t of colour platesAbbreviationsPlan of the bookTopographic

diagramPart I: General Chapters1. The world of hornbills2. The

design of hornbills3. Non-breeding behaviour and biology4.

Breeding biology5. Relationships and evolution of hornbills6.

ConservationPart II: Species AccountsBibliographyIndex,

PART I: General Chapters 1. The World of Hornbills 2. The

Design of Hornbills 3. Non-breeding Behavior and Biology 4.

Feeding Ecology 5. Breeding Biology 6. Relationships and

Evolution of Hornbills 7. Conservation PART II: Species

Accounts 1. Bucertiformes 2. Bucorvidae 2.1. Genus Bucorvus

3. Bucerotidae 3.1. Genus Anorrhinus 3.2. Genus Tockus 3.3.

Subgenus Lophoceros 3.4. Subgenus Tockus 3.5. Subgenus

Incertae Sedis 3.6. Genus Ocyceros 3.7. Genus Anthracoceros

3.8. Genus Buceros 3.9. Genus Penelopides 3.10. Genus

Aceros 3.11. Subgenus Rhyticeros 3.12. Genus Ceratogymna

3.13. Subgenus Baryrhynchodes 3.14. Subgenus Ceratogymna

Reviews". . .a comprehensive look at the 54 species of these fascinating birds."--Wildbird "This book is a

comprehensive account of. . .hornbills, their distinctive bills, non-breeding behavior and biology,

feeding, breeding, evolution and relationships. . ." --Wildlife Activist "Provides an overview of

hornbill structure, behavior, ecology, breeding biology,and taxonomy, with notes on conservation,

management, and even captive breeding. Accounts for each of the 54 species dispense known

natural history information in a well-organized format." --Bird Watcher's Digest "This volume, and

its companions in the series, will be an indispensable work of reference for anyone interested in

birds."--Indiana Audubon quarterly "Recommended to university libraries supporting a significant

interest in ornithology and to ornithologists interested in African and Asian birds." --Choice

'...enough to make any naturalist want to learn more...'Paul Reddish, Producer, BBC Natural

History Unit, for BBC Wildlife Magazine, July 1995

'It also sets a very high standard for future handbooks in the series, each of which will provide a

synthesis of current knowledge of one or of several related avian families for professional and

amateur audiences. The Hornbills is a monumental work and an indispensable reference for

anyoneinterested in these extraordinary birds.'Allison V. Andors, American Museum of Natural

History, Birdlife International Hornbill Group Newsletter, Volume 4, Number 2, July 1995

eBay Product ID: EPID59826

Certain data records © 2014 Bowker. Rights in cover images reserved by owners.

They have black and white plumage and large casque, with almost same size of casque in both sexes. Male and female are very similar but they differ in bill colour and bare skin around the eyes. They are spread across a wide area, from Western India, through South-east Asia to Sumatra and Borneo.    

The three species of genus Buceros and the single one of Rhinoplax are the largest of the Asian hornbills, and they have wide range too, from Western India to Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philippines.

Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis

Bucerotiforme Order – Bucerotidae Family

BIOMETRICS:L: 95-105 cmPoids: M: 2600-3400 g – F: 2155-3350 g

DESCRIPTION: The Great Hornbill is the largest member of this family. This large arboreal bird is able to perform acrobatic flights during the breeding season.

The adult male has black and white plumage with some white parts washed yellow. This is due to the oily exudation produced by the uropygial gland when the bird is preening. It rubs its head against the gland situated at the upper base of the tail, and transfers this oil to its plumage. Back and underparts are black, except the white lower belly, upper and undertail-coverts and tail. The latter shows a broad black subterminal band. The upperwing is black with white coverts forming a

conspicuous wing-bar. The flight feathers are broadly tipped white. The underwing is black and white with black coverts, and black flight feathers with white bases and tips. The neck is creamy-white to buff-yellow. This colour is transferred by the bird from the uropygial gland to the feathers when it is preening.

On the head, face and chin are black, and hind-crown and nape are yellow. The male has a huge yellow and black U-shaped casque on the upper base of the bill and the forecrown, double-pointed at front and bordered with black. The long, down-curved bill has yellowish upper mandible with reddish tip, and paler lower mandible, rather whitish at base with yellow tip. Both mandibles are serrate. The eyes are deep red with black eye-ring. Legs and feet are blackish.

The female has similar plumage but she is smaller, with smaller yellow casque bordered with red. She has white eyes with red eye-ring, becoming brighter during the breeding season. 

The juvenile has blue-grey eyes and smaller bill. It lacks the casque which grows over five years. The Great Hornbill may live about 35-40 years.

VOICE: SOUNDS BY XENO-CANTOThe Great Hornbill gives deep, hoarse grunts, barks and roars. It is more vocal and noisy when the breeding season starts.The casque is a kind of resonating chamber which amplifies the loud, nasal, honking call “tok” repeated at regular intervals while the bird stretches the neck vertically up with the bill pointed upwards.

HABITAT:  The Great Hornbill is largely sedentary in large tracts of evergreen forests, but it can be seen when crossing open areas between two tracts. This species occurs up to 2000 metres in the Himalayas, and usually from lowlands up to 1500 metres of elevation.

RANGE:  The Great Hornbill is resident in its range, only performing local movements according to the food resources, especially the fruiting trees. This species has fragmented range in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs in SW India, S Himalayas, NC Myanmar, S China and Vietnam, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.

BEHAVIOUR:  The Great Hornbill feeds mainly on fruits, and occasionally on buds and flowers. It also takes large insects, arthropods, small reptiles, young birds and small rodents. Figs are their preferred food, making up 73% of their diet, and the main food item delivered at nest. But it feeds on several rich fruits from about 18-20 genera.

It forages primarily in the canopy, but it also descends to the ground for the fallen fruits. It is often seen in pairs or in family groups. But a good food source such as fruiting trees may gather numerous hornbills. Outside the breeding season, they roost in flocks of several tens of birds. They roost

among the highest branches in foliage, and they are often distributed over several trees, with 3-4 birds in each.

The Great Hornbill moves by quick and buoyant sideway hops, from branch to branch. During one day, it can visit several fruiting trees and covers long distances to feed. It follows the same routes every day, as well for feeding as for roosting

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PROTECTION / THREATS / STATUS:    The Great Hornbill is evaluated as Near Threatened by Birdlife International. This species is declining in many regions of the range. Deforestation, fragmentation and degradation of the habitat are the main causes. But these birds are also threatened by hunting and trapping for food, trade and tribal medicine use. Their casques are considered trophies. However, the Great Hornbill occurs in several protected areas and breeds in captivity.

Fr: Calao bicorne All : Doppelhornvogel Esp : Cálao Bicorne 

Ital: Grande calao indiano Nd: Dubbelneushoornvogel Sd: Större hornkorp

Photographer:

Ingo WaschkiesMy bird pictures on Pbase

Text by Nicole Bouglouan

Sources:

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD Vol 6 by  Josep del Hoyo-Andrew Elliott-Jordi Sargatal - Lynx Edicions, 2001 - ISBN: 848733430X

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN – vol 4 – By Salim Ali and Dillon Ripley – OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - ISBN: 0195659376

LES OISEAUX DE THAILANDE par Roland Eve et Anne-Marie Guigue - Times Editions - ISBN: 9812042008

L’ENCYCLOPEDIE MONDIALE DES OISEAUX - Dr Christopher M. Perrins - BORDAS - ISBN: 2040185607

Avibase   (Lepage Denis)

BirdLife International (BirdLife International)

Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

SAINT LOUIS ZOO

 

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Summary cards

Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis

Bucerotiforme Order – Bucerotidae Family

BIOMETRICS:L: 95-105 cmPoids: M: 2600-3400 g – F: 2155-3350 g

DESCRIPTION: The Great Hornbill is the largest member of this family. This large arboreal bird is able to perform acrobatic flights during the breeding season.

The adult male has black and white plumage with some white parts washed yellow. This is due to the oily exudation produced by the uropygial gland when the bird is preening. It rubs its head against the gland situated at the upper base of the tail, and transfers this oil to its plumage. Back and underparts are black, except the white lower belly, upper and undertail-coverts and tail. The latter shows a broad black subterminal band. The upperwing is black with white coverts forming a conspicuous wing-bar. The flight feathers are broadly tipped white. The underwing is black and white with black coverts, and black flight feathers with white bases and tips. The neck is creamy-white to buff-yellow. This colour is transferred by the bird from the uropygial gland to the feathers when it is preening.

On the head, face and chin are black, and hind-crown and nape are yellow. The male has a huge yellow and black U-shaped casque on the upper base of the bill and the forecrown, double-pointed at front and bordered with black. The long, down-curved bill has yellowish upper mandible with reddish tip, and paler lower mandible, rather whitish at base with yellow tip. Both mandibles are serrate. The eyes are deep red with black eye-ring. Legs and feet are blackish.

The female has similar plumage but she is smaller, with smaller yellow casque bordered with red. She has white eyes with red eye-ring, becoming brighter during the breeding season. 

The juvenile has blue-grey eyes and smaller bill. It lacks the casque which grows over five years. The Great Hornbill may live about 35-40 years.

VOICE: SOUNDS BY XENO-CANTOThe Great Hornbill gives deep, hoarse grunts, barks and roars. It is more vocal and noisy when the breeding season starts.The casque is a kind of resonating chamber which amplifies the loud, nasal, honking call “tok” repeated at regular intervals while the bird stretches the neck vertically up with the bill pointed upwards.

HABITAT:  The Great Hornbill is largely sedentary in large tracts of evergreen forests, but it can be seen when crossing open areas between two tracts. This species occurs up to 2000 metres in the Himalayas, and usually from lowlands up to 1500 metres of elevation.

RANGE:  The Great Hornbill is resident in its range, only performing local movements according to the food resources, especially the fruiting trees. This species has fragmented range in South and Southeast

Asia. It occurs in SW India, S Himalayas, NC Myanmar, S China and Vietnam, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.

