CHAPTERS 23-25CHAPTERS 23-25

CONCURRENT ENROLLMENTCONCURRENT ENROLLMENT

CARBOHYDRATE CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISMMETABOLISM 45% to 55% of the daily energy needs come 45% to 55% of the daily energy needs come

from carbohydrates in the American dietfrom carbohydrates in the American diet During digestion the di- and polysaccarides are During digestion the di- and polysaccarides are

hydrolyzed into glucose, fructose and galactosehydrolyzed into glucose, fructose and galactose After digestion these monosaccarides are After digestion these monosaccarides are

absorbed into the blood system through the absorbed into the blood system through the small intestines and transported to the liversmall intestines and transported to the liver

Blood sugarBlood sugar The amount of glucose present in blood, The amount of glucose present in blood,

normally expressed as milligrams per 100 mL normally expressed as milligrams per 100 mL of bloodof blood

ContinueContinue HypoglycemiaHypoglycemia

A lower-than-normal blood sugar levelA lower-than-normal blood sugar level HyperglycemiaHyperglycemia

higher-than-normal blood sugar levelhigher-than-normal blood sugar level Renal thresholdRenal threshold

The blood glucose level at which glucose begins to The blood glucose level at which glucose begins to be excreted in the urinebe excreted in the urine

GlucosuriaGlucosuria A condition in which elevated blood sugar levels A condition in which elevated blood sugar levels

result in the excretion of glucose in the urineresult in the excretion of glucose in the urine GlycolysisGlycolysis

A series of reactions by which glucose is oxidized to A series of reactions by which glucose is oxidized to pyruvatepyruvate

Page 713Page 713 A net gain of 2 mol of ATP is form for 1 mole of A net gain of 2 mol of ATP is form for 1 mole of

glucose and 2 moles of NADH is formedglucose and 2 moles of NADH is formed

REGULATION OF REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSISGLYCOLYSIS Lactose intoleranceLactose intolerance

The inability to digest milk and other products The inability to digest milk and other products containing lactosecontaining lactose

The glycolytic pathway is regulated by three enzymesThe glycolytic pathway is regulated by three enzymes Hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate Hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate

kinasekinase Phosphorylation of glucose is a feedback inhibitionPhosphorylation of glucose is a feedback inhibition The second enzyme is an allosteric enzyme - high The second enzyme is an allosteric enzyme - high

conc. of ATP and citrate inhibit it, while high conc. of conc. of ATP and citrate inhibit it, while high conc. of ADP and AMP activate itADP and AMP activate it

The last step has the third enzyme which is also an The last step has the third enzyme which is also an allosteric enzyme -high conc. of ATP inhibits itallosteric enzyme -high conc. of ATP inhibits it

Fates of pyruvateFates of pyruvate AerobicAerobic

In the presence of oxygenIn the presence of oxygen Forms acetyl CoA and NADHForms acetyl CoA and NADH

AnaerobicAnaerobic In the absence of oxygenIn the absence of oxygen Forms lactate and NADForms lactate and NAD++

Lactate fermentationLactate fermentation The production of lactate from glucoseThe production of lactate from glucose In anaerobic conditions not enough energy is formed, In anaerobic conditions not enough energy is formed,

not enough oxygennot enough oxygen Alcoholic fermentationAlcoholic fermentation

Pyruvate in two steps form ethanolPyruvate in two steps form ethanol Overall reaction the glucose forms ethanol and 2 ATPOverall reaction the glucose forms ethanol and 2 ATP Figure 23.5 page 717Figure 23.5 page 717

CITRIC ACID CYCLECITRIC ACID CYCLE SummarySummary

Acetyl CoA is the fuel of the cycleAcetyl CoA is the fuel of the cycle Requires a supply of NADRequires a supply of NAD++ and FAD and FAD Two carbon atoms enter the cycle as an acetyl unit Two carbon atoms enter the cycle as an acetyl unit

and two carbon atoms leave the cycle as COand two carbon atoms leave the cycle as CO22

In one cycle four redox reactions produce 3 NADH In one cycle four redox reactions produce 3 NADH and 1 FADHand 1 FADH22

One molecule of GTP is generatedOne molecule of GTP is generated Fig 23.7 page 719Fig 23.7 page 719

