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C H I N A

18 ANCIENT CHINAEarly settlers • Shang dynasty • First writing

20 CHINAThe first emperor • The Great Wall

22 THE HAN EMPIREGreat inventions • A Han city

24 THE SILK ROUTE

W O R L D C I V I L I Z A T I O N S

26 INDIAEarly Indus civilization • Mauryan empire • Hinduism and Buddhism

28 ANCIENT AMERICAFirst settlers • The Olmecs • Teotihuacan •Peruvian kingdoms • Moche and Nazca

30 AFRICAEarly Saharan art • Nok

31 OCEANIAEarly settlers • Polynesian sailors • Easter Island statues

32 INDEX

CONTENTS

A N C I E N T G R E E C E

4 ANCIENT GREECEThe Mycenaeans • Trojan Wars • City-states • Greek warfare

6 LIFE IN ATHENSThe Acropolis • Worship • Theatre •Democracy • Medicine

8 ALEXANDER THE GREATAlexander’s conquests • Science in the Hellenistic Period

T H E R O M A N S

10 THE ROMANSRepublic and empire • Roman army • The Government

12 TOWN LIFEInside a Roman house

14 ROMAN BUILDERSRoads and aqueducts • At the baths

16 SPORTSChariot races • Gladiators • Emperors

C O N T E N T S

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(AB)UK TextJOB NO:E7-05129 TITLE:ANCIENT WORLDS

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First published in 2009 by Orpheus Books Ltd., 6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire OX28 4AW England

www.orpheusbooks.com

Copyright © 2009 Orpheus Books Ltd

Created and produced by Orpheus Books Ltd

Text Jacqueline Dineen

Consultant Dr Robert Peberdy

Illustrators David Bergen, Simone Boni, Stephen Conlin,Ferruccio Cucchiarini, Giuliano Fornari, Luigi Galante, AndreaRicciardi di Gaudesi, Gary Hincks, Shane Marsh, Steve Noon,

Nicki Palin, Alessandro Rabatti, Rosanna Rea, Claudia Saraceni, Alan Weston

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior

written permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN 978 1 905473 45 8

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

Printed and bound in Singapore

C O N T E N T S

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Abbreviations: BC before Christ; AD anno Domini (“inthe year of the Lord”, indicating years numbered from

the birth of Christ); c. circa (“about”)


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A foot soldier from theGreek city-state ofSparta was called ahoplite. He worearmour over a shortpleated tunic.Hoplites carried ashield and fought witha spear or a sword.

The Mycenaean civilization disappearedaround 1200 BC. Afterwards, there was aperiod known as the Dark Ages until about800 BC, when the Greek civilization beganto develop. Greece was not one country buta series of separate city-states. City-statesfought each other to gain more power.

The Greeks had fleets of warshipscalled triremes. Although it hadsquare linen sails so that it couldtake advantage of the wind, atrireme was rowed into battle.The ship was rowed bythree rows of oarsmen,one above the other. Therowers at the bottomlevel were inside theship and their oarscame out throughportholes. On thefront of the shipwas a batteringram for rammingholes in enemyships.

G R E E K W A R FA R ECity-states consisted of a main city or townand the villages around it. Each one wasruled by powerful nobles. Sometimes thenobles were overthrown by a tyrant,someone who took power although he hadno right to do so. By about 500 BC, each city-state had its

own army. One of the most formidablecame from the city-state of Sparta in thesouth. By this time, the Classical Age (seepage 6) had begun in Greece and the city-state of Athens was a haven for thinkers andartists. To the Spartans, however, theimportant thing was to make war.Most of the Greek armies were made up

of young men who trained as soldiers fortwo years after they left school. They werecalled up to join the army if there was awar (when they were known as conscripts).The Spartans, however, had a full-time armywho were always ready to fight.All Greek armies fought in a phalanx

formation. The soldiers formed closelypacked rows so that their shields partlyprotected their neighbour. Then theyadvanced on the enemy like a batteringram. The first few rows held their spears outin front of them so they could strike theenemy from a distance. The close formationmade them difficult targets, so the phalanxwas a very effective way of fighting.


5

ANCIENT GREECE

THE HISTORY of ancient Greecebegins with the Mycenaeans, a warlike

people who created a powerful and wealthycivilization in about 1550 BC.The first settlers in Greece lived in simple

stone houses and farmed the land. Thesepeople, who later came to be called theMycenaeans, began to trade around theMediterranean and came into contact withthe Minoan civilization on Crete. Theyborrowed many ideas and skills from theMinoans and began to make superbcraftwork of their own.The Mycenaeans were very different

from the Minoans, however. The Minoanswere a peaceful race, but the Mycenaeanswere warriors. Their palaces weresurrounded by massive walls. Inside, formerrulers were buried in large, beehive-shapedtombs, called tholoi. From their palacestrongholds, the Mycenaeans set off on raidsaround the Mediterranean.

Legends about the Mycenaeans date backthousands of years. One, told in the Iliad, bythe Greek poet, Homer, gives an account ofthe war between Greece and Troy. TheMycenaean king, Agamemnon, set out torescue his brother’s beautiful wife Helen,who had been captured by the Trojanprince, Paris. After 10 years of fighting,Agamemnon’s army finally defeated Troy bytrickery. Greek soldiers hid inside a woodenhorse (below), which was towed into thecity by the triumphant Trojans, thinking theGreeks had gone home. At nightfall, theGreeks emerged to capture the city.

Four gold death-masks ofkings were found in theroyal tombs at Mycenae.This one was oncethought to be the mask ofAgamemnon, a king ofMycenae at the time ofthe Trojan War. Expertsnow think it is 300 yearsolder, so could not be his.


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In ancient Greece, people spoke outagainst being ruled by rich citizens and ofhaving no say in how they were ruled. Anew system of government, calleddemokratia, which means “government bythe people”, was introduced in Athens. OurEnglish word “democracy” comes from thisword. In Greek democracies, all citizens hada say in how the city-state was run, much aspeople have a say in democracies today.

The ruins of the Acropolis temples can still be seen in Athenstoday. The Greeks used columns like the ones supporting theParthenon for many of their temples and public buildings. Columnswere made by standing one block of stone on top of another. Thetop of the column was usually decorated with carvings.