BEHAVIOUR:  The Great Hornbill feeds mainly on fruits, and occasionally on buds and flowers. It also takes large insects, arthropods, small reptiles, young birds and small rodents. Figs are their preferred food, making up 73% of their diet, and the main food item delivered at nest. But it feeds on several rich fruits from about 18-20 genera.

It forages primarily in the canopy, but it also descends to the ground for the fallen fruits. It is often seen in pairs or in family groups. But a good food source such as fruiting trees may gather numerous hornbills. Outside the breeding season, they roost in flocks of several tens of birds. They roost among the highest branches in foliage, and they are often distributed over several trees, with 3-4 birds in each.

The Great Hornbill moves by quick and buoyant sideway hops, from branch to branch. During one day, it can visit several fruiting trees and covers long distances to feed. It follows the same routes every day, as well for feeding as for roosting.

The Great Hornbill is monogamous and territorial. At the beginning of the breeding season, the male performs aerial displays and acrobatic flights to attract a mate. The males may sometimes engage in “head-to-head” or aerial casque-butting, only to “win” a female.  Both mates may perform duets and call in unison, giving rapid roars and barks. They nest in tree holes where the female remains with the young. She depends on the male for food during this period. This is also a good protection against the predators. 

FLIGHT: The Great Hornbill has laboured noisy flight. It performs some steady wing-beats interspersed with glides on outspread wings and spread tail. The flight is noisy, producing a loud, scraping noise both in flapping and gliding. This noise can be heard at considerable distances.

REPRODUCTION:   The breeding season occurs between January and April.The nest is a natural cavity placed between 8 and 35 metres above the ground in large forest tree. There is an elongated entrance. Once the female is inside, both mates seal the entrance with dung and pellets of mud. Male and female work together. They leave a small slit and the male will bring the food to the female while she incubates. Then, she will feed the

chicks with the food brought by the male at nest. The female moults while she is inside the hole.

Buceros bicornisgreat hornbill

 

 

By Spurthi Paruchuri

Geographic Range

Habitat Physical Description Reproduction Lifespan/Longevity

Behavior Communication and Perception Food Habits Predation Ecosystem Roles

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive Economic Importance for Humans: Negative Conservation Status Contributors References

Geographic Range

Buceros bi cor nis  is found in mainland Southeast Asia, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. They are breeding residents in Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand and Vietnam. In India, they and several other hornbill species live in the Western Ghats mountain range and forests in both the northeastern and southern re-gions. ("En dan gered An i mals of Thai land", 1990 ; "Pop u lar Hand book of In - dian Birds", 2007; Datta, 1998; Mob ley, 2008 ; Raman and Mu dappa, 2003)

HabitatGreat hornbills are arboreal and live mainly in wet, tall, evergreen forests. Old-growth trees that extend beyond the height of the canopy are preferred for nesting. The height of the tree and the presence of a natural cavity large enough to hold a female and her eggs are more important than the type of tree. The same nesting site is used year after year if possible. They are known to inhabit elevations of 600 to 2000 m. ("Endangered Animals of Thailand", 1990; "Popular Handbook of Indian Birds", 2007; Datta and Rawat, 2003; Datta, 1998; Kannan and James, 1999)Habitat Regionstropical terrestrialTerrestrial Biomesforest rainforestange elevation

600 to 2000 m1968.50 to 6561.68 ft

Physical DescriptionGreat hornbills are fairly large, ranging from 95 to 120 cm in length and featuring a wingspan of 151 to 178 cm. On average, they weigh 3 kg. They are vividly colored and easily recognizable. The body, head, and wings are primarily black; the abdomen and neck are white. The tail is white and is crossed by a subterminal black band. A preen gland near the tail secretes tinted oil, which is spread across the feathers by the bird during grooming. This may give the bill, neck, casque, and tail and wing feathers coloration varying from yellow to red. The most recognizable feature of hornbills is the casque, which is a hollow structure located on top of the bill. It may be used by males to fight with other males and attract females. Like many other hornbills, these birds have prominent eyelashes.

Males and females are similar except that the irises of males are red while those of females are white, and males have slightly larger bills and casques.

The feature that distinguishes B. bicornis from other species is its greatly curved bill and prominent casque. ("Popular Handbook of Indian Birds", 2007; Golding and Williams, 1986; James and Kannan, 2009; Mobley, 2008; Raman, 1998)

Other Physical Features endothermic   homoiothermic  bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism sexes alike  sexes colored or patterned differently 

ornamentationReproductionGreat hornbills breed between the months of February and May. Male casque size is important in attracting and fighting for mates. Males compete for females by butting into each other in the presence of a female prior to the breeding season. This could possibly be a display of superiority in competition for a mate. Mates, or potential mates, also perform duets where the male calls, the female replies, and they continue on in a loud volley. Buceros bicornis tends to be monogamous, and the pair remains together throughout their lives. (Raman, 1998; Golding and Williams, 1986; Mobley, 2008; Raman, 1998)Mating SystemmonogamousA unique feature of Buceros bicornis and some other hornbill species such as Buceros rhinoceros is the way that the female incubates and cares for her eggs. During the breeding period, which lasts between February and May, a monogamous pair chooses a tree in which to lay the eggs. This tree is usually a very tall, old-growth tree and the same one is used every year if possible.After finding a hole in the tree that is large enough, the female uses both her own feces and her mate's to cover the entrance from the inside, thus confining herself inside. She makes a small slit through which the male provides food. In captivity, B. bicornis may use soft fruits such as bananas in addition to feces to cover the hole. While inside the hole, the female lays and then incubates on average two eggs. The male provides fruits from trees in the genus Beilschmiedia, which are widely available during the breeding season; she receives no nutrients other than this. In other hornbill species such as Buceros hydrocorax, other non-breeding birds in addition to the male may provide assistance by bringing fruit to a female incubating her eggs. The incubation period usually lasts between 38 and 40 days. Protected within the tree, the female completes a full molt which renders her flightless for a period of time.After the chicks hatch, the female remains confined in the tree for around five weeks when she emerges to help the male gather food for the growing young. The young re-seal themselves within the cavity after the female leaves. For the next two weeks, the both parents provide food for the young. After the young emerge, the parents continue to feed them until they reach roughly 15 weeks of age, at which point they are considered independent. (Choy, 1980; Datta and Rawat, 2003; Golding and Williams, 1986; James and Kannan, 2007; Mobley, 2008; Poulsen, 1970)Key Reproductive Featuresiteroparous seasonal breeding gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate) 

sexual oviparousParental investment in this species consists of providing food for young throughout the time period between hatching and independence. The mother is confined within the nest tree for a few weeks during the pre-hatching period, which usually lasts a few weeks, and for approximately five weeks after hatching.During these periods, the male provides food while the female and young are protected in the tree. The male must forage extensively for lipid-rich fruits in order to feed himself as well as the female and the young. The male and female continue to feed the young throughout the pre-independence period until roughly fifteen weeks of age.Great hornbills also invest energy in defending a nesting territory. They are only territorial during the breeding season, and may defend a 100 m area around the nest. (Datta and Rawat, 2003; Poulsen, 1970; Datta and Rawat, 2003; Golding and Williams, 1986; Poulsen, 1970)Parental investment in this species consists of providing food for young throughout the time period between hatching and independence. The mother is confined within the nest tree for a few weeks during the pre-hatching period, which usually lasts a few weeks, and for approximately five weeks after hatching.During these periods, the male provides food while the female and young are protected in the tree. The male must forage extensively for lipid-rich fruits in order to feed himself as well as the female and the young. The male and female continue to feed the young throughout the pre-independence period until roughly fifteen weeks of age.Great hornbills also invest energy in defending a nesting territory. They are only territorial during the breeding season, and may defend a 100 m area around the nest. (Datta and Rawat, 2003; Poulsen, 1970; Datta and Rawat, 2003; Golding and Williams, 1986; Poulsen, 1970)Economic Importance for Humans: PositiveBuceros bicornis is kept in zoos in various parts of the world. Efforts to breed this species in captivity are generally not successful.The casque of B. bicornis is used as an ornamental piece by natives. They are also occasionally hunted for their meat and feathers for subsistence, ritualistic or medicinal purposes.They are also an important seed disperser which aids in forest propagation. (Azua and Czekala, 2003; Choy, 1980)Conservation StatusBuceros bicornis is considered "near threatened" on the IUCN Red List. The biggest threat to this species is habitat destruction, and particularly the removal of the old-growth trees that these birds require for nesting. Their large size and distinctive sounds make great hornbills relatively easy targets for hunters, who value them for their meat, feathers and casque, which is used for ornamental purposes among natives. They are listed under CITES appendix I which restricts trade of the species for exceptional purposes only. ("Endangered Animals of Thailand", 1990; Datta, 1998; James and Kannan, 2009; "Endangered Animals of Thailand", 1990; Datta, 1998; James and Kannan, 2009)

IUCN Red List

Near Threatened More information

IUCN Red List Near Threatened More information

CITES Appendix I

ContributorsSpurthi Paruchuri (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Phil Myers (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Buceros_bicornis/

ContributorsSpurthi Paruchuri (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Phil Myers (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Glossaryacoustic

uses sound to communicate

altricial

young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or

care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after

birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.

arboreal

Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two

mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral

sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

diurnal

1. active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.

duets

to jointly display, usually with sounds in a highly coordinated fashion, at the same

time as one other individual of the same species, often a mate

endothermic

animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature

independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the

Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the

fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.

female parental care

parental care is carried out by females

forest

forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in

amount of precipitation and seasonality.

frugivore

an animal that mainly eats fruit

herbivore

An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across

multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous

animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition

changes).

male parental care

parental care is carried out by males

monogamous

Having one mate at a time.

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oriental

found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring

occurs outside the mother's body.

rainforest

rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a

closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants

are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat

seasonal.

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sedentary

remains in the same area

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals,

a male and a female

sexual ornamentation

one of the sexes (usually males) has special physical structures used in courting

the other sex or fighting the same sex. For example: antlers, elongated tails,

special spurs.

social

associates with others of its species; forms social groups.

tactile

uses touch to communicate

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

tropical

the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5

degrees south.

visual

uses sight to communicate

References1990. Endangered Animals of Thailand. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.

