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Page 1: Child psychology resumen

7/27/2019 Child psychology resumen

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ASSIGNMENT 2

Question 1

What is a naturalistic experiment?

Anaturalisticexperimentisanexperimentinwherebyaresearcher

makesdatahappenoutinthenaturalworld,andthenevaluatesthe

results.Itisanobservationofthebehavioursandeventsofasubject

inthenaturalsetting,withoutinfluenceormanipulation.An

exampleismatchedpairtestingtouncoverdiscrimination.Thistype

ofresearchisoftenutilizedinsituationswhereconductinglab

researchiscostprohibitiveorwouldaffectthesubject'sbehavior.

SomefamousexamplesofnaturalisticobservationsincludeCharles

Darwin'sjourneyaboardtheHMSBeagle,whichservedasthebasis

forhistheoryofnaturalselection,andJaneGoodall'sworkstudyingthebehaviorofchimpanzees  (Bernard,1994).

Therearedifferentadvantagesofnaturalisticexperiment.First,the

advantageofthistypeofresearchisthatitallowstheresearcherto

directlyobservethesubjectinanaturalsetting.Second,itallows

researcherstostudythingsthatcannotbemanipulatedinalabdue

toethicalconcerns.Forexample,whileitwouldbeunethicalto

studytheeffectsofimprisonmentbyactuallyconfiningsubjects,

researcherscangatherinformationbyusingnaturalisticobservation

inrealprisonsettings.Third,ttcanhelpsupporttheexternalvalidityofresearchbecausethefindingsofalabstudydonotneedtobe

generalizedtoalargerpopulation,butthereareobservedactually

occurringinanaturalsetting.(Goodwin,1995)

Forexample,thenaturalisticexperimentcanbeusedtostudy

differencesinrisktakingbehaviorbetweenteenageboysandgirls.It

ispossibletochoosetoobservebehaviorinafewdifferentsettings,

suchasonasleddinghill,arock-climbingwall,anice-skatingrink

andabumpercarride.Afteryouoperationallydefine"risk-taking

behavior,"youwouldthenobserveteensinthesesettingsandrecordeveryincidenceofwhatyoudefineasariskybehavior.

 

Question 2 Explain what is meant by longitudinal study.

Longitudinalresearchisatypeofresearchmethodusedtodiscover

relationshipsbetweenvariablesthatarenotrelatedtovarious

backgroundvariables. Longitudinalstudiesprovidedataaboutthe

sameindividualorgroupatdifferentpointsintimeallowingthe

researchertotrackchangeattheindividuallevel.Longitudinal

studiesaredatasourcesthatcontainobservationsofthesame

researchunitsoveraperiodoftime.Suchdatacanbecollected

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eitherthroughsurveys,orthroughlinkageofadministrativedata.

Thereareanumberofdifferenttypesoflongitudinalstudies,

including:a)individuallevelpanelsurveys,wheresamplesof

individualsaretrackedandinterviewed.b)Householdpanelsurveys,

whereindividualsarefollowedwithinthecontextofthehouseholds

wheretheylive,andinformationisnormallycollectedaboutthe

wholehouseholdateachwave.c)Cohortstudies,wheresamples

fromaparticularagerangearefollowedtoexploretheirdifferent

trajectoriesastheyage.d)Recordlinkagestudies,administrativeor

censusdataarelinkedacrosstime.(Dunning,2012)

Thebenefitofthistypeofresearchisthatitallowsresearchersto

lookatchangesovertime.Becauseofthis,longitudinalmethodsare

particularlyusefulwhenstudyingdevelopmentandlifespanissues.

However,longitudinalstudiesrequireenormousamountsoftime

andareoftenquiteexpensive.Becauseofthis,thesestudiesoften

haveonlyasmallgroupofsubjects,whichmakesitdifficulttoapply

theresultstoalargerpopulation.Anotherproblemisthat

participantssometimesdropoutofthestudy,shrinkingthesample

sizeanddecreasingtheamountofdatacollected.

One example of longitudinal studies linked to language

developmentis thestudy realized by CMBN InfantStudies

Laboratory at Rutgers Universiry. Such research helped to

understandwhychildrenacquirelanguageindifferentways

andspecificallywhysomechildrenhavedifficultylanguage

learning.It alsohelpedto determinewhetheralllanguage

delays have common markers or if there are different

markers depending on particular risk factors. The

Longitudinal Study of Language Development had two

interrelated objectives. First, examining early information

processingskillsasindexedbyperformanceonhabituation,

recognition memory, and rapid auditory processing tasks.

