COGNITIVE SCIENCE HISTORYBy: Brittany Lindsey, Mandi Wofford, Kaitlin

Lawrence, Holly Reynolds, & Baylie Conway

COGNITIVE SCIENCEDefinition: the study of thought, learning, and mental organization, which draws on aspects of psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and computer modeling.

WHAT IS IT AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LTThtJMTe

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COGNITIVE SCIENCE: PREHISTORY

Philosophers

Berkeley

Burton

Hobbes

Locke

PREHISTORY: BERKELEY

Student at Trinity College

Direct predecessor of Locke

Methodology is empirical

Attacks Locke's Abstract Ideas

PREHISTORY: BERKELEY

Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, 1709

provides a detailed analysis of how the two senses of Sight and

Touch furnish the mind with Ideas, and briefly discusses the

relationship between Ideas and their correspondent reality and the

nature of Ideas as the furniture of the mind

Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, 1710

expands his discussion of the impossibility of Abstract Ideas and of the relationship between Ideas and the material world, in which he

defends his position against accusations of Skepticism

Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous, 1713

written as a dialogue between two thinkers, one of whom supports

Berkeley's position and the other who launches a series of attacks

against it which reflect the criticisms which Berkeley himself was

subject too

PREHISTORY: BURTON

The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621) is arguably the first

major text in the history of Western cognitive science

Burton's model of human cognition is a mix of philosophizing about the qualitative nature of

consciousness and attempts to identify the physiological mechanisms responsible for carrying out the various cognitive processes of which humans are

capable

At the heart of Burton's cognitive model is a conception of the mind and body as a total organism

everything that is contained within the human body is

composed of either a Spirit or a Humour

PREHISTORY: BURTON

three types of Spirits--Natural, Vital, and Animal--originating in the liver, heart, and

brain respectively

soul is divided into three principle faculties:

'vegetal', 'sensitive' and 'rational'

PREHISTORY: HOBBES

Leviathan 1651

provide the conceptual background for the

major schools of thinking about thinking which

follow in the next two centuries -particularly

the skeptics and associationists

Mediation between Burton & Locke

PREHISTORY: HOBBES Model based upon an application of the rules of geometry and

physics to the human science

professed a theory of motion

all matter was in motion and would remain in motion unless acted upon by another force

constructs a model of the human psyche in which all thought is explained by the motion of things in the material world impacting the senses, which creates a subsequent motion in the senses, which creates a subsequent motion in the brain, which continues to exert its pressure on the brain until its motion is degraded sufficiently by the interference of other new motions

1) that everything is material, including the mind, and the soul (689-693); 2) that we are brought into the world with the mind a tabula rasa (85); and 3) that the senses are responsible for all mental activity

PREHISTORY: LOCKE

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1690

comprehensive and detailed analysis of the mechanisms of human thought

All thinking falls into two categories: Sensation & Reflection

Sensation describing the way in which "our senses, conversant bout particular sensible objects, do convey into the mind several distinct perceptions of things, according to those various ways wherein those objects do affect them"

Reflection being "the perception of the operations of our own mind within us, as it is employed about the ideas it has got"

mind is, at birth, an "empty cabinet" or a sheet of "white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas"

claims that these two modes of thinking, Sensations and Reflection, are "the only originals from whence all our ideas take their beginnings"

EXHIBITIONS

Information Age: People, Information and Technology

14,000 square foot display that was

located on the first floor of the National Museum of American History

Opened in May 1990

Features over 900 original artifacts

EXHIBITIONS

Samuel Morse's telegraphs

Alexander Bell's telephones

a Hollerith punched card machine

a 4-rotor German ENIGMA encoder used during World War II

the ENIAC computer

the TELESTAR test satellite

an automotive welding robot

a selection of early personal computers

digital high definition television.

MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTATION

Russell and Whitehead

Allen Turing

Jon von Neumann

Kurt Godel

PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA

Is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics. It was created by Alfred Whitehead and Bertrand Russell.

Published in 1910.

The first volume was the only one that Whitehead worked on with Russell.

Revealed too much about complexity.

ALFRED WHITEHEAD

Born in Kent, England on February 15, 1861.

His strongest subject was Mathematics.

He eventually became a teacher at Trinity College.

First book was Treatise on Universal Algebra, discusses the general principles of the subject and the topics of the algebra of symbolic logic.

Later he started working on the famous book PrincipiaMathematica with Bertrand Russell.

BERTRAND RUSSELL

Born at Traelleck on May 18,1872.