2007. Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. Great Britain: Horney Press.

2004. The Status and Conservation of Hornbills in

Cambodia. Bird Conservation International, Special Issue S1: S5-S11.

Azua, J., N. Czekala. 2003. Reproductive assessment of the great hornbill (Buceros bicornis) by fecal hormone analysis. Zoo Biology, Volume: 22, Issue: 2: 135 - 145.

Choy, P. 1980. Breeding the Great Indian hornbill Buceros bicornis at Jurong Bird Park. International Zoo Yearbook, Volume: 20, Issue: 1: 204 - 206.

Datta, A. 1998. Hornbill abundance in unlogged forest, selectively logged forest and a forest plantation in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Oryx, Volume: 32, Issue: 4: 285 - 294.

Datta, A., G. Rawat. 2003. Foraging Patterns of Sympatric Hornbills during the Nonbreeding Season in Arunachal Pradesh, Northeast India. Biotropica, Volume: 35, Issue: 2: 208 - 218.

Gale, G., S. Thongaree. 2006. Density Estimates of Nine Hornbill Species in a Lowland Forest Site in Southern Thailand. Bird Conservation International, Volume: 16 , Issue: 1: 57-69.

Golding, R., M. Williams. 1986. Breeding the Great Indian Hornbill. International Zoo Yearbook, Volume 24/25: 248 - 252.

James, D., R. Kannan. 2009. Nesting Habitat of the Great Hornbill (Buceros Bicornis) in the Anaimalai Hills of Southern India. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, Volume: 121 , Issue: 3: 485-492.

James, D., R. Kannan. 2007. Wild Great Hornbills (Buceros bicornis) Do Not Use Mud to Seal Nest Cavities. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, Volume 119, Issue 1: 118 - 121.

Kannan, R., D. James. 1999. Fruit Phenology and the Conservation of the Great Pied Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) in the Western Ghats of Southern India. Biotropica, Volume: 31, Issue: 1: 1677 - 177.

Mobley, J. 2008. Birds of the World. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.

Poonswad, P., K. Plongmai. 2004. Characteristics of hornbill-dispersed fruits in a tropical seasonal forest in Thailand. Bird Conservation International, Volume: 14, Issue: Sp. Iss. SI: S81 - S88.

Poonswad, P., A. Tsuji. 2008. Ranges of males of the Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis, Brown Hornbill Ptilolaemus tickelli and Wreathed Hornbill Rhyticeros undulatus in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Ibis, Volume: 136, Issue: 1: 79 - 86.

Poulsen, H. 1970. Nesting Behaviour of the Black-Casqued

Hornbill Ceratogymna atrata and the Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis L.. Ornis Scandinavica, Volume: 1, Issue: 1: 11 - 15.

Raman, T. 1998. Aerial Casque-butting in the Great Hornbill. Forktail, Volume 13: 123 - 124.

Raman, T., D. Mudappa. 2003. Correlates of hornbill distribution and abundance in rainforest fragments in the southern Western Ghats, India. Bird Conservation International, Volume: 13, Issue: 3: 199 - 212.

Slater, P. 2004. Hornbills Can Distinguish Between Primate Alarm Calls. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, Volume 271: 755 - 759.

The Great Hornbill is evaluated as Near Threatened by Birdlife International. This species is declining in many regions of the range. Deforestation, fragmentation and degradation of the habitat are the main causes. But these birds are also threatened by hunting and trapping for food, trade and tribal medicine use. Their casques are considered trophies. However, the Great Hornbill occurs in several protected areas and breeds in captivity.

Fr: Calao bicorne All : Doppelhornvogel Esp : Cálao Bicorne Ital: Grande calao indiano Nd: Dubbelneushoornvogel Sd: Större hornkorp

Photographer:

Ingo WaschkiesMy bird pictures on Pbase

Text by Nicole Bouglouan

Sources:

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD Vol 6 by  Josep del Hoyo-Andrew Elliott-Jordi Sargatal - Lynx Edicions, 2001 - ISBN: 848733430X

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN – vol 4 – By Salim Ali and Dillon Ripley – OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - ISBN: 0195659376

LES OISEAUX DE THAILANDE par Roland Eve et Anne-Marie Guigue - Times Editions - ISBN: 9812042008

L’ENCYCLOPEDIE MONDIALE DES OISEAUX - Dr Christopher M. Perrins - BORDAS - ISBN: 2040185607

Terrace Cultivation

Hani terraces The Hani rice paddy steppes are located below the villages on the side of the Ailao Mountains in Yuanyang, and have been cultivated for over 1,000 years. Also carved by hand by the Hani people, these rice terraces have turned a barren hillside into a

lush sub-tropical paradise. These terrace fields support enough rice and fish cultivation for hundreds of thousands of people. Water is saved in the hilltop forests, and channeled down to the terraces for irrigation. The rice terraces are flooded from

December to March, presenting a spectacular view to travelers. - See more at: http://www.touropia.com/incredible-terrace-fields/#sthash.JdLrXHlL.dpuf

Longji TerracesThe Longji or Dragon’s Backbone rice terraces were built over 500 years ago during the Ming Dynasty. The terrace fields are found in Longsheng about a two hours drive

from Guilin. From a distance, during the growing season, these winding terraces appear as if they were green woven cables laid out over the hillsides, starting at the riverbank and ending near the mountaintop. One can meander through the paddies

and villages, greeting and being greeted by horses, pigs, chickens and hard working locals. These rice terraces are Longsheng’s answer to limited arable land and a scant water supply. - See more at: http://www.touropia.com/incredible-terrace-

fields/#sthash.JdLrXHlL.dpuf

Bali Rice Terraces

he archetypical Bali rice terraces are ubiquitous, and Balinese culture has depended

on this method of agriculture for almost 2000 years. The Balinese stepped rice

paddies were carved by hand, with rudimentary tools, and maintained by succeeding

generations.

In central Bali, north of the village of Tegallalang in the Ubud district, lies a series of

thriving stepped rice paddies, a favorite with travelers and photographers. Other

verdant terraced rice paddies can be found in Sayan, Jatiluwih, Pupuan and

Tabanan. In Bali, the terraced rice paddies are worked according to a well organized

social order, called a subak. The subak manages the irrigation water sources, on a

strict schedule, fairly distributing the water.

Explore Indonesia- See more at:

http://www.touropia.com/incredible-terrace-fields/#sthash.JdLrXHlL.dpuf

Sa Pa Terraces

Sa Pa is a town in northwest Vietnam not far from the Chinese border. The rice

terrace fields, among the most popular tourist attractions in Vietnam, can be

found in the Muong Hoa valley between Sa Pa town and the Fansipan Mountain, on

a backdrop of thick bamboo woodlands. Local mountain people, the Hmong, Giay,

Dao, Tay, and Giay, grow rice and corn on these paddy terraces, along with

vegetables. Because of the climate, only one rice crop a year can be produced,

resulting in abundant malnutrition.

Explore Vietnam- See more at:

http://www.touropia.com/incredible-terrace-fields/#sthash.JdLrXHlL.dpuf

Ethnic H'Mong farmers work on terraced rice field in La Pan Tan village, in Vietnam's northern remote district of Mu Cang Chai, 225 miles northwest of Hanoi. Sept. 27, 2009.

 (Nguyen Huy Kham - Reuters)

The Angamis are known for terraced wet-rice cultivation; because of ... The Hornbill Festival is named after ...

Nagas---rice terraces, hornbill, statelessNaga textile

Affinities between Nagas and Tribes of Southern SeasBy:- R.B. Thohe Pou * 

Abstract: The study of similarities between Nagas and tribes of southern seas (Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan etc) is to trace the origin of Nagas. The present study of affinities between Nagas and tribes of southern seas is convincing that they had same ancestor/group and originated from same place. 

Similarities between Nagas and Tribes of Southern Seas 

The comparative study of the Nagas in India and Myanmar and some of the Indigenous People of Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Taiwan shows their similarities in their socio-cultural life. The Naga scholars believed that Nagas lived in the Chindwin and Irranwandy valley before they migrated to Naga Hills. 

They also believed that they lived near the Island or Southern seas coastal areas and retreated to north west of Myanmar and later migrated to the Naga Hills - while the other groups of Naga went further to the southern seas of Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan and Philippines. 

Many authorities on Naga suggested that the custom and tradition of Naga is very resembled with those tribes in Southern Seas (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippine etc). Some of the tribes living in Southeast Asian countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and Taiwan are quite similar with the Naga people in many aspects. 

The custom and tradition practices by Nagas like Headhunting, Dormitory system, Tattooing, Platform burial, looms, terraces rice field etc are resemble to those tribes in the Southern Seas. Mc Govern writes that Nagas are very similar to the Dyaks and Kayans of Borneo, Bataks of Sumatra and certain groups of Formosa (Taiwan) and several other groups in Philippines. 

Some of the other writers like, W.C. Smith, Barrows, Shakespeare etc, described the affinities of Nagas with those tribes of Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines, Indonesia and Sumatra. 

I. Affinities between Nagas and Igorots (Philippines Tribes) 

Barrows writes on Igorots, the tribe of Philippines that it is the customs of all these tribes to chop off the head of the victims in battle or murder and carry them home as trophies, where they form the object of feasting and celebrations. 

The Igorots (Philippines tribe) are grouped into six ethno-linguistic groups like Bontoc, Ibaloi, Ifugao, Isneg (Apayao) Kankanaey and Kalinga. The ethno-linguistic groups of Igorots like Bontoc, Isneg and Kalinga were well known for their Headhunting like the Nagas in India. The Nagas carried home the chop off head of the victims as trophies and

celebrated with other people in the village. The practice of headhunting was based on the belief that great power lies in human head.