Second, the study is looking at any differences in

development across and within our control group oftypically developing children and three “at-risk” groups of

children: a) children with a family history of language

impairment, b) children who were born very low birth

weightandpremature,c)childrenwhohadrecurrentmiddle

earinfections(otitismedia)duringtheirfirstyearoflife.The

findings of the study provide strong evidence that rapid

auditoryprocessing(RAP)deficitsmayserveasabehavioral

"marker"oflanguageimpairmentandcouldbeusedaspart

of an early identification battery for language disorders.

(Choudhury&Benasich,2009,pp.9 –23)

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TheresultsoflongitudinalstudiesaboutLanguageAcquisitionby

anotherspecies(likeGardnerandGardner(1972),Premark(1971),

Rumbaugh(1977),orPatterson(1978)haveshownthatapeshave

somesimilaritieswithhumanchildutterances(usingthesign

language).Howevertheycannotcopytheexactpositionofthe

handswithoutexplicitinstructionsashumanchildrendo.

Question 3 How would the results of the above study beinterpreted?

Therearedifferentdefinitionsofintelligencebecausethe

intelligencehasbeenstudiedfromdifferentperspectives.Burt

refersitasa“inbornability”,Spearmanas“theabilitytoeduce,

correlate,anddiscoverrelation”.Guildfordproposed120different

factors.Suchalargedifferenceofopinionsmakesthestudyandthe

testingofintelligenceadifficulttask.Howeverthereisaconsensusaboutwhatanintelligenttestmustmeasure.Themainpurposeof

intelligencetestistoobtainanobjectivemeasureofchild´s

intelligenceincomparisonwithallotherchildrenofhisages.

Intelligencetestestablishesarelationbetweenthementalageand

chronologicalagelinkedtoaspecificrangeofperformances

arrangedbydifficulty.

ThegeneralformulaforcalculatingI.Qis:Mentalagedividedby

ChronologicalAgemultipliedby100.

Therearesometheoriesaboutthedistributionofintelligenceina

population.TheStanford-Binettestshowsanormaldistribution.The

mostoftheintelligencetestareevaluatingthefollowingelements:

1)verbalcomprehension,2)wordfluency,3)number,4)space,5)

memory,6)perceptualspeed,7)reasoning.

Recentdevelopmentsinintelligencetestingcreatenewinstruments

andnewscalesofintelligence(WISC,WPPSI,etc.).Thenew

approachofGardnermultipleintelligencetheoryrequiressome

changeofthemethodologyofstudyandtestingofintelligence.  

Question 4Theclassicaltwinstudydesignreliesonstudyingtwinsraisedinthe

samefamilyenvironments.Monozygotic(identical)twinsshareallof

theirgenes,whiledizygotic(fraternal)twinsshareonlyabout50

percentofthem.Moderntwinstudiesalsotrytoquantifytheeffect

ofaperson'ssharedenvironment(family)anduniqueenvironment

(theindividualeventsthatshapealife)onatrait.

Therearedifferentkindoftwinsstudies:a) Twins-reared-apart 

designfocusesontwinswhowereadoptedintoseparatehomes

whentheywereinfants.Thesetwinsdonotsharetheir

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environments,sogeneticinfluencesarethoughttoaccountfortheir

similarities.b)Longitudinalstudiesoftwins followtwinsovertimeto

assessthedevelopmentofadult-onsetconditionsandtraits.This

approachallowsforamorecompleteandaccurateassessmentof

environmentalfactorsovertime.

Twinstudydesignsandstatisticalanalysismethodsarealso

constantlyevolvingandimproving.Theoriginaltwinstudydesign

hasexpandedtoincludestudiesoftwins'extendedfamilies,

longitudinalstudiesandothervariations.Someofthesevariations

allowresearcherstoaddresspreviouslimitations.Theassumptions

thosestudiesrestonare:a)Equalenvironments .Twinresearchers

alsoassumethatfraternalandidenticaltwinsraisedinthesame

homesexperienceequallysimilarenvironments.Butsomeresearch

suggeststhatparents,teachers,peersandothersmaytreatidentical

twinsmoresimilarlythanfraternaltwins.b)Gene-environment

interaction.Someresearchersthinkthatinteractionsbetween

genesandenvironment,ratherthangenesandenvironment

separately,mayinfluencemanytraits.ArecentstudyfromScience

(Vol.297,No.5582)byAvshalomCaspi,PhD,ofKing'sCollege

London,forexample,suggeststhatagenemightmoderate

propensityforviolence,particularlyinpeoplewhoareseverely

maltreatedaschildren.Manytwinstudydesignsdon'ttakethistype

ofcomplicationintoaccount.c)Geneticmechanisms.Traitscanbe

inheritedthroughdifferentgeneticmechanisms.Fortraitsgovernedbydominantgeneticmechanisms,adominantgeneinheritedfrom

oneparenttrumpsarecessivegeneinheritedfromtheotherparent:

Ifapersoninheritsarecessivegeneforblueeyesfromoneparent

andadominantgeneforbrowneyesfromtheotherparent,then

thedominantbrowngenewins,andtheperson'seyesarebrown.