Citizens could vote for their leaders,although women and slaves did not count ascitizens, so they could not vote. Atheniancitizens were members of the city’sassembly, which met once a week. Anycitizen could speak at these meetings. Theassembly was run by a council of 500people, who were chosen by drawing lots.The Greeks prized freedom of speech. In

the centre of most Greek cities was an openspace, called an agora, where meetings wereheld and political speeches made. Besides itschief use as a marketplace, the agora wassurrounded by temples and law courts.

Here a man is making apolitical speech in an openspace in a Greek city. Ifpeople were dissatisfied witha member of their government,they could vote for a publicfigure to be removed fromoffice. Athenian citizens madetheir feelings known bywriting his name on pieces ofbroken pottery, called ostraka.

M E D I C I N EThe basis of modern medicine also comesfrom ancient Greece. During the ClassicalAge, a man called Hippocrates founded aschool of medicine on the Greek island ofKos, where diagnosis of illness was based onexamination of patients. Doctors had totake the Hippocratic Oath, which outlinedtheir duties and responsibilities. Doctors stillhave to take this oath today.


7

LIFE IN ATHENS

THE CLASSICAL AGE was a timewhen Greece flowered in the arts,

philosophy and science. The city-state ofAthens was at its most powerful during thisperiod. The city had been destroyed by thePersians in 480 BC, but it was rebuilt ingreat splendour. One of the mostmagnificent projects of all was the group ofbuildings on the Acropolis, a rock that stilldominates Athens today. At the heart of theAcropolis buildings was the Parthenon, amarble temple dedicated to the city’sgoddess, Athena.Much of what we know about the

ancient Greeks comes from the arts andliterature of the time. Pottery was oftendecorated with scenes from everyday life.Sculptors created beautiful statues,philosophers wrote down their thoughtsand ideas, and dramatists created plays basedon real-life events.The ancient Greeks worshipped many

gods and goddesses. The 12 most importantgods were said to live on Mount Olympus,the highest mountain in Greece. Zeus wasthe chief of the Olympian gods.

Modern theatre had its roots in ancientGreece. The audience sat on stone seatsin the semi-circular, open-air auditorium.The actors wore large Comedy or Tragedymasks so that the audience could seethem. These masks are still the symbol ofthe theatre today.

Greek athletes practised for the sportsfestival held every four years at Olympiain southern Greece. This festival wasthe forerunner of the Olympic Gameswhich are still held today.

Every large city had a theatre and dramawas popular entertainment. The earliestform of theatre was a festival of songs anddances. Later, playwrights such as Sophoclesand Aristophanes began to write playswhich actors could perform. There weretwo main types, comedies and tragedies.Many of these plays, written centuries ago,are still famous today.Plays were performed on 10 days of each

year. Audiences went to the theatre for thewhole day. They would usually see threetragedies or three comedies and a short playcalled a satire, which poked fun at a seriouslegend or event.


6

Temples were the most importantbuildings in Classical Greece (left).Inside were statues of the temple’s god.



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As Alexander defeated more lands, heformed Greek colonies to stop the newlyconquered peoples rebelling. The colonies,16 of which were cities called Alexandria,were governed by his own soldiers. ButAlexander died without a final plan for hismassive empire. The lands were eventuallydivided into three parts, Macedonia, Persiaand Egypt, with a Greek general in chargeof each. The period between Alexander’sdeath and the defeat of the Greek empireby the Romans in 30 BC is known as theHellenistic Period.The Hellenistic Period was an age of

scientific discovery, and the city ofAlexandria in Egypt was its main centre oflearning. Many poets and scholars came tostudy at Alexandria. The mathematiciansPythagoras and Euclid worked out theirrules in geometry there, while otherscholars studied medicine and themovement of the stars.

It was at Alexandria in Egyptduring the 2nd century ADthat Claudius Ptolemy (right)studied astronomy. Like theGreek thinker Aristotle, hebelieved (wrongly) thatthe Earth lay atthe centre ofthe Universe,with the Sunand the otherplanets allmoving roundit.

Alexander the Great formed anempire that consisted of a goodpart of the world then known tothe Greeks. His travels tookhim down through the NearEast and into Egypt, thenacross Asia and into northernIndia. To Alexander, Indiamarked the end of the knownworld and he wanted to go on,but his soldiers refused. Hishorse, Bucephalus, which hadcarried him on his march, waskilled in the battle against theIndian king, Poros, in 326 BC.

The city of Petra in Jordan wasinhabited by a people called theNabateans. They were greatlyinfluenced by Hellenistic architecture.

With no single leader, Alexander’s empirewas vulnerable to attack and was graduallytaken over by the Romans. Egypt, the seatof learning, survived for longer than the restof the empire, but the Roman emperorAugustus conquered it in 30 BC. The queenwas Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemyfamily to rule in Egypt. She killed herselfwith her Roman lover, Mark Antony.The legacy of Greece was revived during

the Renaissance, or “rebirth”, of thoughtand art in 15th-century Europe, and hasinfluenced people ever since.


9

ALEXANDER THE GREAT

ALEXANDER the Great came fromMacedonia, a wild mountainous area

on the northern borders of Greece. Hisfather Philip became king of Macedonia in359 BC and united all of Greece under hisrule. When he died in 336 BC, Alexanderbecame the new king at the age of 20.Alexander had been taught by the Greek

writer and philosopher Aristotle and thisgave him a love of Greek poetry and art.But he was also a brave and brilliant soldierand his main interest was in building up amighty empire for Greece.

Alexander was a fearlessleader with a desire toconquer new lands. Heset out with an army of30,000 foot soldiers and5000 cavalry. He foughtfor 11 years to expandthe Greek Empire.

Alexander’s first battle was with theGreeks’ old enemy, the Persians. In 334 BChe marched into Asia and defeated DariusIII, the king of Persia, and his army.Alexander now set out to bring the wholeof the Persian Empire under Greek rule. Hisnext move was to capture the Phoeniciantown of Tyre and then to defeat Egypt. Hewent on to capture the three palaces of thePersian kings at Babylon, Susa andPersepolis. He spent three years vanquishingthe eastern part of the Persian Empire, thenmarched on to conquer the northern partof India in 326.By now, Alexander and his army had

been on the march for 11 years. He wantedto go further into India but his soldierswere tired of fighting and wanted to returnhome. Alexander agreed to turn back butdied of a fever in Babylon in 323 BC. Hewas only 32 years old.