It was also believed that when the headhunter brought the head of their enemy - it brings fertility and bumper crops in their fields. The warriors or headhunters who brought the heads of the victim were highly respected in the society in those days. Headhunting was gradually changed with the advent of Christianity to Igorots and Nagas. The tradition and custom of the Igorots tribe in Philippines is very similar to the Naga tribes in India in many aspects. Some of the similarities in their tradition and customs are given below as – 

"The Bontoc live in the bank of the Chico River. It used to be a group that was known because of its Headhunting practices. Present day Bontocs are peaceful agricultural people who have, by choice retained most of their contacts with other people…The Isneg inhabits in the banks of the Apayao River and its tributaries in Northern Luzon. Like most erstwhile Headhunters. The Kalingas are noted for their strong sense of tribal awareness and the peace pacts they have made among themselves. They practice both wet and dry rice farming and they have developed an institution of peace pacts which has minimized traditional warfare and Head-hunting."1 

The headhunting practiced was reported in Philippines by Martin de Rada in 1577 and this practiced was abandoned formally by Kalingas group of Luzon only in the beginning of the 20th century.2 Headhunting in Naga Hills virtually ceased soon after the British commenced to control over in many Naga villages, though it continued in Tuensang areas and some other villages where British interference is ineffective. The last headhunting in Naga Hills was reported and recorded in 1958.3 

The Morung (Nagas Dormitory) system practiced in olden days was same with those Igorots. The young Naga boys and girls slept in their Morungs (dormitories) in ancient time. In those days, the Morung was the center of education to learn many things in their lives. Different kinds of training were carried out in Men's Morung. In every village there were two or three Morungs both for boys and girls. 

The young men and women continue to live in Morung till they are married. The boys go to girls Morung but the girls were not permitted to enter in boys Morung. After the advent of Christianity in Naga Hills - Morungs were vanished from the village. The Bontoc and Kankanaey groups of Igorots were also well known for their dormitory system. The Bontoc, 

"Traditionally, young men and women lived in dormitories and ate meals with their families. This gradually changed as with advent of Christianity…Two famous institutions of the Kankana-ey Mountains province are the Dap-ay the men's dormitory and civic center, and the Ebgan, the girl's dormitory where courtship between young men and women took place."4 

During the time of dormitory system prevailed in Naga society - the courtship between young men and women took place in girls' dormitory. Still some young boys used to sleep together in a house in some villages but the Morung system is no more existing where courtship is carried out like in the olden days. The young men going to girls' house to have fun together or courtship is still very common in some Naga villages. 

The Ibaloi and Ifugao groups are also well known for their prestige feast of the wealthy. This kind of feast is quite similar to the Nagas' Feast of Merits. During the Naga's Feast of Merit, the host or donor of the feast offer to kill lots of Mithun (Buffaloes), Cows etc and distributed to the villagers. The host also freely provided abundant of rice beer to the villagers. The Feast of Merit continues for 4-5 days in many tribes but the number of days of feast varies from one tribe to another tribes. 

"The Ibalois's feast is the Pesshet, a public prestige feast of the wealthy, that could last for weeks and involving the butchering and sacrifice dozens of animals…The Ifugao's highest prestige feast are the "Hagabi" for the most wealthy, and the "Uyauy" a feast for those immediately below the wealthiest."5 

The Naga people also have the similar system of feast like Hagabi and Uyauy for the rich and very rich people. The amount of distribution of meats and offering rice beer is depended on the donor of the Feast of Merit (Zhosou) according to his richness. In Naga society - a wealthy person repeats the Feast of Merit a number of times. The wealthy people treated the Feast of Merits more than one village, while the less wealthy people treated the feast only in their village. It also depends on richness of the donor to butcher how many animals for the villagers. 

One of the Naga Scholars late Shimray wrote, "The philosophy behind the performance of feast of merit is that the performer is honoured when he alive and remembered after death. The deeper philosophy involved is, however, the sense of generosity and the warm heartedness towards the poor people who are fed on the occasion."6 

The last Feast of Merit in Poumai Naga tribe was held in January 2004 at Liyai Khullen village and another Feast of Merit was held in 1999 in Koide village (My native village). The Feast of Merit is hardly reported in 21st century in many Naga villages since most of the Nagas adopted Christianity. The heathens also seem giving less important in Feast of Merit due to influence of the Christianity. 

The Ifugao and Kalingas groups are good in terrace rice cultivation and their type of terrace farming is similar with the Nagas. "The country of the Ifugao in the southern part of the Cordillera region is best known for its famous rice terraces, which in modern times have become one of the big tourist attractions of the Philippines… The Kalingas…practice both wet and dry rice farming…The Kankan-ey built showing terraces to maximized farm space in the rugged terrain of the Cordilleras"7 

W.C. Smith an authority of Nagas also pointed out the similarities between Nagas and Dayaks of Kalimantan (Borneo) in rice terrace cultivation. There are lots of similarities between the Nagas and the tribes of Igorots in Philippines in terrace cultivation. All the Naga tribes practiced terrace fields cultivation especially in Poumai Naga areas, where there is no much shifting cultivation in present context. 

About the disputes in Naga village, some of the leaders (elders) in the village deals all kind of disputes arise in the village. Naga society is a democratic society; all the people involved in any disputes depending on the seriousness of the problem. But the leaders in the villages settle the disputes, which do not need to take the voices of the public. The kind of dispute settlement by the Naga leaders is parallel to those Kalinga societies. The Kalinga society, "Disputes are usually settled by the regional leaders, who listen to all sides and then impose fines on the guilty party. There are the formal council meetings

but carry a good deal authority."8 

II. Affinities between Nagas and the Tribes of Malaysia 

The largest state in Malaysia, Sarawak is comprised of ethnically diverse population, which consists of both the indigenous and non-indigenous peoples. The indigenous people constitute of Bisayuh, Kenyaks, Iban, Malays, Pennan, Malanau, Kayan, Kelabit, Muruts and Pennan. The indigenous people according to the 2000 Census is 1.46 Millions, forming 70.6% of the total population of 2.07 millions. 

The Ibans also known as Sea Dayaks represent the largest group with a total population of 6000,000, which is 29.1% of the state total population. Like the Malays, the Ibans are of Proto-Malay decent; their origin traced back to Yunnam China.9 The Nagas tradition and customs have affinities with some of the Malaysia tribes in many aspects. The Iban, reputed to be the most fearsome of the Borneo's headhunters, 

"It was not so long ago that the Iban celebrated the captured heads with a great festival called Gawal Kenyalang (the Hornbill festival). It was believed that the magical power of the heads would bring strength, virtue and prosperity to the long house."10 

Peter Kunstadter who studied the south Asian tribes also mentioned about the headhunting in Sarawak and the rest of Borneo, "This is all tied up with the past traditions of headhunting and aggression and warlikness, which were very much a part of pagan animism among the hill peoples of Sarawak and the rest of Borneo."11 The reason or the purpose of headhunting by the Iban is quite similar with the Nagas. 

The Nagas take a head to reveal his manhood also they believed that bringing a head to their village brings prosperity in the village. Nagas had their own beliefs about the value of human heads. They believed that heads of those belonging to villages other than their own would add to the fertility of the soil. It is also an important factor to bring the head to be recognized in the society12. The British intervention on Nagas headhunting after 1832 and introduction of Christianity brought to cease in headhunting. No longer, the Nagas practice headhunting but the skulls of man hanging in old Nagas houses can be still found in some remote villages. 

"Thankfully the Iban no longer headhunt, and have adopted a peaceful agrarian lifestyle. Any modern day visitor to an Iban longhouse will testify that they are a generous, hospitable and placid people…. Although the majority of Iban are now a days Christian, many traditional rituals are still practiced, including the Gawai Dayak (harvest festival) Gawai Kenyalang (Hornbill festival) and Gawai Antu (festival of the dead). 

The traditional Iban religion is a fusion of animistic and Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, and they worship a triumvirate of gods under the authority of Singalang Burung, the bird-god of war, Iban woman are superb weavers, using the back strap loom, while Iban men are excellent silversmiths."13 

The ancient Nagas and the Iban people were resembled in their tradition and customs, like Headhunting, animistic religion, harvesting festival, hornbill festival, woman-weaving etc. The Harvesting festival and Hornbill festival are still very common in Nagaland (Nagalim). Every year the Hornbill festival is hold in Nagaland. Recently the Hornbill Festival in Nagaland was held from 1st –5th December 2004 at newly constructed Naga

Heritage Complex at Kisama. 

The majority of the Nagas had adopted Christianity but they still practiced traditional festival like the Iban people. Both ancient and modern people of Iban are similar with the Nagas in India. The Nagas women are good in weaving clothes like the Iban women. All the Naga tribes have different beautiful color of shawls representing their own tribes. 

There are also many Nagas expert in blacksmiths. The Nagas men made all kinds of sword, dao, knife, spear etc for different purposes. Nagas are similar with the Iban people in religion, tradition and custom, festival, economic activities etc. Besides, they also have similar attitudes to the outsiders and to their fellow people. The Nagas are generous, hospitable, frankly, honest and amicable, as many authors on Nagas had written about the Nagas. 

The Iban were largely known for their fierce reputation as warriors, particularly because of their headhunting tradition. In fact, it was as recent as during World War II, the community celebrated the victorious warriors of a headhunting raid with a grand festival called the Gawai Kenyalang (the Hornbill Festival). The tradition of headhunting gradually came to an end after the British made it illegal after the war. 

A large majority has become Christians although they still maintain their strong cultural identity and heritage, keeping their traditional beliefs.14 The Nagas are very resemble with those nomadic people of Penan tribe. Those Penan people who have converted into Christianity no longer live the nomadic life and have settled in long houses. 

Their long houses are similar with the ancient Naga houses where they built the big houses for the village chief and dormitories. The Orang Ulu another group of people from Borneo also resembles with the Naga people in some aspects. Most of the Orang Ulu people are now Christian and they are warm and hospitable people like the Nagas. Their long houses and woodcarvings houses are similar with the Naga ancient houses. 

III. Affinities between Nagas and Indonesia Tribes 

There are some affinities between Naga tribe and some of the indigenous people in Indonesia. Some of the tribes in Indonesia like Batak, Dayak, Toraja, Bugis etc have some resemblance in their customs and tradition with the Naga people. Headhunting, house structure and social structure is similar with Naga tribe in India. Today, many Bataks tribe living in Sumatra were converted into Christianity and Islam. 