Since1979,astudyofmonozygoticanddizygotictwinsseparatedin

infancyhassubjectedmorethan100setsofreared-aparttwinsor

tripletstoaweekofintensivepsychologicalandphysiological

assessment.Smallerstudiesofmonozygotictwinsrearedapartfoundthatabout70percentofthevarianceinIQhasbeenfoundto

beassociatedwithgeneticvariation.

Onmultiplemeasuresofpersonalityandtemperament,

occupationalandleisure-timeinterests,andsocialattitudes,

monozygotictwinsrearedapartareaboutassimilarasare

monozygotictwinsrearedtogether.Thesefindingsextendand

supportthosefromnumerousothertwin,family,andadoption

studies.Itisaplausiblehypothesisthatgeneticdifferencesaffect

psychologicaldifferenceslargelyindirectly,byinfluencingtheeffectiveenvironmentofthedevelopingchild.Theevidenceforthe

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strongheritabilityofmostpsychologicaltraits,however,doesnot

detractfromthevalueorimportanceofparenting,education,and

otherinterventions.

Adoptionstudiesareanotherimportantwayofdisentangling

geneticandenvironmentaleffects.Thesestudiesinvestigate

childrenwhowerebroughtupfromanearlyagebyparentsother

thantheoneswhoconceivedthem(Schaffer,1996).Adopted

childrencanbecomparedtotheiradoptiveparentstodetermine

howsimilarordifferenttheyarefromeachother.Ifadoptive

parentsandchildrenarefoundtobesimilartooneanotherona

givenmeasure,thenthisislikelysupportforenvironmental

influence(becausetheydonotsharegeneticmaterial).Adopted

childrencanalsobecomparedtotheirbiologicalparents(thoseby

whomtheyhavenotbeenreared).Ifbiologicalparentsandadopted

childrensharesimilarcharacteristics,thislendssupporttothe

argumentforgeneticinfluences.However,adoptionstudiesarenot

lackingcriticism.Oftentimesbiologicalparentscannotordonot

wanttobelocated/donotwishtobetested,andchildrenwhoare

goingtobeadoptedareoftenplacedwithinfamiliesthatresemble

orsharecharacteristicswiththeirbiologicalparents(Schaffer,1996).

Studiesofidenticaltwinswhoareraisedseparatelyduetoadoption

arealsoveryimportantinunderstandingthedifferencebetween

geneticandenvironmentaltraits.Inthesestudies,sincetwinshave

almostidenticalgeneticprofiles,themajordifferencesseen

betweenthetwinscanbeascribedtoenvironmentaleffects.

InaParent-OffspringAdoptionStudy(Plomin&DeFries,1985),

RobertPlominandhisfellowresearchersconcludedthatgenetics,

notenvironment,playalargerroleinthedevelopmentofthe

cognitiveprocesses.Theseresearcherswereinterestedincognitive

ability,orthementalprocessofknowing,includingaspectssuchas

awareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.Resultsfor

childrenaged1-16showedthatadoptees,althoughresemblingtheir

adoptiveparentsminimallyatfirst,becamemoreandmoreliketheirbiologicalparentsandlessliketheiradoptiveparentsasthey

aged.Byadolescence,therewasastrongresemblancetothe

cognitivefunctioningofthebiologicalparents,tothesamedegree

asinthecontrolfamilies,andnosimilaritytothatoftheadoptive

parents.Despitethefactthatthechildrendidnotspendanytime

withtheirbiologicalparents,theyweremoresimilartothem,

cognitivelyspeaking.Thesefindingssuggestthatthegenesaffecting

cognitiveabilityarenotallexpresseduntiladolescenceand,further,

thatwhateverenvironmentalfactorsmayaffectcognitive

functioningarenotstronglycorrelatedwiththecognitiveabilityof

theparentswhoraisethechild. 