Citrate synthetase is an allosteric enzyme that is Citrate synthetase is an allosteric enzyme that is inhibited by ATP and NADH and activated by ADPinhibited by ATP and NADH and activated by ADP

ELECTRON TRANSPORT ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAINCHAIN A series of reactions in which protons and electrons from A series of reactions in which protons and electrons from

the oxidation of foods are used to reduce molecular the oxidation of foods are used to reduce molecular oxygen to wateroxygen to water

CytochromeCytochrome An iron-containing enzyme located in the electron An iron-containing enzyme located in the electron

transport chaintransport chain Fig 23.9 page 721Fig 23.9 page 721 Oxidative phosphorylationOxidative phosphorylation

A process coupled with the electron transport chain A process coupled with the electron transport chain whereby ADP is converted to ATPwhereby ADP is converted to ATP

ATP is synthesized at three sites within the electron ATP is synthesized at three sites within the electron transport chaintransport chain

The entire catabolic pathway generates 10 ATP The entire catabolic pathway generates 10 ATP molecules for every 1 acetyl CoAmolecules for every 1 acetyl CoA

Read pages 724-730 will be on testRead pages 724-730 will be on test

CHAPTER 24CHAPTER 24

Figure 24.1 page 738Figure 24.1 page 738 Behavior of blood lipids parallels that of blood sugarBehavior of blood lipids parallels that of blood sugar One general method of classifying lipoproteins is by One general method of classifying lipoproteins is by

densitydensity LDL (less and 0.95 g/mL) and HDL (1.06-1.21 g/mL)LDL (less and 0.95 g/mL) and HDL (1.06-1.21 g/mL)

ChylomicronChylomicron A lipoprotein found in the lymph and the bloodstreamA lipoprotein found in the lymph and the bloodstream

Red blood cells cannot oxidized fatty acids, when body Red blood cells cannot oxidized fatty acids, when body cells need fatty acids for energy, the endocrine system cells need fatty acids for energy, the endocrine system produces hormones which interact with adipose tissueproduces hormones which interact with adipose tissue

ContinueContinue Adipose tissueAdipose tissue

A kind of connective tissue where triglycerides are A kind of connective tissue where triglycerides are storedstored

Fat mobilizationFat mobilization The hydrolysis of stored triglycerides, followed by the The hydrolysis of stored triglycerides, followed by the

entry of fatty acids and glycerol into the bloodstreamentry of fatty acids and glycerol into the bloodstream Oxidation of fatty acidsOxidation of fatty acids Cannot be oxidized to produce energy until they pass Cannot be oxidized to produce energy until they pass

through the mitochondrial membranethrough the mitochondrial membrane ß-oxidation process - a pathway in which fatty acids are ß-oxidation process - a pathway in which fatty acids are

broken down into molecules of acetyl CoAbroken down into molecules of acetyl CoA Four reactions are involved in oxidizing the -carbon to a Four reactions are involved in oxidizing the -carbon to a

ketone page 743ketone page 743 Net on page 744Net on page 744

Ketone bodiesKetone bodies Lipids are 25% more efficient than Lipids are 25% more efficient than

carbohydrates in storing energycarbohydrates in storing energy Lipids contain twice the energy of Lipids contain twice the energy of

carbohydratescarbohydrates Ketone bodiesKetone bodies

Three compounds - acetoacetate, ß-hydroxybutyrate, Three compounds - acetoacetate, ß-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone - formed from acetyl CoAand acetone - formed from acetyl CoA

Ketone bodies are carried by the blood to body Ketone bodies are carried by the blood to body tissues, mainly the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle, tissues, mainly the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle, where it is oxidizedwhere it is oxidized

KetonemiaKetonemia An elevated level of ketone bodies in the bloodAn elevated level of ketone bodies in the blood

ContinueContinue KetonuriaKetonuria

The presence of ketone bodies in the urineThe presence of ketone bodies in the urine Acetone breathAcetone breath

A condition in which acetone can be detected in the A condition in which acetone can be detected in the breathbreath

KetosisKetosis A condition in which ketonemia, ketonuria, and A condition in which ketonemia, ketonuria, and

acetone breath exist togetheracetone breath exist together AcidosisAcidosis

Low blood pHLow blood pH KetoacidosisKetoacidosis

Low blood pH due to elevated levels of ketone bodiesLow blood pH due to elevated levels of ketone bodies