There are six groups of Batak living around Danu Toba who distinguish themselves with their languages and habits.15 The Nagas and Bataks tribes are parallel in their tradition and customs. Both the tribes were well known for their headhunting. They were isolated for centuries from other contacts living in the hilly regions. 

"The Bataks, is infamous tribe of former cannibals and headhunters. Their bloody feuds and guerrilla attacks on each other's villages gained an apparently well-earned reputation for ferocity. They also practiced ritual cannibalism in which a token piece of flesh – of a slain enemy or of one judge guilty of a major violation of traditional laws – was eaten. The heads and hands of war captives were preserved as trophies."16 

The Bataks also preserved the head of the war victims as trophies like the Naga tribe. In

those days, reputation of man or manhood is reveal through their headhunting skills and bravery. The indigenous people in Borneo (Indonesia), known to the outside world as the Dayaks live by shifting rice cultivation and by farming of Sago palms. They are divided into different tribes, which were formerly prone to the internecine warfare that their headhunting customs demanded. Although, they are now mostly converted to Christianity, their cultures retain a great deal of their original vigor. 

Traditionally, the Dayaks live in communal long houses known as Lamin in East and West Kalimantan, Sarawak and Brunei. Long houses are usually built parallel to the river, and rice barns and storehouses containing valuable is kept separate from the main building, to keep away from fire.17 In most of the Naga villages, there is separate house like those of Dayak tribes for living and storehouse. 

Storehouses are build near to the main house, which keep rice barns, millets and other barns to avoid fire from main house incase any fire broke out from main house. The seafaring Bugis are found all over the Indonesian archipelago. They have settled in the Riau Islands, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sumbawa and Malaysia and have trading with all the smaller Islands. The Bugis have traditionally lived in pile-built wooden houses with slatted bamboo floors similar in style and layout to the basic Malay prototype. The characteristic decorative feature is a pair of crossed roof finials symbolizing buffalo horns.18 

Some of the Naga tribes also lived in pile-built houses like those Bugis. The Nagas old house structure is very similar to that of Bugis old house, which have a pair of crossed roof symbolizing the buffalo horns. The Nagas who treated the 'Feast of Merit' to the people have such kind of house structure with diagonally crossed wooden beam, which is attached to the eaves of the house symbolizing the buffalo horns. 

The house with diagonally crossed wooden beam above the eaves is gradually vanishing. There is one Church at Senapati, Manipur where we can find the old Naga house structure with diagonally crossed concrete beam placed above the eaves symbolizing the buffalo horns. The Tana Toraja is located in the northern part of the South Sulaweshi Province.

Toraja is a name of Bugis origin given to the different people of the mountainous regions of the northern part, which remained isolated until recently. Their native religion is megalithic and animistic, and is characterized by animal sacrifices, ostentatious funeral rites and huge communal feasts. 

"In former times, Toraja villages were sited strategically on hilltops and fortified to such an extent that sometimes access was only possible through tunnels bored through rock. This was all part of then common Indonesian custom of headhunting and inter-village raids. The Dutch pacified the Toraja and forced them to leave the hills and to build their villages in the valleys, and they also introduced wet-rice cultivation."19 

The Nagas villages are also situated on hilltops and fortified in ancient time to protect from their enemies' attack. There was headhunting between inter-village and tribe so it became necessary for them to fortify and to have village gate in all the villages. In the case of Nagas, the British pacified them and later there was no headhunting. On the front of the wall in most of the Toraja important houses are decorated with wooden buffalo head, adorned with actual horns.20 

In most of the houses in Naga villages also have similar decoration like the Toraja houses with carved wooden buffalo horns and real buffaloes horns hanged on the front of the wall. The number of real buffalo hanging on the front wall is depends on how many cattle killed during the Feast of Merit. But the other carved wooden horns are depended on the sculptured and designed of the house owner. The carved wooden buffalo horns and real buffalo horns hanging on the front wall of the house are still found in many Nagas villages. 

IV. Affinities between Nagas and Taiwan Tribes 

There are ten tribes in Taiwan (Formosa) and each tribe have different culture and tradition. The Puyuma and Tsou tribes have some resemblance with Nagas tribe in their tradition. The Payuma tribe had the institutions for males and they stayed in their Assembly Hall, so as to build them strong bodies to protect their tribe. Before men get married they stay in their assembly hall. 

These groups are divided according to their ages and they are trained to defend their tribe.21 The Nagas had very similar assembly hall or Morung, where males stay there and trained in different ways in singing, folkdance, fighting and other skills. The Naga men also lived in their Morung till they get married. To quote Elwin Verrier, he writes, 

"Prominent in many villages is the Morung or dormitory for the young unmarried men – some tribes also have small house for the unmarried girls. The morung are guard-houses, recreation clubs, centres of education, art and discipline and have an important ceremonial purpose."22 

In Naga society even the females group also have assembly hall or Morung (dormitory) where different age group sleep together. The different activities carried out in Puyuma assembly hall and Nagas Morung is similar in many aspects. The TSOU tribe of Taiwan also have assembly hall. The young men lived in Assembly Hall and are trained in different skills before they are married. 

There are traditional taboos prohibiting the women from setting foot into the "Kuba" (the Assembly Halls)23 Like the Tsou tribe, the Naga tribe also have a kind of Assembly hall called "Morung". The young man folk stay in Morung and were trained in different skills till they are married. The Naga young woman folk have separate Morung, the man can go to female's Morung but the females are prohibited to enter into man's Morung, which is also similar with the Tsou tribe. The Nagas belief that if woman enter the men's dormitory, it would bring misfortune in the village, thus woman was restricted to enter in men's Morung. 

"Headhunting was a cultural practice of some of the indigenous tribe of Taiwan. The men of the Atayal tribes were required to bring back a head to earn manhood and the ability to marry headhunting struck fear in many settles on the Island who gave the people the name "savages". The Japanese abolished the practice during their occupation from the 1890s to the 1940s."24 

The Naga tribes also required like the Atayal tribe of Taiwan to bring back a head to earn manhood and ability to get marry a beautiful woman in the village. For those people who could not get even single head couldn't elevate their reputation and status in the society

in those days. In those days, bringing a choke off head from other village is a must to be highly recognised and to earn high status in the society. 

The similarities in custom and tradition of Nagas with some of the Indigenous tribe in Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Taiwan is convincing that once the Nagas lived near the Southern Seas or Archipelago and migrated from the southern seas to the present Naga Hills. 

It also believed that some of the indigenous groups of Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Taiwan were the same group of Nagas who retreated from the southern seas of Myanmar. Some of the Naga scholars believed that some of the descendants of Nagas were left near the seacoast and those people went further to the southern archipelago. 

The Malay tribe is the largest ethnic group in Malaysia, accounting for more than half of the population in Malaysia. Their origin is traced back to Yunnam China through the Proto-Malays and Deuteron-Malays, which belong to the broader-based Malayo-Polynesian group of races. These early aboriginal groups first reached the Peninsula around 2000BC. 

Since their arrival, the cultures of the Peninsular Malays have been shaped and reshaped through many influences from those vicinity areas of Java and Sumatra, the Indian sub-continent, China, the Middle east, and the West, as they have large trade with them, resulting to variation in customs and social identies.25 Some of the Nagas writers also traced back their origin to Yunnam Province of China, which assumed that some of the tribes in Southern Seas are to be the same ancestor. 

Conclusion 

The above comparative study in affinities and origin is convincing that some of the indigenous tribe of Malaysia and other tribes in southern seas of Philippines, Taiwan and Indonesia are the same ancestors/group and have same origin of place. Some of the Nagas writers traced back the origin of Nagas to Yunnam Province of China like some of the writers from Malaysia tracing back their origin to Yunnam Province of China. 

Some Naga scholars also believe that some of the Naga groups went further to the southern seas of Myanmar, Malaysia, Taiwan, Philippines and Indonesia. The Nagas and some of the indigenous groups of Philippines, Taiwan, Indonesia and Malaysia may be the same tribe/group originated from China but due to influence from other people and differences in environments made them variation in their culture and customs. If they are not influenced from other people and bring changed due to environment - it may still retain their ancient culture and customs, which will be easier to study about their similarities. 

There are some similarities in customs and traditions; they also traced back their origin to Yunnam Province of China. But the study of DNA and analysis of Nagas with those tribes in Archipelago can give us scientific proof and conclude that they are from the same descendants. 

There is great possibility that in deep comparative study of origin of Nagas and some indigenous people in Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Taiwan in the future may conclude that they are from the same origin and same ancestor in examination of

archaeology and DNA. 

References 

1. (Geocities Site)References used: i. Philippines ethnic Motifs vol.3 as part of the Okir projected by the product Devt. And design center of the Philippine and Philippine national museum. ii. Unreached Peoples' 81 –David C. Cook Publishing Co. iii. Cordilla Philippines iv. Bibak NE homepage) Page-1

2. Website:  lard.net  (copyright 1996, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc) Website visited on 12-02-03

3. Elwin Verrier 1961, Nagaland, Shillong: Published by P.Dutta for the research Dept. Adviser's Secretariat Page –12

4. (Geocities site) website Visited on 20-2-2003 5. Ibid

6. Shimray R.R.1985 Origin and Culture of Nagas, New Delhi, Somsok Publications, Page-113

7. (Geocities site)Website visited on 20-2-2003

8. Ibid

9. (allmalaysia.info) All the figures are from Year Book of Statistics, Sarawak 2001, Dept. of Statistics Malaysia, visited on 10-3-03

10. (sarawaktourism.com) website visited on 21-2-2003

11. Peter Kunstadkar, p-339

12. Shimray R.R.1985 Origin and Culture of Nagas, New Delhi, Somsok Publications, Page-72

13. (sarawaktourism.com) website visited on 21-2-2003

14. Ibid

15. (asiatravelling.net)Website visited on 21- 2-03

16. Ibid

17. (sunsite.ui.ac.id) visited on 20-9-03

18. Ibid

19. Ibid

20. (atayal.org) visited on 04-02-04

21. Elwin Verrier 1961, Nagaland, Shillong: Published by P.Dutta for the research Dept. Adviser's Secretariat Page –8

22. (atayal.org) visited on 04-02-04

23. (atayal.org) visited on 04-02-04

24. (allmalaysia.info) visited on 10-3-03

25. (allmalaysia.info) visited on 10-3-03 

* R.B. Thohe Pou, a Ph.D. Research Scholar

Naga—Bison horns(mithun) Yunnan tribes—dragon woth buffalo horns Buffalo is totem among… Viietnm—buffalo So, NE Asia—buffalo and cow eco0sulture area separate

abo farming system of Nagaland and Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh ... and Manipur the rice is cultivated on carefully designed wet terraces.http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1111

Bos gaurus (Gaur, Indian   Bison )

Bangladesh; Bhutan; Cambodia; China; India; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia); Myanmar; Nepal; Thailand; Viet Nam.

http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/enhancing-indigenous-knowledge-in-rice-terraces Enhancing Indigenous Knowledge in Rice TerracesHUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS : Climate Change, Food Security, Indigenous

People, Traditional Knowledge

2012•04•04 Jintana Kawasaki United Nations University

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Photo by Joe Coyle.