Question 5ThemainproblemswithTwinsStudiesarethefollowing:a)the

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sampleofthestudyisverysmallbecausetherearenomuch

identicaltwins.b)whenidenticaltwinsrearedapartarestudied,the

majorityofthecasessharethealmostidenticalenvironmental

circumstances.c)isdifficulttodistinguishbetweenmonozygoticand

dizygotictwins.

Tooverpassthesedifficultiestheresearchersareusingthe

correlationcoefficients .Thegeneralpatternofresultsofthese

studiesindicatesthatthecloserthegeneticrelationship,themore

similartheindividual’sIWscoresare.Fornonidenticaltwinsthe

correlationcoefficientis0.60.Foridenticaltwinsrearedapartis0.74

andforthoserearedtogetheris0.89.Thefindingsofthesestudies

suggestthatthereiscertainlyalargegeneticcomponenttoa

person’sintelligence,butenvironmentalconditionsareextremely

importanttoo..

Question 6 Name and describe the stage which these eight-year oldshave reached according to Piaget’s theory.

ThestagesofcognitivedevelopmentproposedbyJeanPiaget

indicatethataeightyearchildissituatedintheoperationalperiod ,

especiallyconcreteoperationstages.Atthisstage,thechild’s

thinkingbecomesmore logical andmathematical .Thechildisable

toperformreversiblethoughtsoperations,isabletobeattentiveto

severalkindofinformationinthesametime,andhecantodecentre

himself,beingabletoattendtoseveralaspectsofasituationand

looktoanobject fromthepointofviewosomeoneelse.

Atthisagethechildgenerallymasterthe conservationtask s

regardingquantity,mass,andsubstances.Hestartstounderstand

theconservationofweight .However,atthisstagechildrencanonly

thinkintermsofrealworldobjectsandevents,canusethe inductive

logic,sotheycanformgeneralprinciplesfromtheirownactual

experience.Theyarepreparedtostepintothenextstageof

development:thedeductivelogic.

Duringthisstage,thethoughtprocessbecomesmorerational,matureand'adultlike',ormore'operational',Althoughthisprocess

mostoftencontinueswellintotheteenageyears.Theprocessis

dividedbyPiagetintotwostages,theConcreteOperations,andthe

FormalOperationsstage,whichisnormallyundergoneby

adolescents.Beliefinanimismandegocentricthoughttendsto

declineduringtheConcreteOperationalstage,although,remnants

ofthiswayofthinkingareoftenfoundinadults.(Berk,2009)

Children'sideasaboutdifferentobjects,areformedanddominated

bytheappearanceoftheobject.Forexample,thereappearstobemoreblockswhentheyarespreadout,thanwhentheyareina

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smallpile.DuringtheConcreteOperationalStage,childrengradually

developtheabilityto'conserve',orlearnthatobjectsarenotalways

thewaythattheyappeartobe.Thisoccurswhenchildrenareable

totakeinmanydifferentaspectsofanobject,simplythrough

lookingatit.Childrenareabletobegintoimaginedifferent

scenarios,or'whatif'somethingweretohappen.Thisisbecause

theynowhavemore'operational'thought.Childrenaregenerally

firstabletoconserveideasaboutobjectswithwhichtheyaremost

comfortable.(Lightfoot,Cole,&Cole,2009)

 

Bibliography

Berk,L.E.(2009).Childdevelopment .Boston:Pearson/Allyn&Bacon.

Bernard,H.R.(1994).Researchmethodsinanthropology:qualitativeandquantitativeapproaches.

ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications.

Choudhury,N.,&Benasich.(2009).Infantinformationprocessingandfamilyhistoryofspecific

languageimpairmet:Convergingevidenceforearlyauditoryperceptualdeficits.InH.

Eswaran(Ed.), Advancesindevelopmentalneuroscienceandimaging(pp.9–23).NewDelhi,

India:AnamayaPublishers.

Dunning,T.(2012).Naturalexperimentsinthesocialsciences:adesign-basedapproach.Cambridge;

NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Goodwin,C.J.(1995).Researchinpsychology:methodsanddesign.NewYork:Wiley.

Lightfoot,C.,Cole,M.,&Cole,S.(2009).Thedevelopmentofchildren.NewYork,NY:Worth

Publishers.

Plomin,R.,&DeFries,J.C.(1985).Aparent-offspringadoptionstudyofcognitiveabilitiesinearly

childhood.Intelligence,9(4),341–356.doi:10.1016/0160-2896(85)90019-4

Schaffer,H.R.(1996).SocialDevelopment .Wiley.

 

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