In 1896, he published his first political work. It was called German Social Democracy.

Worked with Alfred Whitehead to publish their book Principia Mathematica.

ALAN TURING

Born June 23, 1912.

Founder of Computer Science

Artifical Intelligence

Turing test- is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior.

JON VON NEUMANN

Born on December 28, 1903.

Child prodigy

Worked on the Atomic bomb design created by Seth Neddermeyer.

Realized that data and instructions could be stored in memory.

Von Neumann computer

THE VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5BpgAHBZgec

KURT GODEL Born on April 28, 1906

Studied at the University of Vienna

Known for his Incompleteness Theorem

Developed a technique called Godel numbering, which codes formal expressions as natural numbers.

We can't know everything.

THE NEURONAL

METHOD

Created by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts

Neuron of a set of inputs and

one output.

The idea of neural nets.

WARREN S. MCCULLOCH Born in Orange, New Jersey on November 16, 1898

American neurophysiologist

Created computational models based on mathematical algorithms.

1952, started working with Norbert Weiner in Massachusetts.

Also played a role in cybernetics.

Wrote a paper with Pitts that talked about how the brain can produce complex patterns.

WALTER PITTS

Born in Detroit, Michigan on April 23, 1923

Worked in the field of Computational Neuroscience

He read Bertrand Russell's Principia Mathematica and even sent him a letter to express his concerns about what was wrong with the book.

Taught himself logic and mathematics and was invited to study at Cambridge University at the age of 12.

MARVIN MINSKY

Born on August 9, 1927

Studied at Harvard and Princeton

He invented the first head-mounted graphical display and the confocal microscope.

Worked with Papert to write a book called Perceptrons, which the foundational work in the analysis of artifical neural networks.

Artifical Intelligence Lab they started to develop the Society of Mind Theory.

SOCIETY OF MIND THEORY

This theory attempts to explain how what we call intelligence could be a product of the interaction of non-intelligent parts.

The ideas came from Minsky's work trying to create a machine that uses robotic arms and other electronic parts to build children's blocks.

SEYMOUR PAPERT

Born on February 29, 1928

Pioneer of Artificial Intelligence

Co-director of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab.

Used Piaget's work in development of the Logo programming language.

Small robot called "Logo Turtle", children used it to solve simple problems in an environment of play.

Theory of constructionism- built upon the work of Piaget.

NORBERT WIENER: FATHER OF

CYBERNETICS

Norbert Wiener lived from November 26th,1894 to

March 18, 1964

Wiener was an American mathematician and Philosopher

Wiener was a child prodigy

Wiener formalied the idea of Feedback whick

revolutionized Enginering, Computer Science, Biology, systems control, neuroscience, and philosophy

NORBERT WIENER:

BACKGROUND

Weiner was born in Columbia, Missouri, to Leo Wiener and Bertha Kahn and he was

homeschooled by his father until 1903

He Graduated from high school at the age of 11 and received his BA in Mathematics

at 14 from Tufts College in Massachusetts.

He studied zoology at Harvard for his Graduate studies, but he transferred to Cornell

in 1910 to study philosophy.

He transferred back to Harvard to continue studying philosophy a year later

WIENER AND CYBERNETICSDuring WW2 Wiener worked on Auto aiming for Anti-Aircraft guns. This caused

him to investigate Information theory

Information theory studies the quantification, storage, and communication of

information

Using the information theory, Wiener went on to develop the Wiener filter, which

is the modeling of an information source as a random process.

His work on the AA gun led him to create cybernetics

After the war he created a team at MIT to study cognitive science

This team had a background in neuropsychology, math, and Biophysics.

CYBERNETICS

Norbert Wiener defined cybernetics as "the scientific study of control and

communication in the animal and the machine."

From the Greek word for Governance

Began as the interdisciplinary study of control systems, mechanical engineering, evolutionary biology, electrical network theory, Logic modeling

neuroscience, anthropology, and psychology.

In the 20th century Cybernetics was divided into first and second order

Cybernetics

FIRST AND SECOND ORDER

CYBERNETICS

First order cybernetics are about the observed systems

Second order Cybernetics " the cybernetics of cybernetics"- the recursive

applications of cybernetics to itself. It is the study of cybernetics itself,

Developed in the 60s and 70s by Margret Mead, Heinz von Foerster. Mead

proposed that cybernetics should be subject to cybernetic critique

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEMS OF

COGNITIVE SCIENCE

Multidisciplinary- philosophy, psychology, linguistics, AI

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEMS

Focus is to study mental processes that create behavior. Not studying behavior for its own sake. Theoretical emphasis and data follows.