Mountain rice terracing is practised widely in parts of the Asia-Pacific. Rice terraces are deeply intertwined with indigenous cultures, traditional practices and the ecology of many mountainous areas.Recently, the threat of climate change looms ever larger and is widely projected to impact the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. The expected increase in extreme rainfall and resultant water cycle changes are likely to test the existing capacity of rice terraces.

One such collection of terraces under threat are the picturesque Ifugao Rice Terraces in the Philippines. These

terraces are the ancestral domain of indigenous Ifugao peoples (recognized as including several subgroups such as the Banaue, Bunhran, Mayayao, Halipan, Hapao, and Kiangang). The Ifugao peoples are not only custodians of the forest and rice terraces, but also experts in harmoniously managing local ecosystems and natural resources. They mainly live at high elevations between 800 and 1,500 metres above sea level in the south, central and western areas of Ifuago province.

Located in a tropical rain forest zone rich in agrodiversity and fertile soils, the Ifugao rice terraces create an impressive landscape and provide good examples of water management. Unsurprisingly, they were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1995.There are two seasons in the area: a long dry period from November to May and a wet season from June to October. To maintain the terraces’ complex water cycles and forests, the peaks to the middle parts of the mountainous areas are conserved as watersheds that are designated for protection and conservation of natural resources such as pine and mossy forests, medical herbs, wild animals, etc. This necessarily limits human activities in these areas, and woodcutting is especially prohibited. The people are, however, permitted to harvest forest timber and forest products from the lower mountainous areas down to the terraces.

Part of the image collection of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).

There are thirteen major water bodies in the Ifugao province, which primarily come from surface run-off water and ground water, and these are used to irrigate the rice terraces and meet domestic water needs. The unique systems that developed over time to manage water resources for rice cultivation are balanced by carefully managing seepage, evaporation, and rainfall. The seepage from higher elevated paddies is recycled and helps in replenishing the lower paddies.

The Ifugao peoples also retain water by constructing walls and dikes made of compact soils and stones, conserving soil from erosion and creating wet fields for intensive rice cultivation. Furthermore, these communities have created many rice varieties to meet the different water regimes and temperature conditions of the mountainous landscapes. Typically, each family plants more than three rice varieties from which they harvest the seeds for the next season.

Facing economic growth and climate change threats

Despite their sustainable management of the rice terraces, 56 percent of the local Ifugao population of 162,000 were recognised as poverty-stricken by the national government in 2000. The income in most households comes from farm activities including rice, the main crop, supplemented by vegetables and fruits.Indigenous peoples who maintain the rice terraces do not derive any of the benefits of economic growth that the country may experience, especially from the tourism industry. However, this situation is transforming slowly as many younger Ifugaons prefer to work in the industrial and tourism sectors and are refusing to work in rice terraces.“Climate projections in the Ifugao province suggest an increase in temperature of 0.9°C by 2020 and 1.9°C to 2.1°C by 2050.”

While it is potential economic opportunities in urban areas that threaten the continuity of the traditional knowledge that has sustained the Ifugao, the ecological functions of rice terraces are very much vulnerable to climate and other environmental changes. Climate change is expected to increase rainfall intensities and lengthen the duration of the dry season, resulting in shortages of water supplies, landslide disasters and terrace collapses.

Even though there are inconsistencies and uncertainties in climate projections that make it difficult to design adaptation strategies to climate change, based on previous studies forecasts by different global climate change models present more or less consistent patterns of predicted

temperature changes. Future climate projections in the Ifugao province suggest an ture of 0.9°C by 2020 and 1.9°C to 2.1°C by 2050, as well as differences in the projected rainfall. The highest increases in rainfall are predicted during June and August, while decreasing trends in rainfall are expected during the hottest periods around March and May.

Centuries of knowledge plus science

Climate change-induced alterations in the weather pattern will therefore have serious implications for rice production. The United Nations University Institute for Sustainability and Peace (UNU-ISP) “Comparative Studies on Development Strategies considering Impacts of Adaptation to Climate Change” project (a partnership with several universities and supported by Mitsui & Co. Ltd) has recently assessed the impact of climate change on rice production in irrigation and rain fed areas of Nueva Ecija Province, located in the south and southeast of the Ifugao rice terrace areas.Future climate trends were downscaled to local levels using what is known as Statistical Downscaling Model (SDSM) with the aim of estimating impacts on rice production. The models found that existing rice yields during the wet season of the 2080-2090 period would decrease by up to 25% in light of increases in mean daily temperature of 1.17 and 0.89 for two separate scenarios.

In fact, about 15,000 hectares of the Ifugao rice terraces have been abandoned due to low productivity over the last 50 years.  No wonder then that in 2001, the Ifugao Rice Terraces were listed on the List of World Heritage Sites in Danger due to the human induced threats and climate impacts.

Despite their sophisticated water management regimes, the abilities of indigenous rice terracing systems to adapt to especially extreme weather events are not well developed. For now, the Ifugao peoples have continued to plant their native rice varieties, which are more sensitive than introduced varieties.

Sooner, rather than later, indigenous peoples will need to cope directly with these uncertainties by drawing in part on centuries of their own knowledge. But they will also require the benefits of scientific knowledge to enable them to develop ecosystem-based adaptation strategies to enhance resilience of their rice farming system against floods and drought risks and investigate alternative water management schemes for the future.

In response to this challenge, UNU-ISP — in another project in partnership with University of the Philippines Diliman, Yunnan Normal University and Southwest Forest University (China), with the support of the Asia Pacific Network — is initiating a new study. The study aims to develop ecosystem-based adaptation measures and provide a generic method to strengthen resilience of traditional rice terrace farming systems in the Asian monsoon region, and reduce the risk of flood and drought through case studies in the Ifugao Rice Terraces in the Philippines and the Hani Rice Terraces of China.The project will propose climate and ecosystem change adaptation measures to improve the livelihoods of the local farmers, and will synthesize research results into training modules for capacity development in local communities, government and postgraduate education.

In today’s world, with ecological challenges and climate change threats mounting and yet with heightened consciousness of the need for systems-oriented approaches, it is the melding of such mutually reinforcing techniques as science and local knowledge that will yield truly sustainable solutions.

Analysis on the Regional Characteristics of Ethnic Dress Landscape in Yunan Province

Wang Sheng-yue, Yang Shu-hong,Human geography, vol.18, No.3, June 2003, pp.77-81

Summary:Minority costumes as an important component of national culture Section , Non-verbal way of a cultural exchange In traditional cultures Maintain and heritage plays an important role in . This paper analyzes the geographic ring Yunnan Minority Costume environment impact Minority ethnic clothing decorated the landscape Geographical Type Characteristics and temporal variability . National dress is considered the most

Yunnan is the minority population of over 100 million people in the three provinces, One area . National five ethnic minorities, Yunnan has 51, including population Over 5 0 (prisoners, and there are some areas inhabited by the Yi ethnic minorities, white Family, Hani, Zhuang, Dai, Miao, Lisu, Hui, pull dry race,Family meal, Naxi, Yao, Tibetan, Jingpo, Blang, Pumi, Nu, Achang, De'ang, Jino, aquarium, Mongol, Buyi, Dulong and Manchu 25 l [] 2 `intended) in the fifth national census Yunnan total 4236 million people, including minority population 1415 million, accounting for 113 of the province's total population . Although the proportion of minority population is below the Han, but to Domain widely distributed across the province, State , City, County has . Because the minority Different customs, inhabited characteristics and geographical environment, showing the type of Different costumes and style landscape.Effects of the geographical environment on Minority Costume Yunnan complex natural environmental conditions, rugged terrain, mountains and plains and more Less; terrain northwest to southeast, great elevation above sea level of up to 6 740 m, Minimum only 76 . 4m; climate changing, varied hot and cold . Natural ring

Significant differences in habitat area, northwest Yunnan northerly location, high altitude, all- In somewhat cold; Yunnan , Eastern Yunnan, western Yunnan latitude and moderate terrain, gas Milder climate; Southern and Southeastern regions are low latitude and altitude, climate bias Hot. On specific areas, the situation has vastly different: Peak snow Yan Cold, cold mountainside, gentle foothills, Bazi warm, hot river valley. Complex Miscellaneous diverse geography from the microscopic and macroscopic view of Yunnan minority costumes Concept has produced a profound impact . First, the geographical environment so showing a diversity of ethnic costumes landscape features . Due to the large differences in the ecological environment in which to make different regions of Yunnan and not Different ethnic landscape showing different costumes. Each has its own minorities Unique traditional costumes, different costumes with different exterior features . The total , The alpine mountains national costumes with thick, coarse

Different ethnic groups live in the same area in the landscape is also showing more than clothing Diversity .The same is a nation living in the mountains and live in the dam area (small pots Ground) national costumes comparison, there are significant differences.Temperatures throughout the year than the dam area mountains Low, somewhat cold, climate changes, changing day, with the wind, humidity,Clothing made for people with special requirements . For example, Bai clothes just fitDali dam area of climate together, living in the higher elevations of the Western Hills Bai ERYUAN for Against the cold, the body is draped sheepskin, and throughout the year so .Dali mountains Yi high altitudes, the vast majority of people dressed in the whole year round sheepskin made Sheepskin coat, and a woman as round as both waist and embroidered ornaments Graying group felt (Yi called "wrap back") .This dress in the dam area of Bai and itsHe is not seen in the nation . Chuxiong has a similar situation, living in the dam areaHan, Hui, Bai ethnic groups, clothing materials and styles with Kunming ,DaliDam area of the nation approximation; Yi who live in the mountains must have a sheepskin coatBoth taste or a sheepskin, sheepskin with a warm supporter due importanceMountain Yi also formed a sheepskin coat to make major new bride quaint customs.Impact of the environment on apparel landscape is evident.

