

f in3 i t d i f f i c u l t t o s i t u a t e , l e t u s s a y , t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y

F r e n c h s e i g n e u r i e (o r e v e n t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y ~ngiish manor)

i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e G r u n d h e r r s c h a f t a n d t o t h e G u t s h e r r s c h a f t . S Which of t h e two would t h e y a p p r o x i m a t e b e s t ?

-

-

b PAGE 215

Appendix II

On t h e v a l u e of l a b o u r d u e s a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y a n d i n t h e first h a l f o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e

f o l l o w i n g i s reported b y Du-by who s u g g e s t s t h a t , b y t h e n , . a v e r y

low v a l u e was set % on l a b o u r d u e s : "On t h e g r e a t T h u r i n y i a n e

d e m e s n e t h e work d o n e b y a man s u b j e c t t o l a b o u r s e r v i c e was se t

a t h a l f , or even o n e - t h i r d , of t h a t d o n e by a p a i d w o ~ k e r . Nor

w a s the l a b o u r s e r v i c e p e r f o r m e d e n t i r e l y g r a t u i t o u s l y ; ds a

r u l e t h e f o r c e d l a b o u r h a d t o b e f e d . . , the cost o f t h e f o o d

o f t e n e x c e e d e d t h e v a l u e of t h e work d o n e . I n 1315 t h e e l e v e n

f o u r - h o r s e p l o u g h s s u b j e c t t o f o r c e d l a b o u r w h i c h p l o u g h e d T h i -

r e c o n S s l a n d f o r a s i n g l e f o r e n o o n i n f a c t cost t h i r t y

sous, L e o , a t h i r d of t h e a n n u a l wage of a d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t .

I n a n i a v e n t o r y of 1338 t h e s e r v i c e s owed to t h e ~ o s p i t a l l e r s of

Provence by t h e s e n s u h ject t o l a b o u r s e r v i c e were v o ~ t h o n l y - h a l f a s much a s c o u l d h a v e b e e n d o n e by a d a y l a b o u - r e r i n t h e i r

p l a c e , but t h e m e a l w h i c h was s e r v e d t o them v a s w o r t h two o r

t h r e e times m o r e t h a n a d o ~ e s t i c ~ s ~ a t i o n . ~ * 6 5

-

P A G E 216

Appendix 111

- On- t h e l a t e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v e r s i o n t o t h e l e a s i n g of

. t h e demesne I would l i k e t o i n d i c a t e a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o n n e c t j o n --

drawn b y 1:R. ~ a d d i c o t t , . ' i n a s t u d y e n t i t l e d , "The E n g l i s h

P e a s a n t q a n d t h e Demands o f t h e C ~ o v n . ~ H a d d i c o t t r e l a t e s t h e

l o r d s ' d e c i s i o n t o lease o u t t h e demesne t o t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f a

r o y a l t a x o n movab le goods . H o w so? The i m p o s i t i o n of a t a x on

movab le g o o d s "meant t h a t a l l t h o s e whose l i v e l i h o o d s came p r i -

m a r i l y from r e n t s e s c a p e d l i g h t l y . L a n d l o r d s were thus a s s e s s e d -

o n l y o n t h e p r o d u c e of t h e i r demesne manors , a n d i t is p o s s i b l e

t h a t t h e c h a n g e s from t h e d i r e c t e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e demesne t o

its l e a s i n g o u t .,, mag p a r t l y b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e l o r d ' s w i s h

' t o a v o i d t h e now f r e q u e n t l e v y o n m o v a b l e s - 7

7 I - B - H a d d i c o t t , The Enql- Peasant= and the Demands of the Croun , 1291-1341 P a s t a& P r e s e n t , S u p p l e m e n t (1975) ,. p , 7,

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