8

MACEDONIA A S I A

INDIA

PERSIA

EGYPT

Samarkand

Persepolis

SusaBabylon

Tyre

Alexandria

Route of Alexander



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T H E G O V E R N M E N TWhen Rome became a republic the peoplewere determined that no-one should havetoo much power, so they elected officialsknown as magistrates, who governed theland. The most powerful magistrates werethe two consuls who were elected to servefor one year and were expected to governRome in agreement with each other. Aftera year, most magistrates became members ofthe senate, who advised new officials.Julius Caesar was a brilliant general who

conquered many lands for Rome. He waselected consul in 59 BC, but it was not longbefore he wanted to govern Rome in hisown way. He became governor of parts ofsouthern Gaul (now France) and broughtnorthern Gaul under Roman rule. Hereturned to Rome in triumph and began torule it as a dictator (someone who hasabsolute power) in 46 BC. But somesenators were jealous of Caesar and wantedto regain power for the senate. In 44 BC agroup of senators stabbed him to death inthe senate house in Rome.

At its peak, the Roman Empireincluded France, Spain,Germany, Britain and themuch of the former GreekEmpire. Julius Caesarconquered Gaul, most ofSpain and parts of easternEurope and North Africa. Newlands were also acquiredunder the Romanemperors: Britain,the western parts ofNorth Africa andlands in the MiddleEast.

After Caesar’s death, twoprominent Romans began tostruggle for power. One was afellow consul of Caesar’s,Mark Antony, who became thelover of Cleopatra, queen ofEgypt. The other was Caesar’sgreat-nephew, Octavian.Octavian declared war onAntony and Cleopatra in 31 BCand defeated them at theBattle of Actium. Antony andCleopatra killed themselves.Octavian became the firstemperor of Rome, calledAugustus, in 27 BC.Emperors ruled over the

Roman Empire for over 400years. They were not kingsbut they had absolute powerover their people. Theemperor’s “crown” was alaurel wreath, a sign ofmilitary success.

The first emperor, Augustus, reigned from27 BC to AD 14. He brought peace to theempire, but before his death he chose hisown successor. From then on, the Romanscould not choose their leader.

T H E R O M A N S

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THE ROMANS

THE ROMANS came from the part ofEurope we now call Italy. They built up

an empire that was even larger than that ofAlexander the Great (see page 8).Groups of people from northern Asia

began to settle in Italy between 2000 and1000 BC. One group, which spoke alanguage called Latin, settled on the banksof the River Tiber. In time, this settlementbecame the city of Rome.The Romans had several kings but the

people were not happy with the way theywere treated. They decided to set up arepublic with a leader who was chosen bythe people for a set length of time. If theydid not like the way the leader did things,they could choose another leader at the endof that time. Rome was a republic for nearly 500

years, during which time the Roman armyconquered many new lands. But in 27 BC,after the Roman defeat of Egypt and thedeaths of Antony and Cleopatra (see page 7),a dictator once again took control.This wasAugustus, the first Roman emperor. By thistime the Roman Empire had a populationof 60 million people.

Britain was one of the Romans’conquests. Queen Boudicca and hertribe, the Iceni, rebelled against theRomans and recaptured many of theirtowns in Britain before she was defeated.

Roman foot soldiers were known aslegionaries. A legionary wore an ironhelmet and armour over a woollen tunicand a leather kilt. He had to carry hissword, a dagger, a shield, a spear andall his provisions.

The first Roman army was made up ofordinary citizens, but at the height of theempire the soldiers were highly trainedprofessionals. The army was divided intolegions of about 6000 foot soldiers orlegionaries. A legion consisted of 10 cohortseach of which had six centuries, orcompanies of 100 men. A group of 700cavalry rode on horses with each legion.A Roman soldier was trained to carry all

his own equipment, which consisted ofclothes, a tent, food and cooking pots aswell as his armour and weapons. The armyoften marched more than 30 kilometres aday. Nothing stood in their way. If theycame to a deep river they built a floatingbridge by tying rafts of wood together.

T H E R O M A N S

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Roman Empire in AD 200

BRITANNIA

GERMANIA

GAUL(France)

HISPANIA(Spain)

ITALIA

ASIA MINOR

SYRIA

A F R I C A

Rome

M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A

AEGYPTUS(EGYPT)

•



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Much of our evidence about Romanhouses and towns comes from the ruins oftwo cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum,which were destroyed in AD 79, when thevolcano Vesuvius erupted. Pompeii wasburied under hot ash, while Herculaneumdisappeared under mud washed down fromthe volcano. Thousands of people werekilled.Whole streets of shops and houseshave been excavated in both cities.

People who lived in townhouses enjoyed a life ofluxury. Much informationabout the furniture in thehouses comes from wallpaintings at Pompeii. Peoplelay on couches to eat theirmeals, which were laid out onlow tables by slaves. Clothes,food and books were stored inwooden cupboards andchests. Women and honouredguests could sit on chairs, buteveryone else sat on stools.Besides these, there was littlefurniture. As well asbedrooms and living rooms,houses had libraries. Theinhabitants of the house couldstroll in a courtyard, orworship at the shrine of thehousehold god.

People in Herculaneum goabout their daily life

hours beforeVesuviuserupts.

Wealthy Romans lived in spacious villaswith several rooms. At the centre of the villawas the atrium, the main hall, which had anopen roof to let in light. A pool called animpluvium caught rainwater that came inthrough the open roof.The rooms of thevilla were arranged around the atrium. Poor people’s homes were very different.

Some people lived in flats above shops, or inhouses divided into rooms or flats.

T H E R O M A N S

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TOWN LIFE

AS THE ROMANS conquered newlands and built up their empire, they

introduced their own lifestyle to theconquered peoples. Many signs of Romanhabitation can still be seen today.The Romans adopted many ideas from

the Greeks, but their civilization had manydistinctive aspects of its own. The Romanswere excellent engineers and builders—andthey liked their home comforts.Archaeologists have found examples of

Roman towns throughout the empire. Thefirst Roman houses were built of brick orstone but the Romans also used what seemsa very modern material, concrete. Somelater Roman houses were built of concretedecorated with brick or stone.

The streets in the towns were laid out ona grid system, which means that they werestraight and crossed one another at rightangles. Many of the towns were first built asforts for the soldiers. Others were built forRoman citizens who decided to settle inthe conquered lands. Roman settlersbrought seeds from Italy to plant and growtheir own food. Today, some fruit andvegetables which originally came from Italyhave become native to the lands they weretaken to by the Romans. Farmers from the countryside brought

their produce into the towns to sell in themarket. The forum was the main market-place as well as the centre of government.The Romans used coins; people boughtthings for a set price rather than barter andexchange of goods.