Secondly, the geographical environment have a direct impact on the clothing materials and shapes . Complex and diverse natural conditions and ecological environment so that all peoples to choose the dress fabric And style with which the environment to adapt. Across all ethnic groups in traditional costumes

The use of materials, mostly local materials . Northwest Livestock more developed, generally sheep, Some also raising yaks, sheep and wool to ensure , Consumption of ox hair clothing for people Equipment needs, from livestock to clothing processing, basically by each own Completed. Various ethnic groups in other parts of linen, cotton and other natural fiber cloth, brocade, soil Cloth to sew clothes. National dress making, at most forty years ago by Each manual operation is complete . In recent decades, due to rapid economic development, Xu Handicraft gradually give way to multi-machinery industry, the cotton industry, Wool occupied Most of the market, the source of all ethnic garment material and therefore larger changes.Nevertheless, people in love all kinds of new clothes, while having all kinds of mass The lining system characteristics remain the deep exploration of feelings.

From the shape characteristics, due to the many nationalities in Yunnan, clothing type also has Diversity. Generally, there are Tibetan, Pumi and Mosuo men and women generally wear Long clothing (gowns) culottes boots fitted; Yi, Naxi, Bai, Han and partHmong men felt Phi Phi leather pants or dress; Han, Bai, Yi, Dai,Achang, Manchu,Naxi, pull dry race, Zhuang, Yao, Hani, Lisu, Hui shirt under pants; Dai, Blang, Jingpo, A Chang family, De'ang, rice family, Hani, Jino, Miao, Tibetan, angerFamily,

Lisu woman's blouse dresses under four types. As meticulous division,Estimated that no less than dozens.Once again, the geographical environment on the national dress of the function is also affected. Utility is The basic function of national dress, but the geographical environment affecting Yunnan ethnic costumes Practicality 1z [. For example Northwest climate is cold, living in this region Tibetan, Nu, Lisu, Naxi, etc. to adapt to the cold environment, serviceIn the form of ornaments and selected materials are special considerations to deal with the cold and deal with abnormal Weather, warm warm become the main function of these areas in national costumes.

National dress hot climate regions and cold regions with no national dress With practical functionality. For example living in hot and humid tropical regions of South Asia Dai,Ha Nigerian family, board race, pulling dry race, Blang, etc., or by their water door, or deep Habitat forests, mostly engaged in paddy rice for a living, to adapt to high temperatures, rainy, Fog, Moisture, water and other environmental factors aspect, to prevent the sun, enjoy the cool air ventilation, Easy living and production activities become the main feature of these ethnic costumes, because This their costumes and more

concise, thin features . And adapt to the environment, while pursuing Practical and beautiful, in the Dai costumes have been very obvious.

Regional differences in minority costumes landscape 2 . A minority costumes landscape zoning Certain natural and human environment impact on ethnic costumes, and Regional differences in the formation of clothing . Yunnan minority costumes cultural phenomenon in geographical Have significant differences on the distribution of the history of different regions of the national dress Costumes cultural landscape qualities and formed laid a National Costumes Regional differences in the basis of landscape . According to the minority costumes cultural phenomenon in the air Similarities and differences between on the calendar occurrence and development of various ethnic costumes basis History of the formation process, and clothing materials, production processes, shape and dress Way other apparel cultural characteristics, the national dress for western Yunnan Yunnan landscape divided North, Central Yunnan eastern Yunnan area, southwestern Yunnan region three regional landscape. In the three landscape Formed in the region and the differences are more obvious characteristics of the three minority service Decorative landscape area type: Ethnic Dress Landscape, warm in cold regions

Ethnic Dress Landscape Area,Ethnic Dress Landscape in hot areas (see Table 1, Figure 1).aT bTable 1 Characteristics of Yunnan Ethnic Dress Landscape area and targets [3, DiaoC ha ra ct State Li c an dta gr et of et hn ie dr lin an electric field lds pseudo ep r l~ In Yun double hundred I P] vi cenEthnic Dress Landscape Project ethnic costumes landscape in warm regions cold regionsDistribution areaEnvironmental CharacteristicsClothing materialsProduction processClothing StyleDress ColorDress the wayRepresentatives of ethnicYunnan and eastern Yunnan regionMild climate, springCotton, linen goodsSewing machinesT-shirt under pantsWhite,

Blue,Black dominatedLightly armed type,Loose, worn shoesBai, Yi, Hui, Mongolian,Water, Buyi, Yao and other ethnic groups

Northwest YunnanCold weather, low temperatures, wind, temperatures inJapanese big differenceCotton, linen, wool fibers and wildHand-sewnCulottes dress gownRed,Blue, black dominatedHeavy type, line type tie, wear bootsTibetan, Pumi, Lisu, Nu,Dulong ethnic groups

Ethnic Dress Landscape in hot areasSouthwest Yunnan, southern Yunnan and southeastern YunnanLong summer without winter, hot and rainy, greater humidityCotton, cotton, linen, silkHand-sewnT-shirt under dressesBlack, White,Blue-basedUnlined type, Tight, legging bare feetDai, Hani, Wu, pull dry,Brown, Keno,Jingpo ethnic

Northwest region in the cold seasons, low temperatures, wind larger temperature Year, day difference is large, the temperature dips rain. The area's ethnic costumes in general than Compared with heavy clothing , Pants, hat (Baotou) ,, Shoes (boots) and taste, layers of clothes than the More material except linen, cotton and wild fibers (fire grass) fabric, there are days However, fur or wool, yak consumption products (such as felt, felt, etc.), simple design, Compact and agile. In addition, the folk saying "wearing a ten thousand, as tied at the waist line "Reflects the warm experience, clothes in general are all a band, and some belt Especially large thick, plays an important role in the body

. For example, Tibetan, Lisu clothes are somewhat longer Big, thick, and the adjacent door and Tibetan white

Generally woven from the hair with brown (more coarse felt, locally called soil woolen) cook Clothing or outer coat, sheep or goat outside and then draped blankets, Pumi, Naxi waist Department long and generous cow ribs Pakistan flowers (ie striped flower) woolen belt, both cold Can increase the beauty of clothing. 2 less warm areas

Ethnic Dress Landscape in warm areas In the milder climate Yunnan, eastern Yunnan and parts of western Yunnan, winter is Short, most of the time as a pleasant year-round climate in spring and autumn, and thus live in these Regional ethnic clothing dam area is generally more concise, tops and pants, plus a waistcoat, Multi-use cotton, linen fabrics, live in the mountains colder zone nation is plus or Phi sheepskin Felt....Dam area ethnic summer dress less thinner before winter coat plus cottonClothes , Sweaters and the like, four seasons wearing different costumes obvious seasonal .DamRural areas engaged in paddy field labor, sleeves and pants for men and women hand clothes looser,Easy to work in the fields.Meanwhile, in order not dragging its feet during labor, the impact of the action,Both men and women wear sleeveless jacket, waist tie or apron, pack clothes naturally drooping underSwing.The belt, Apron and decorative, clothes adds to the feeling of beauty.Typical of those in rural areas, such as Kunming, Dali Bai and Han.Bai mainly around the Erhai Lake andHabitat, mild and cool seasons Bai women generally wear the right vain sisters wear, cover aPieces of cotton or wool brown, Corduroy, velvet waistcoat made, based on the net confining color or embroideryWaist, wearing trousers, with embroidered shoes or ordinary shoes, leather shoes, tie-dye hair towel And white towel with long braids wrapped suppress . Their costumes compact, lightweight, in a year . Most of the time you can wear to the winter cold was the need to increase certain equipment.. Bai men usually wear large breasted buttons clothing, housing black or blue waistcoat, Under wear trousers, white cloth wrapped around Baotou, tone and ladies clothing similar to the same environment, Climate is very coordinated . Around the dam area on the performance of national costumes climatic factors, Style tends to close .Because of the small annual temperature range, wearing clothes tone Four SeasonsRoughly the same, just in the winter plus cotton,Sweaters can, dress somewhat simple,

Lightweight.

Ethnic Dress Landscape in hot areasSouthwest Yunnan, southern Yunnan and southeastern Yunnan edge areas, namely Dehong,West edition doubleCarolina and Lincang area,Simao, Baoshan district,Honghe Autonomous Prefecture, WenshanSome counties and states Bazi valley, subtropical, the annual average temperatureHigh, long summer and no winter, the climate is hot.National living in these areas toSimple, light, ventilate and cool the main theme for the national dress.Dai dress hot climate regions can be said on behalf of various ethnic costumes typicalTable. The basic shape of their clothing is: Women tops under skirts, men's shirt and pants(Ruili also have to wear skirts), Wide pants large majority choose light-colored material, softSoft, thin, breathable good performance fabrics, like sandals,Slippers or barefoot.Summer when few people wear, especially women, wearing a tight corset,Bare shoulder and arm and upper back, often dragging skirts to the knee upper in an attempt to cool. PeopleWe will Dai clothing summarized as "five noes", namely "no top hats, collarless jacket, skirt noBack,No files pants, shoes, no help, "Court to vividly describe their clothing small and simple,Use less material,Big big cut without scissors, and adapt clothing features hot climates. Spatial and temporal variability of Ethnic Dress Landscape 3 . Vertical development of an ethnic minority costumes Vertical development of national dress that is different than the era of national dress features Compared. National Costumes has a long rich history, various ethnic costumes are by Over a long period of evolution has been gradually formed, a few people of different ages Na Hu and ornaments on the use of materials, shapes, and functions of the production process has obvious Difference .

