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Chapter21

Birds:Rep6lesbyAnotherName

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Evolu6onaryPerspec6ve

•  “ClassAves”– Dozensofsharedcharacteris6cswith(other)rep6les•  Singleoccipitalcondyle,singleearossicle,otherskeletalcharacters,nes6ngbehavior,endothermy(dinosaurlineages)

– Archosaurlineage•  SaurischianlineagecalledtheTheropods•  Featheredtheropoddinosaurssupportthislineage


Figure21.2Anar6stsrepresenta6onoffeatheredtheropodsandancientbirds.


•  Ancientbirdsandtheevolu6onofflight– Archaeopteryx•  150mya(Germany)•  Rep6liantailandclawedfingers•  Imprintsoffeathersontailandwings


Figure21.3Archaeopteryx,anAncientBird.


•  Diversityofmodernbirds– Mostbirdlineagesrepresentedbyearlyfossilsbecameex6nctalongwithdinosaurs

– Modernbirds,divergedfromafewlineages,survivedintotheTer6aryperiod•  Numerousspecies•  35orders(table21.1)


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Evolu6onaryPressures

•  Externalstructureandlocomo6on– Feathers•  Flight,insula6on,courtship,incuba6on,waterproofing•  Pennaceous–prominentsha[

–  Flightfeathers(asymmetrical)–  Contourfeathers(symmetrical)

» Waterproofing»  Insula6on»  Streamlining

•  Plumulaceous–rudimentarysha[–  Down

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Figure21.4Developmentalfeathertypesandanatomy.


Figure21.5Forma6onofbirdfeathers.(a)  Epidermalcellsformfeathersheath.(b)  Folliclegrowsintothedermis.(c)Barbsformfromfeathersheath.(d)Featheremergesfromthesheath.


•  Externalstructureandlocomo6on–  Theskeleton(lightweightandstrong)

•  Largeairspaces•  Reducednumberofskullbones•  Billreplacesteeth

–  Billandflexibleneckusedinnes6ngandfeedingyoung–  Pelvicgirdleandvertebralcolumnandribsstrengthenedforflight•  Synsacrum•  Pygostyle

–  Flightmusclea^achment•  Keeledsternum•  Furcula

–  Appendages•  Fusionofbones•  Perchingtendons


Figure21.6Birdskeleton.


•  Externalstructureandlocomo6on– Muscles•  Flightadapta6ons

– Flight•  Formairfoil•  Sloangandalulareduceturbulence•  Tail

–  Balancing,steering,braking•  Kindsofflight

–  Gliding–  Flapping–  Soaring–  Hovering


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Figure21.7Mechanicsofbirdflight.


•  Nutri6onandthediges6vesystem– Highratesoffoodconsump6onsupportrapidmetabolicrates

– Billmodifica6ons– Diges6vetract•  Crop

–  Storage•  Stomach

–  Proventriculus»  secretesgastricjuices

–  Ventriculus(gizzard)» Muscular,forgrinding


Figure21.9Somespecializa6onsofbirdbills.


Figure21.10Diges6vesystemofapigeon.


•  Circula6on,gasexchange,andtemperatureregula6on– Completelyseparatedatriaandventriclesresultinseparatepulmonaryandsystemiccircuits.

– Sinusvenosusservesaspacemaker.– Veryrapidheartratesandseparatepulmonaryandsystemiccircuitssupportflightandendothermy.


•  Gasexchange–  Syrinx

•  Vocaliza6ons–  Bronchileadtoairsacs

•  Occupymuchofbody•  Extendintobones

–  Lungs•  Smallairtubes

–  Respiratorycycles•  Twocyclesmoveeachvolumeofairthroughthelungs•  Uninterruptedairflowthroughparabronchiwithbothinspira6onandexpira6onpromotesefficientgasexchange


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Figure21.11Respiratorysystemofabird


•  Thermoregula6on– Bodytemperatures•  Between38and45oC

– Heatconserva6on•  Fluffingfeathersdecreasesheatloss•  Tuckingbillintofeathers•  Countercurrentheatexchangeinlegs

– Heatgenera6on•  Shivering•  Muscularac6vityinflight


•  Nervousandsensorysystems–  Brain

•  Enlargedforebrain–  Corpusstriatum

»  Visuallearning,feeding,courtship,andnes6ng–  Pinealbody

»  Ovariandevelopmentandresponsestolightanddarkperiods

•  Midbrain–  Sensoryinputforvisualprocessing

•  Hindbrain– Motorcoordina6on–  Regula6onofheartandrespiratoryrates


•  Nervousandsensorysystems– Vision•  Double-focusingmechanism

–  Curvatureoflens–  Curvatureofcornea

•  Re6na–  Rodsandcones–  Twofoveaepereye

»  Searchfovea,centerofeye»  Pursuitfovea,posteriorofeye

•  Monocularvs.binocularvision– Olfac6on•  Minorimportanceexceptinvultures

– Hearing• Welldeveloped


Figure21.13Avianvision.


•  Excre6onandosmoregula6on– Uricacidstoredincloaca•  Promoteswaterconserva6onandembryodevelopmentinterrestrialenvironments

– Supraorbitalsaltglands•  Marinebirdssecreteexcesssaltthroughnasalopenings


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•  Reproduc6onanddevelopment– Oviparous•  Testespaired•  Le[ovarydevelopsandreleaseseggstolargeos6um•  Albumensecretedbyoviduct•  Shellglandsecretesshellaroundfer6lizedegg

– Territoriesandcourtshipcommon– Ma6ng•  Monogamous•  Polygynous•  PolyandrousCopyright©2016McGraw-HillEduca;on.Allrightsreserved.Noreproduc;onordistribu;onwithoutthe

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Figure21.15Courtshipdisplays.


•  Nes6ngac6vi6es– Clutchsizevaries– Mostincubateeggs– Altricial•  En6relydependentonparentsathatching

– Precocial•  Rela6velyindependentathatching


Figure21.16AltricialandPrecocialchicks.


•  Migra6onandnaviga6on– Migra6on•  Periodicroundtripsbetweenbreedingandnonbreedingareas– Mostannualandnorth/south–  Breedingarearesourceabundancevariesfromseasontoseason.»  Abundantinspring/summerbreedingseason

•  Responsetospecies-specificphysiologicalcondi6ons–  Innateclocks–  Environmentalfactors


Figure21.1ClassAves.


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•  Migra6onandnaviga6on– Naviga6on•  Route-basednaviga6on

–  Landmarksonoutwardjourneyusedtoguidereturntrip.

•  Loca6on-basednaviga6on–  Suncompasses,otherceles6alcues,theearth’smagne6cfield


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