A Roman townin France. The

local way of lifeand the style of

buildings are Roman.

T H E R O M A N S

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A T T H E B AT H SWealthy Romans had baths and centralheating in their houses. The heating wasprovided by the hypocaust (heating system)below ground, which passed hot air throughchannels in the walls.Most towns had public baths that anyone

could visit. Besides a way of keeping cleanand healthy, it was an opportunity to meetfriends and make conversation. The bathshad several rooms and bathers passedthrough each one. In the main room, thecaldarium, a slave rubbed oil into the bather’sbody. The bather soaked in a large warmbath, then went into a room where a basinof very hot water filled the air with steam(the sudatorium, after the Latin word sudor,meaning sweat). The bather scraped off theoil and dirt with a device called a strigil.Bathers coming from the caldarium wentnext into the tepidarium, to cool off a littlebefore entering the frigidarium, where therewas a cold bath to plunge into. This closedthe pores of the skin.In between the various stages of bathing,

people sat and chatted or enjoyed a swim inthe large warm bath. People also did somevigorous exercise, such as going to the gym(the sphaeristerium), before visiting the baths.The Romans built public baths in towns

throughout their empire. Some of these canstill be seen today. The water in the GreatBath at Bath, England, still flows along thechannels made by the Romans.

The Roman aqueduct ofPont du Gard, near Nîmesin France, as it looks today,nearly 2000 years after itwas built. The Romanslooked for a river or lakethat was slightly higherthan the town it wassupplying. Then they builtthe aqueduct so that itsloped gradually downhilltowards the town. The rowsof arches across valleyshad to keep the same slopeas the rest of the channel.

Men went to the baths after work. Womencould only use them at certain times.

The water for baths and all otherpurposes was brought along aqueducts. Theword aqueduct comes from the Latin wordsfor “water” and “to draw along”. Theaqueduct was a channel for carrying cleanwater from rivers and lakes to the towns,usually at ground level or through under-ground pipes. Aqueducts across valleys werebuilt up on arches. About 200 Romanaqueducts can still be seen throughout theformer empire.

T H E R O M A N S

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ROMAN BUILDERS

THE ROMANS were skilful buildersand engineers. They built 85,000

kilometres of roads throughout their empireand many aqueducts to carry water fromrivers or lakes to the towns, some of themhuge stone structures built across valleys.

Building an aqueduct and a road in avalley during Roman times.

Roman roads were planned by surveyorswho travelled with the army. The roadswere planned to take the shortest route andto be as straight as possible. When the routehad been decided, soldiers and slaves dug awide trench. The road was then built bypacking layers of stone, sand and concreteinto the trench.

T H E R O M A N S

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G L A D I ATO R SGladiators were slaves or criminals whowere trained to fight to the death as thecrowds looked on. They fought with shieldsand swords, or with tridents and nets.Gladiator fights and chariot races were bothpopular forms of entertainment. Richcitizens who wanted to be elected to officeorganized chariot races and gladiator fightsthat poor people could go to. The emperor would often be present at

gladiator fights. If a gladiator was woundedand asked for mercy, the emperor decidedwhether his life should be spared or not. Ifhe had fought well, he was allowed to live.If not, the emperor signalled the victoriousgladiator to kill him.

E M P E R O R SSome Roman emperors were good rulers,like the first emperor, Augustus. He did nottry to expand the empire but brought manyyears of peace to the people. Otheremperors were brutal. Tiberius strengthenedthe empire but became a tyrant feared byall. His successor Caligula continued thereign of terror. Caligula was probably mad;he once made his horse a consul and had apalace built for it!

One of the most cruel emperors wasNero, who was Caligula’s nephew. In AD 64a great fire destroyed part of Rome. Neroblamed the Christians and had many killed.In fact, he may have started the fire himself.

It is said that Nero, a vain man who sawhimself as a great musician, played onthe lyre as Rome burned.

T H E R O M A N S

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SPORTS

THE ROMANS had about 120 publicholidays each year. On these days,

Roman citizens went out to celebrate bygoing to the theatre, or watching a chariotrace or a fight between gladiators.Chariot races and gladiator fights were

held in the town’s circus, which was a large,oval-shaped arena.

Chariot races were very dangerous. Thedrivers raced their horse-drawn chariots attop speed round the arena. They wereallowed to ram and bump into each other,and chariots often overturned. Even thoughdrivers wore protective clothing, they weresometimes killed. But the crowds lovedchariot racing. They flocked to watch themin their thousands, and shouted and cheeredas the chariots raced round.

When the emperors died, theRoman people worshippedthem as gods. Christiansrefused to do this. So, fromabout AD 250, thousands ofChristians were put in prisonor thrown to the lions in frontof watching crowds at anarena. In fear of their lives,Christians met in catacombs(undergound cemeteries, left)to pray in secret. In AD 313emperor Constantine madeChristianity legal.

The circus was oval-shaped with a stonebarrier down the middle.The crowds sat or stoodaround the outside of thetrack. The chariotsraced in four teams andthe crowds bet on theirfavourite team. Eachrace was seven laps ofthe circus. The driverswhipped the horses tomake them go faster.

T H E R O M A N S

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As the Chinese civilization developed,ruling families, or dynasties, began to takepower. The first such dynasty was the Shangwhich came to power in about 1750 BC. Bythis time, there were some fairly large townswhere people carried out different tradesand crafts. Metalworkers used bronze, analloy (mixture) of copper and tin, to makevessels for the king and noblemen. Bronzevessels found in Chinese burial grounds ofthis period have inscriptions on them,showing that the Shang had developed theirown form of writing.

Soothsayers or fortune-tellers in Shang timesforetold the future by reading oracle bones.

These were animal bones that hadquestions, in the form of picture

symbols, inscribed on them. Thebones were heated over a fire

until cracks appeared.The places where thecracks crossed theinscriptions weresupposed to givethe answersfrom the gods.The symbols arethe first knownexamples ofwriting inancient China.

China was prosperous during the Shangdynasty. Ordinary people had to pay taxes tosupport the king and nobles. Craftsmenworked in many other materials besidesbronze. They made wooden chariots fornobles and officials to ride around in, andornaments in jade, a semi-precious stone.

The use of bronze meant thatpeople could make strongtools and weapons in ShangChina. Copper is a soft metalbut when mixed with tin tomake bronze, it becomesstronger. The Bronze Age hadalready begun in other lands,but the Chinese developedbronze independently. Theymade bronze weapons forhunting as well as warfare.Noblemen enjoyed huntingrhinoceros and tigers.