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEMS

What is the origin of complexity of system of systems?

Environment? Brain? Or Both?

How a system interacts and forms a relationship with its environment

What is the appropriate level of analysis?

Passive knowledge, formulaic knowledge, knowledge originating in the mind

Can the levels of linguistics analysis be combined?

Syntax of a language describes structure and composition of phrases and sentences. Pragmatics studies the way context contributes to meaning.

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEMS

Can the levels of linguistics analysis be combined?

Syntax of a language describes structure and composition of

phrases and sentences. Pragmatics studies the way context

contributes to meaning.

Can universal dictionaries and translators be created?

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CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEMS

What is humor and can it be stimulated?

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEMS

There is a lack of historical context and depth.

Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure

Logic is the foundation , fuzzy logic

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEMS

New modes of communication and interaction

There are keyboards, voice input, mouse, touch screen, tablets, smartphones, etc., there is new design and software.

PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORISM

Began in 1913

Behaviorism refers to a psychological approach that focuses on scientific and objective methods of investigation

Only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors

States all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment

J.B. WATSON

Bron January 9, 1878 in Travelers Rest, South Carolina

Known for being the first to promote behaviorism

Published "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it" which outlined the major features of behaviorism

Emphasis on external behavior of people and their reactions on given situations instead of

the internal, mental state of people

Little Albert experiment in 1920

Conditioned 9-month-old-boy by clanging an iron rod when a white rat was shown to him;

done several times. Watson presented the white rat by itself and the boy cried. Watson later showed the boy a rabbit, a dog, and a fur coat; the boy cried at the sight of them

•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE

IVAN PAVLOV

Born September 26, 1849 in Ryazan, Russia

Known primarily for his work in classical conditioning; founder of modern behavior therapy

Experiments showed that conditional reflexes start in the cerebral cortex which acts as the prime distributor and organizer for all activity

Found that any external agent could become the conditioned signal for the formation of a new conditioned reflex by coinciding in time with an ordinary reflex

•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI

E.L. THORNDIKE

Born August 31, 1874 in Williamsburg, Massachusetts

Known for the Law of Effect: suggested that responses that form a satisfying effect in a certain situation become more likely to happen again in that situation, and responses that form a discomforting effect become less likely to happen again in that situation

Conducted experiments with animals and mazes where his subjects were rewarded when they could push a lever and escape—subjects able to do this faster with repetition

KARL LASHLEY

Born June 7, 1890 in Davis, West Virginia

Big contributions to the study of learning and memory; pioneer of neuroscience

Made big discoveries on how the brain stores and processes information

Unsuccessful search for the "engram"--the localized trace of memory for a maze in a trained rat's brain

Proposed principle of "mass action"--learning is distributed across all parts of the brain

1951-published "The Problem of Serial Order in Behavior"

Behavior must be controlled by a central, hierarchically organized program—guided

the study of motor behavior

B. F. SKINNER

Born March 20, 1904 in Susquehanna Depot, Pennsylvania

Inventor, author; known for operant conditioning, radical behaviorism, applied behavior analysis, verbal behavior

Argued that human behavior was always controlled by its environment

Invented the Skinner box (shaping and counting lever-pressing in rats and key-pecking in pigeons), the cumulative recorder (records rates of behavior as a pen tracing), a WWII-era missile guidance system that was never used, teaching machines for programmed learning (students were given a sentence at a time and filled in the blank in a similar sentence, shown in a small window), air crib (temperature controlled glass box his infant daughter would play in)

NEUROPSYCHOLOGY

The study of brain-behavior relationships

It is a branch of psychology that focuses on how the brain and the nervous system influence a person's cognition and behaviors

Professionals tend to focus on how injuries or illnesses of the brain affect cognitive functions and behaviors

WAR STUDIES

Both WWI and WWII yielded extensive numbers of subjects for studies of traumatic brain damage

Different types of aphasias were found and were difficult to interpret within the behaviorist model

In psychology, aphasia is an impairment of language that affects the production or comprehension of speech and the ability to read or write

Aphasia is always cause by an injury to the brain

SYNERGY

Synergy refers to the situation where two or more discrete influences or agents are working together to create an effect that is bigger than what each individual/agent could create alone

A large number of researchers from many disciplines gradually learned that they were working on similar problems

W. Ross Ashby, Herbert Simon, George Miller, Allen Newell, Marvin Minsky, and others