Early costumes of various ethnic groups in Yunnan relatively simple, single function to naked Warm-based . From the Neolithic site found that about 3 "XM) Cloud ago Textile Textile South has emerged, indicating that our ancestors were already wearing their own making Goods made clothes. Grab the source rock, rock gram Yuanjiang it brings people clothing vivid Be revealed, some naked, some clothed, some wearing feathers or Skirt made of animal hide, has obvious decorative clothes, feather, fur and Plants such as the use of performance is very prominent . At that time our ancestors lived in the mountains, mining

Hunting is the main content of life, their living environment and lifestyle apparel production has Close ties . Bronze Age into the future, economic development and the improvement of textile technology, Textiles species increases, clothing styles increased. Dianchi Lake and its adjacent areas around . There are many various ethnic clothing styles: one feather wear, clothes that do with feathers . And skirts; Second End clothes - clothes hanging behind an animal fur, drag With a long tail; Third stripes commoner, Yunnan people have been commonly used clothing . Cloth with stripes of mostly linen sewing; Fourth Phi felt; five other All kinds of clothes length, there are about a dozen

Tang and Song Dynasties was a period of rapid development of Yunnan ethnic costumes. Ancient Painting (Nanzhao Figure "and" The Dali picture) and rock carvings on stone masterpiece Jianchuan Shizhongshan Cave, on the painting, The moment when people dress up clothes, very lively, with Body. In ancient times these outstanding works of art, you can clearly see Nanzhao Wang Dali King , Civil and military officials and working people, such as different styles of clothing. Nanzhao Dali Kingdoms period, agricultural development, higher linen, cotton and silk production, For a variety of textile and garment, and good texture. Nanzhao , When the country Dali Traditional costumes of the formation has a great impact on the future of National Costume

Yuan Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, Yunnan ethnic textile, printing and dyeing, embroidery and other skills continue Continued forward, ethnic clothing variety.As Bai woman with dark blue Colored yarn braided hair, with a thin mat made clothes; Yi woman wearing a floral embroidered shirt And colored skirts; Dai man in red, black clothes and embroidered shoes, women's wearClothes made with brocade or embroidered clothes, wearing silk or cotton floral skirts; Zhuang M Child wear colored clothes and women wear embroidered clothing; Naxi woman wearing a dress jacket, sleeves Upper and shoes have embroidery on clothing adorned with gold beads; Blang man with twoCloth sewn into a garment, women with red, black mingled woven into cloth to make clothes;

Rice family man with a cloth to make sets of clothing, or a woman with a plain weave with green, red wood grainCotton made dress; Achang woman bun, decorated with colorful cloth for decoration, wear flowers commonerSkirt, made with fabric legging; Hani woman wearing a cloth garment, made with colored cloth, Skirts; Tibetan man with a woven with red, green felt and felt a cross pattern to make clothes. Clothes, women with a color pattern of felt or cloth to make clothes and pleated skirt; Pumi PhiJingpo wear clothing colors and more; lute carpets, woolen waist belt tied with patternClothing, hi decoration on clothing; Nu wearing a red striped linen clothes made;Hmong woman wearing colored corolla, wearing embroidered sarong and so on.This time, in YunnanNational costumes tone, shape, material, there are many modern equivalent of nearly the same, similar Place

After the founding of new China, with political, economic and cultural development, cloud Southern ethnic costumes have changed dramatically. 1960s, around Yunnan Han and ethnic minorities, mainly garments are produced using local native clothing Sewing materials, the majority of people wearing traditional costumes . 60 years later, due to industrial clothing Increase the supply of materials and garments, clothing and rural way of Yunnan, China has undergone a large Change, men wear polyester and cotton tunic cabo, Really cool shirt soared. "Cultural Revolution" period, there has been a boom in green uniforms, with traditional national costumes To impact is not small . After the mid-1980s, the market gradually active apparel supplier Product assortment, styles . Currently, there are basically traditional costumes minority Three situations: First, traditional clothing worn in daily life is still common, such as white Family, Naxi, Dai, Yi, Blang, Achang, Jingpo, Germany Ang family, pull dry race, Hani, Miao, Yao, Zhuang, Mongolian, cloth By race, aquarium and other ethnic groups, of which the proportion of women wearing traditional clothing than men;

The second is usually less wear traditional clothing, only festivals, the festival was wearing Clothing; Third, only the elderly and the young people do not wear clothes to wear, young people that Make the wearer, but also made improvements in the traditional basis; fourth is declared as tourist Biography and tourism development leaving some ethnic pass with national characteristics and aesthetic value Commission to promote the clothing, such as Dai, withdrawal Nepal, white, Wu and other ethnic costumes.

With IT , The rapid development of industrial technology and the social economy, now On behalf of the growing popularity of social education and social civilization, embodied by clothing and retention The role of history is no longer so important, some ethnic costumes also opened

Beginning of the emergence of simplicity and practicality of the trend, which become more clear Aesthetic Display, which will inevitably lead to the loss of nationality costumes . In the nation increasingly frequent exchanges Complex, very wide geographical spread culture today, it is difficult to predict Yunnan less Development of several national costumes are due to changes in aesthetics and the tertiary industry Fat Need to show, and the emergence and development of traditional national culture in the opposite direction, even Modern civilization has been assimilated information society, it gradually lost the original special national Quality. This is a phenomenon that has long been the protector of the national culture are most worried And processes.

Spatial variability Minority Costume Any one of the nation's costumes are adapted to the environment, natural living conditions, Production and lifestyle factors such as local conditions created, and the formation of different Regions, different ethnic dress style and tradition. However, the various ethnic clothes Ornaments are not immutable, if living space changes, the original service Ornaments will subsequently change. Distribution pattern of National Costume space history . The culture of the minority costumes continue to spread in space, diffusion and change occurs Different results. For this reason, emigrated from the north China Yunnan Mongolian and full Ethnic costumes belong to this situation. With the changing environment in which they live , Health Nissan lifestyle change, its dress significant changes have taken place in order to facilitate On the need to adapt to the new environment and lifeMongolian sea, with their livestock from the cold north, dominated In the warmth of farming and fishing lake in Yunnan foot worship, the new Four Seasons settlement Warm weather makes them Pipao gown and fur hat off his boots, replaced by appropriateEnvironmental and labor requirements should cloth jacket trousers. Manchu versa, living in Bulgaria Mountains Manchu, according to the old people about their ancestors back to Yunnan changed Clothing, mainly because of the warm weather here has been like that do not need to wear in the north Dai, all come from the north wear leather sweater here have lost a role.Yunnan Nationalities live together in a large, Pattern of small settlements, since among peoples It frequently with a variety of cultural exchanges since ancient, and clothing as a national culture One of the important features of, all involved in the interaction of national culture and Exchanges learn from each other, Integration and absorb the mutual influence on the national dress

For a long time. This phenomenon in the edge of the Han distribution is more common in Muslim living in the dam area of the zone, Yi, Bai, Naxi , Dai, Zhuang and Buyi, etc., due to Han approaching or mixed, by the shadow of Chinese culture Sound deeper, and thus the more significant features of Chinese clothing, especially men's clothing Has no big difference with the Han Chinese. Natural blend of ethnic costumes culture, on the one hand Enriched the content of various ethnic wear, on the other hand lead to poor national dress... Straight weakening, increasing similarity that is strong Chinese culture Geographical space expanding to disadvantaged minority areas .

Protection and use of national dress culture

Fashion is a "historical symbol"Costumes generations meansCulture is passed from generation to generation. National dress itself is a long history of ethnicCulture, it embodies the aesthetic consciousness of the nation, decorative arts and ethnic characteristics,Brings together the region's,Ethnic flavor of history. When the clothes and accessories with knotTimely, given the complex will be on the basic functions of its simple weatherizationEthnic groups and socio-cultural functions of consciousness, becoming settlements, villages, social relationshipsDepartment, and even power,Religious and other components of the social system, and thus exhibitArtistic beauty and national spirit of creativity.From the perspective of economics, national serviceOrnaments culture is a valuable resource for the regional tourism industry, cultural industryAnd socio-economic development of the region have important value. On the western YunnanThe actual development strategy in the current show status and socio-economic developmentSituation, the regional advantages ethnic and cultural diversity of the community has been

Recognized by all walks of life, based on the implementation of Yunnan"Ethnic Cultural Diversity"And"TravelProvince

As an important part of traditional culture, national dress culture in Yunnan Should not be ignored, but should not be misinterpreted as primitive and backward. Practice has proved that When a nation's culture as the main tourist attractions of the region to participate in activities in the past, National dress is the most intuitive and is also one of the most attractive tourist attractions . National dress deposition profound cultural connotation, tourists vision in the face Those exotic ethnic costumes, they get is the pursuit of beauty Combined with real . Therefore, in the use and development of national cultural tourism resources, Shall pay enough attention to national costumes, from policy makers , Execution By national dress maker and wearer must understand and respect have Ethnic, regional specialties and cultural significance of the national dress.

[References] Jen a "Guo net, etc., Duan Ming Yang Fuquan. Minorities in Yunnan [M j overview . Kunming: Yunnan People's Publishing House, 197 . 1-6 . [2] Liu . Chinese minority costumes Jen M]. Beijing: Central University for Nationalities Press, 1999 . 139 a 141 . [3] When Li Qi . Clothing Introduction to [M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 1990 . 52 a 64 . "4] Zhang Shulin, Luo Shiwei . The main research areas of clothing geography "J]. Geography, 1995, 10 (3): 25-32 . [51 Wang Sheng Yue . Geographic [M] . Kunming: Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House, 2002 . 287 a 296