The Shang dynasty was overthrown inabout 1100 BC by a people from the valleyof the River Wei, a tributary of the YellowRiver. They founded the Zhou dynastywhich lasted for about 850 years. This was atime when Chinese scholars began to studyphilosophy, the meaning of life. The mostimportant Chinese philosopher of the timewas Confucius (551-479 BC).

A villagein China in

1500 BC. Inthe foreground

the people aremaking bronze.

C H I N A

19

Bones of Homo erectus have been found inChina. The first settlers may have beendescended from them, or from later groupsof wandering Homo sapiens. Farmerscultivated crops in the deep, fertile soil onthe river banks (the yellow soil that gave theriver its name), and lived in small villages ofhuts made from mud and sticks. Farmingmethods became more efficient so farmerscould produce enough food to feed peopleoutside their own families. The populationincreased and began to spread to other partsof China.

ANCIENT CHINA

THE CHINESE civilization grew up onthe banks of the Huang (Yellow) River

in northern China more than 7000 yearsago. It developed in isolation from the restof the world for hundreds of years. Indeed,the Chinese people did not even realise thatthere were other civilized people in theworld until the second century BC. Untilthen, the only other people they cameacross were nomads from lands to the northand east.

C H I N A

18

A farmingvillage on aplain innorthern Chinain about 4500BC. At the centreof the village is apyramid-shaped hutwhere people canmeet and talk. Thefarmers grew millet formaking flour, andhemp which could bewoven into a roughcloth.



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T H E G R E AT W A L LDespite Shi Huangdi’s power and his army,his empire was under constant threat fromtribes such as the Huns, nomads who livedto the north of China. These fierce horse-men did not live in one place but movedaround, raiding and plundering towns andvillages, taking whatever they wanted andkilling the inhabitants. Shi Huangdi decidedto build a massive wall across China’snorthern border to keep the invaders out.By the time it was finished, the Great Wallof China stretched for 2400kilometres.

When there was a threatof invasion at any partof the Great Wall, thenearest soldierssignalled to theothers by lighting afire. They rushed tohelp repel theinvaders, firing arrowsfrom the battlementsand using catapults forhurling stones at enemies.

The Great Wall was an incredibleconstruction for its time. Millions of menworked on building it and every piece ofstone had to be carried to the site inbaskets. The wall had towers every 200metres, which were the living quarters ofthe soldiers who guarded it.

The Great Wall today.

Shi Huangdi died suddenly in 210 BCand the Qin dynasty was taken over by anew dynasty, the Han, in 206. Work on theGreat Wall went on for centuries after thedeath of the emperor who had started it.Most of the wall we see today was builtbetween the 14th and the 16th centuriesAD, during the Ming dynasty. By the timethe wall had been rebuilt and added to, itwas 6000 kilometres long. It is 10 metreshigh and wide enough for 10 men tomarch side by side along the top. It is stillthe largest structure ever built by people.

Building the Great Wall ofChina. Stone had to bequarried and carried throughthe mountains. The wall wasbuilt along the tops ofmountain ranges to make iteven more difficult forraiders to invade. Soldierswatching from thebattlements could seeattackers approaching andwarn other soldiers furtheralong the wall.

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CHINA

THERE WAS a long period of unrest inChina between 475 and 221 BC. The

Zhou (see page 19) were still in power butthe separate states in China graduallybecame independent and began to fighteach other.China was united again under a powerful

group of warriors, the Qin, who graduallysubdued the power of the warring statesand brought them under Qin rule. Aftermany battles, the leader of the Qin assumedthe role of emperor in 221 BC. He calledhimself Qin Shi Huangdi, which means“first emperor of the Qin”. Shi Huangdiruled over a vast empire from his capitalcity, Xianyang.Shi Huangdi was a ruthless, determined

man but he had one great fear—death. Inancient times, people worshipped manydifferent gods. Most people also believed inan afterlife. But this was the unknown andmany feared what might happen to them.Shi Huangdi was no exception. Soon afterhe became emperor, he began to plan histomb and 700,000 workers started to buildit. The emperor wanted his tomb to beguarded by an army of 600,000 life-sizesoldiers made of clay.

The Qin emperor had tokeep up a large army toprotect his new empire.His warriors had bronzespears and swords, orfired arrows using acrossbow. An ordinarysoldier was protected bybody armour made ofmetal scales rivettedtogether. He wore a scarfto prevent the armourrubbing his neck. His hairwas coiled up into a top-knot and tied with a scarf.

Shi Huangdi’s terracotta army layundisturbed for many hundreds of yearsuntil some Chinese labourers found somestatues while digging a well. Archaeologistsbegan to excavate the area and in 1974 theyfound the emperor’s tomb. The army ofwarriors, some of them on horseback andcarrying weapons, were well preserved andshow us what soldiers looked like at thetime. Each soldier has a different face, sothey may have been portraits of the men inthe emperor’s real army.

The terracotta soldiers were originallypainted in brilliant colours. These hadfaded by the time they were found.

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An early Chinese seismograph, a machinefor recording earthquakes.

The seismograph (above) was invented inAD 132. It is a vessel with eight dragons’heads around the bowl and toads sittingbelow. When the machine is shaken duringan earthquake, a rod inside swings andopens one of the dragons’ jaws. A ball fallsout and drops into the mouth of the toadsitting directly below, recording thedirection of the earthquake.Another invention, the wheelbarrow (see

below), is in some ways an improvement onthe type we use today. The Chinesewheelbarrow was invented in the firstcentury BC. The things being carried in thebarrow are distributed on either side of alarge wheel so that the weight is balanced.The barrow has long handles and is easierto push than modern versions.

China was remote from the rest of theworld for hundreds of years after the Handynasty. Much of our knowledge about theChinese way of life comes from models leftin tombs. The Chinese were skilled craft-workers and made precious objects out ofjade and bronze. Bronze models of horse-drawn chariots tell us what the full-sizevehicles may have looked like. The chariotshad two wheels and a canopy shaped like aparasol (see illustration, opposite). Governmentofficials rode in them when they travelledthe countryside, inspecting villages. Modelsof buildings have also been found in tombs.Stone tomb slabs show scenes of everydaylife in Han China.

This tiny bronze flying horse isan example of Han craftwork.

A H A N C I T YThe capital of the early Han empire was thecity of Chang’an. The roads in the city werearranged on a grid system (they crossedeach other at right angles). The traffic onthe roads would have included two-wheeled chariots and goods wagons takingproduce to market. There were several marketplaces in the

city, where people could buy food andmaterials such as silk, wood and leather.Musicians, jugglers and storytellersentertained people as they went about theirbusiness in the streets. The city was dividedinto sections, each one surrounded by awall. Inside the walls, the houses werepacked tightly together, protected from thebustle of the city.

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THE HAN EMPIRE

THE HAN DYNASTY ruled theChinese empire for more than 400

years. This was a period of great prosperityfor China. There were long periods of peaceand the Chinese army added vast tracts ofnew land to the already powerful empire.

In Han times, life was verywell organized afterthe turbulent daysof the Qindynasty.

The Han period was a time of greattechnical achievement. The Chineseinvented many things that we take forgranted today. One of the most importantinventions was paper, which was firstmanufactured in AD 105. The earliest paperwas made from tree bark, old rags andfishing nets pulped together with water,then flattened and dried in thin sheets.

The teachings of Confucius (see page 19)became very important during this time.These stressed that it was better to governpeople wisely than to rule them by force.Under the Han emperors, officials wereinstructed to help people as much aspossible. This was also a time when scholarsbegan to write histories of China.

Government officials travelledfrom village to village,

advising people onsuch matters asthe bestcrops togrow.

Chinese scientists were the first tounderstand magnetism, and invented acompass more than 2000 years ago. Thestirrup was another early invention. Stirrupsgave mounted soldiers more control overtheir horses and so helped them in battle.These and other inventions did not reachthe West until hundreds of years later.

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As trade increased between East and West,more and more foreign merchants travelledto China, and many lived in Chang’an andother cities. Chang’an grew to be the largestcity in the world.It was through the merchants that some

of China’s secrets began to reach the West.Merchants would return to Europe withtales of what they had seen in thismysterious, unknown land, and some of theamazing things the people had invented.

Merchants continued to travel along theSilk Route for hundreds of years but it hadbecome less important by about AD 1000.The cities along the route had becomemore and more powerful and could controlthe trade that passed through. There wasalways the threat of attack by bandits orgroups of nomads who set upon themerchant caravans. As sea travel becamesafer and cheaper, that became the morepopular way of transporting goods.

The Silk Route ran from Chang’an to cities inCentral Asia and on to the Middle East. Itpassed between the high mountains of Tibetto the south and desert to the north.

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THE SILK ROUTE

THE HAN CHINESE were traderswhose merchants took silks from China

to the West. An overland road, known as theSilk Route, linked cities in the Middle Eastto the early Han capital, Chang’an.The Silk Route was 6400 kilometres long

and passed through dangerous territorywhere bandits waited to rob travellers. Themerchants rode on camels and travelled ingroups called “caravans” for protection.They carried silks, spices and bronze articlesto trade in the West.

The merchants came to various citiesalong the Silk Route and had to obtainpermission to pass. The cities demanded aportion of the merchants’ goods in paymentbefore letting them through. So these citiesbecame rich because of the Silk Route.The illustration (below) shows a caravan of

merchants setting out from China to travelto the West. Behind them is the Great Wall.The merchants’ camels are followed by packanimals carrying the goods they are trading.The merchants will probably return withivory, precious stones, horses and othergoods from the West.

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Chang’an

CHINA

A S I A

Silk Route



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Buddha found enlightenment as he sat under a fig tree.

H I N D U I S M A N D B U D D H I S MWhen Asoka came to the throne, there wereseveral different religions in India, includingHinduism, which later became India’s mainreligion. Buddhism was founded bySiddhartha Gautama (c.563-483 BC), but itonly had small groups of followers until thereign of Asoka, who encouraged the spreadof the religion throughout his empire.Siddhartha Gautama, who was later knownas Buddha, was an Indian prince whobecame dissatisfied with the life of anobleman. He left home to find a simplerand enlightened way of life.

When Buddha died, parts of his body wereburied under mounds called “stupas” like thisone in different parts of India.

Siddhartha spent six years trying to findan answer to the sufferings of the world.Then one day he sat down under a fig tree(which came to be known as the Bo Treeor Tree of Enlightenment) and concentratedhis mind. He sat there for 49 days, until heachieved enlightenment, a state of peacethat was free from all human suffering.

Siddhartha became known as Buddha,“the enlightened one”. He taught peoplehow to live peaceful, good lives together bybeing unselfish and thinking of others. Healso showed them how to meditate to findthe meaning of life. After Asoka’s death, Hinduism became

more popular again. Buddha was not a godand he was not worshipped as one. At first,there were not even statues of him. TheHindus believe that there is one supremebeing, Brahman, who appears in the shapeof many different gods and goddesses.

There are hundredsof Hindu gods andgoddesses, but someare particularlyimportant and featurein many festivals.The three mostimportant gods areBrahma (above left),Vishnu (above right)and Shiva (right).

The three main gods are Brahma theCreator, Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva theDestroyer. Shiva is sometimes also seen as aloving god. Vishnu appears in many forms,including Lord Krishna who is worshippedas a holy child, as a mischievous youth andas a brave warrior.Buddhism and Hinduism became rival

religions. Hindus had statues of their gods,so statues of a Buddha figure wereintroduced to make Buddhism morepopular. The years of rivalry produced someof the finest sculpture in the world.


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INDIA

THE INDIAN civilization is one of theoldest in the world. Farmers had begun

to build villages near the valley of the RiverIndus by about 6000 BC. These settlementsformed the basis of a civilization whichdeveloped from about 2400 BC. The twocapital cities of Harappa and Mohenjo Darohad streets of brick-built houses laid out ona grid system, and both cities had their ownwater and drainage systems. One of the firstcivilizations to have the wheel, the peoplealso developed methods of writing.

Harappa and Mohenjo Daro flourisheduntil about 1750 BC, when all the peopleleft them, perhaps because of years of severeflooding. The cities lay in ruins until 1922

when archaeologists began toexcavate them and uncoveredtheir remains.

By the 3rd century BC most of northernand central India had become one empire.This was called the Mauryan Empire afterChandragupta Maurya, who founded it in322 BC after Alexander the Great had leftIndia (see page 8).Maurya, followed by his son Bindusara,

brought most of the rest of India into theempire. By the time the third emperor,Asoka came to power, there was only onestate left to conquer: Kalinga on the eastcoast. Asoka managed to overthrow Kalinga,but caused so much bloodshed that he wasovercome by guilt. He converted to theBuddhist religion and set about governinghis empire in a more peaceful manner.Asoka set up trading links with

neighbouring lands and built a network ofroads. His beliefs about how people shouldbehave and the laws he made were engravedon rocks and pillars throughout the empire.


26

Emperor ChandraguptaMaurya, arrives in hiscapital city, Maghada,together with a processionof elephants.



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T E OT I H U A C A NThe next major development in Mexicancivilization was the building of the greatcity of Teotihuacan (about 50 kilometresfrom present-day Mexico City). The site ofTeotihuacan was a place of pilgrimage: acave, said to be the birthplace of the Sun.The huge Pyramid of the Sun was builtover this cave in the 1st century AD and amagnificent city was laid out around it. Thepyramid can still be seen today.At its peak, about 200,000 people lived in

Teotihuacan. It was one of the largest citiesin the world. Wealthy people lived near thecentre, while farmers and craftworkers hadsimpler homes on the outskirts.

Teotihuacan was destroyed in AD 750 andall its inhabitants moved away. But itremained a place of pilgrimage. It probablyinfluenced the Aztecs, when they built theircity of Tenochtitlán hundreds of years later.

P E R U V I A N K I N G D O M SA giant pyramid was also built by theMoche people of Peru in South America.This was the Huaca del Sol (also known asthe Pyramid of the Sun), which towered 41metres above the plains on which it stood.On its summit were palaces, temples andshrines. More than 143 million mud brickswere used to build this massive structure.

The Pyramid of theSun, Teotihuacan.

Warrior-priests were the lords of Moche society.They dressed in elaborate finery and head-dresses, and wore priceless gold jewellery.

The Moche were brilliant potters andmetalworkers who built up a kingdom ofthousands of people. Their civilization lastedfor 800 years until AD 800. Moche rulerswere warrior-priests who were extremelyrich and powerful. They led their armies outto conquer neighbouring peoples andpresided over the sacrifice of prisoners tothe gods. The Moche traded with other peoples in

Peru. Among these were the Nazca, wholived on the edge of the desert furthersouth. The Nazca people carved hundredsof lines in the desert’s sandy surface, and aseries of strange pictures, including imagesof birds, monkeys, spiders and others. Theycan only be properly seen from the air. Whythe Nazca people made these lines andpictures—long before planes wereinvented—remains a mystery.

No-oneknows whatthe Nazcapicturesmean, butthey mayhaveplayed apart in a

religiousritual.


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Giant stone heads like thisone were carved by theOlmecs, the first civilizationin Mexico. Each headweighs up to 20 tonnes. Theheads look similar but theyare all different and areportraits of Olmec rulers.The pattern on the helmetshows who the ruler is.

This scene shows a forestnear the coast of NorthAmerica in about 1500 BC.As the climate becamewarmer after the end of thelast Ice Age, trees began togrow once more, formingdense forests. Hunters turnedto hunting forest animals,such as deer. Like the peopleof the Middle East andelsewhere, the Native American

hunters invented and used spear-throwers. The women gathered

berries and nuts while the men huntedwith spears, or fished with nets in therivers and lakes. They fished from theshore and, in deeper water, from canoes,made by hollowing out tree trunks.


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ANCIENT AMERICA

PEOPLE SETTLED in America quiterecently compared to the other

continents.They developed theircivilizations independently from other partsof the world. They did not even know thatthere were other parts of the world.People, hunting mammoth, deer and

other animals, crossed into America fromAsia between 35,000 and 15,000 years ago.It was the time of the Ice Age. Because somuch water was frozen in icecaps, the sealevels were much lower than they are today.What is now the Bering Strait was then dryland. When the Ice Age ended, about10,000 BC, the ice melted and the sea levelrose, cutting America off from elsewhere.In some parts of the continent, people

had to rely on plants rather than animals forfood. The first farmers worked the land inwhat is now Mexico and Peru.

T H E O L M E C SThe Olmecs lived in the swampy lands nearthe Gulf of Mexico. They developed theircivilization from about 1200 BC. The peoplewere artists and traders who did not seek toconquer other parts of America. Theyworshipped gods and built pyramid temples,a style that was adopted by later Mexicancivilizations.Olmec traders travelled far and wide

within Mexico, searching for raw materials,such as jade, for their craftwork, and trading

in the finished products.Their travels broughtthem into contact withother peoples who wereinfluenced by their art.The Olmec civilizationfaded in about 300 BC.



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OCEANIA

OCEANIA consists of the islands ofAustralia and New Zealand, Papua

New Guinea and the other South Pacificislands. The first to be settled were Australiaand New Guinea. The people who becamethe Aboriginals migrated to Australia fromSoutheast Asia probably about 50,000 yearsago. People from Asia also settled on NewGuinea about 40,000 years ago.The other islands were not settled until

about 5000 years ago. New Zealandremained uninhabited only until about1000 years ago. Finding these islands inancient times involved the risky business oftravelling very long distances in canoes. Thefirst settlers were skilled seafarers.

Polynesia consists of many islands spreadthousands of kilometres apart across thePacific Ocean. The ancestors of today’sPolynesians constructed large canoes, somebig enough to hold 100 people, to exploreand settle these islands. Groups of peoplecame from the mainland of Asia and foundtheir way across the sea by observing thestars. Discovery of the islands was gradualand it was several thousand years beforethey were all inhabited. The Aboriginals of Australia were hunter-

gatherers, but the people of New Guineabecame farmers about 9000 years ago. Thereis evidence that they grew yams, coconuts,bananas and sugar cane.

A Polynesian canoe,called a wa’a kaula.

The Aboriginalsbelieved in aneverlasting spirituallife known as “EternalDreaming”. Theirmusic, poetry, dancingand sculpture were allinspired by theirreligious beliefs. Onemusical instrumentwas a long woodentube called adidgeridoo. Theweather was veryimportant to theAboriginals. Many oftheir rituals involvedthe fertility of the landand the growth of newplants.

Easter Island lies 3700 kilometres off thecoast of Chile, South America. There areabout 600 massive stone heads dotted abouton the island. Who built them, and how andwhy they did so, remains a mystery.Settlers probably reached Easter Island

between AD 400 and 500. They built longaltar platforms on the seashore wherereligious rituals took place. The heads werenot carved till later. They stood on thealtars, facing inland, but they were probablynot statues of gods. They are more likely tobe ancestors of the island’s inhabitants.The statues were carved at the quarries

where the stone came from—only the eyeswere added once the statues were inposition. No-one really knows how thesehuge blocks of stone were put in place.

Statues on Easter Island


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AFRICA

THE EARLIEST forms of art in Africaare paintings left on rocks in the Sahara

Desert, a green and fertile region 8000 yearsago. Bands of hunter-gatherers lived there,but as the Sahara dried up they movedaway. Some went east to found the ancientEgyptian civilization. Others moved south.

By about 500 BC some people hadlearned to mine and work metals such asiron. As they spread over Africa, they tookthis knowledge with them. The earliest examples of African sculpture

were found at Nok in Nigeria. Theseterracotta heads and figures date frombetween 500 BC and AD 200. They mayhave inspired artists of a later civilization atIfe in Nigeria.

The Nok people foundout about ironworkingin around 400 BC,probably from traderscrosssing the Saharadesert. Iron wasperfect for makingaxes—used for fellingtrees—and farmingtools. It was smelted(separated from therock) in a clayfurnace. Bellows wereused to make the firehot enough to melt theiron. The moltenmetal ran into a pitunderneath the fire.


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AAboriginals 31Acropolis 6, 7Africa 30Alexander the Great 8-9,

10, 26Alexandria 9America, ancient 28-29Antony, Mark 9, 10, 11aqueducts 14archaeologists 12, 20, 26armies 10, 14, 20-21, 22art 8, 30artists 5, 28, 30Asia 8, 10, 28Athens 5, 6-7Augustus (Octavian) 9, 10,

11, 17Aztecs 29

BBabylon 8baths, Roman public 15Boudicca, Queen 10Brahma the Creator 27Brahman 27Bronze Age 19Buddha (Siddartha Gautama)

27Buddhism 26-27buildings 12ancient Greek 7Chinese 23Roman 13, 14-15

burials 19, 27

CCaesar, Julius 11Chang’an 23, 24-25China 18-25army 20-21burials 19cities 23, 25craftsmen 19dynasties 19, 20-22emperors 20-21empire 20-25farming 18gods 19, 20government 22houses 23inventions 22-23, 25philosophy 19science 22tombs 20towns 19trading 24-25weapons 19writing 19

Chinese 18-19Christians 16-17cities 5, 6, 9, 13, 23, 25, 26,

29city-states 5, 7civilization,Aztec 29Chinese 18-25Egyptian 30Greek 4-9Ife 30Indian 26-27

Huaca del Sol (Pyramid of the Sun) 29

Huang (Yellow) River 18-19Huns 21hunter-gatherers 30-31hunting 19

I J K LIce Ages 28India, ancient 8, 9, 26-27burials 27cities 26emperors 26festivals 27gods 27religions 26-27roads 26sculpture 27trading 26

Indus, River 26inventions, Chinese 22-23,

25iron 30Jordan 9kings 8, 10, 19, 28-29Latin 10laws 7, 26literature, ancient Greek 6

MMacedonia 8-9masks 4, 6 Maurya, Chandragupta 26Mauryan Empire 26medicine 7, 9Mediterranean Sea 4Middle East 24Ming dynasty 21mining 30Minoans 4Moche 29Mohenjo Daro 26music 31Mycenae 4

N ONative Americans 28noblemen 19, 5nomads 18, 21, 25Oceania, ancient, 31Octavian see AugustusOlmecs 28Olympic Games 6

P Qpainting 30palaces 4, 29paper 22Parthenon 6-7Persepolis 8Persian Empire 8-9Peru 28-29Philip of Macedonia 8philosophy 19, 6Phoenicians 8pilgrimage 29poetry 4, 8, 31politics 7Polynesia 31Pompeii 13pottery 6, 29Ptolemy, Claudius 9Pyramid of the Sun, Mexico

29Pyramid of the Sun, Peru see

Huaca del Solpyramids 29

Mexican 28-29Minoan 4Moche 29Mycenaean 4Nazca 29Olmec 28Phoenician 8Roman 10-17

civilizations, American 28-29Classical Age 5-7Cleopatra 9-11concrete 12Confucius 19, 22Constantine 16Crete 4

D E FDarius III 8democracy 7drama 6Easter Island 31Egypt, ancient 8-11, 30emperors,Chinese 20-21, 22Indian 26Roman 9-11, 16-17

Euclid 9Europe 10, 25farmers 4, 12, 18, 26, 28,29, 31

festivals 6, 27fishing 28forum 12

Ggatherers 28Gaul 11Gautama, Siddhartha see

Buddhageometry 9gladiators 16-17gods 6, 13, 16, 19, 20, 27, 28,

29government 7, 12Great Wall of China 21, 24Greece, ancient 4, 5-9armies 5arts 6astronomy 9festivals 6first settlers 4gods 4government 7laws 7legends 4medicine 7, 9philosophy 6playwrights 6poetry 4, 8politics 7science 6-7, 9ships 5sport 6temples 6-7theatre 6warfare 5, 8-9women 7writers 8

Greeks, ancient 4-9, 12

HHan Empire 22-23Hellenistic Period 9Hinduism 27history, recording 22Homer 4Homo sapiens 18houses 4, 12-13, 23, 26

Pythagoras 9Qin dynasty 20-21

Rreligions 26-27, 29, 31republic 10-11roads 14, 24-25, 26Roman Empire 10-17army 10, 14builders 14-15emperors 16-17gods 13, 16government 10-11, 12houses 12-13laws 11public baths 15public holidays 16roads 14sports 16-17theatre 16town life 12-13trading 12women 13, 15

Sscholars 9, 19science 6, 9sculpture 27, 30, 31Shang dynasty 19Shiva the Destroyer 27shrines 29Silk Route 24-25slaves 7, 13, 14, 17soldiers 5, 8-9, 10, 12-13, 14,

21Sophocles 6Sparta 5sports 6, 16-17

Ttemples 6-7, 29Teotihuacan 29terracotta 20, 30theatre 6, 16Tiber, River 10Tiberius 17tombs 20, 23Chinese 20Mycenaean 4

tools 19, 30towns 19, 5, 12-14trading 19, 24-25, 26, 28, 30transportation 25Trojan horse 4Troy 4tyrants 5, 17

V WVesuvius 13villages 18, 5Vishnu the Preserver 27voting 7War, Trojan 4wars 4-5, 19weapons 19Wei, River 19wheel 26women 7, 13, 15, 28writing 19, 26

X Y ZXianyang 20Yellow River see Huang

RiverZeus 6Zhou dynasty 19, 20

I N D E X

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INDEXPage numbers in boldrefer to main entries.

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