FATTY ACID SYNTHESISFATTY ACID SYNTHESIS

When more nutrients are brought in than needed When more nutrients are brought in than needed the excess is not excreted but converted into fatty the excess is not excreted but converted into fatty acids and then to body fat - read pages 747-748 acids and then to body fat - read pages 747-748 about thisabout this

Amino acid metabolismAmino acid metabolism 75% of the amino acids are used to synthesis 75% of the amino acids are used to synthesis

protein in a health bodyprotein in a health body Protein turnover- the continuing process in Protein turnover- the continuing process in

which body proteins are hydrolyzed and which body proteins are hydrolyzed and resynthesizedresynthesized

Figure 24.7 page 750Figure 24.7 page 750 Read pages 750-759 will be on the testRead pages 750-759 will be on the test

CHAPTER 25CHAPTER 25 Intracellular fluidIntracellular fluid

Body fluid located inside cellsBody fluid located inside cells Extracellular fluidExtracellular fluid

Body fluid located outside cellsBody fluid located outside cells Interstitial fluidInterstitial fluid

The fluid surrounding individual tissue cellsThe fluid surrounding individual tissue cells Make up 20% of the total body fluidMake up 20% of the total body fluid

PlasmaPlasma The liquid portion of the whole bloodThe liquid portion of the whole blood Makes up 7% of the totalMakes up 7% of the total

Principal cation of plasma and interstitial fluid is Na+, K+ Principal cation of plasma and interstitial fluid is Na+, K+ is found in the intracellularis found in the intracellular

Principal anion in extracellular is Cl- and phosphate Principal anion in extracellular is Cl- and phosphate inside cellinside cell

Intracellular fluid contains 4 times more protein and in Intracellular fluid contains 4 times more protein and in plasmaplasma

ContinueContinue

About 98% of the needed oxygen is carried by red About 98% of the needed oxygen is carried by red blood cellsblood cells

Oxyhemoglobin - a oxygen-hemoglobin formOxyhemoglobin - a oxygen-hemoglobin form Deoxyhemoglobin - nonoxygenated hemoglobinDeoxyhemoglobin - nonoxygenated hemoglobin Carbaminohemoglobin - combined with carbon dioxide Carbaminohemoglobin - combined with carbon dioxide

- about 25% of the carbon dioxide is carried from the - about 25% of the carbon dioxide is carried from the body tissues to the lungs this waybody tissues to the lungs this way

The remaining 70% is transported in the form of HCOThe remaining 70% is transported in the form of HCO33--

Go over the chloride shift pages 769-770Go over the chloride shift pages 769-770

CONSTITUENTS OF URINECONSTITUENTS OF URINE Urine is made up of 96% water and 4% dissolved Urine is made up of 96% water and 4% dissolved

organic and inorganic wasteorganic and inorganic waste The pH of a healthy person’s urine is 4.5-8.0The pH of a healthy person’s urine is 4.5-8.0 Table 258.1 page 772Table 258.1 page 772 The body is made up of 45-75% waterThe body is made up of 45-75% water Fluid and electrolyte balance are interdependentFluid and electrolyte balance are interdependent Most hospital patients have fluid and electrolyte balance Most hospital patients have fluid and electrolyte balance

therapytherapy The output and intake must be equalThe output and intake must be equal Water normally leaves the body through the kidneys Water normally leaves the body through the kidneys

(urine, lungs, skin, and intestines (feces))(urine, lungs, skin, and intestines (feces)) Vesopressin, ADH, increases the absorption of the renal Vesopressin, ADH, increases the absorption of the renal

tubules in the kidneys (water goes back into the tubules in the kidneys (water goes back into the bloodstream)bloodstream)

ACID-BASE BALANCEACID-BASE BALANCE Blood pH has to be 7.35-7.45Blood pH has to be 7.35-7.45

Death can occur if the pH goes above 7.8 and below Death can occur if the pH goes above 7.8 and below 6.86.8

AlkalosisAlkalosis High blood pHHigh blood pH

AcidosisAcidosis Low blood pHLow blood pH

There are three buffer systems in the bloodThere are three buffer systems in the blood Bicarbonate buffer, phosphate buffer, and plasma Bicarbonate buffer, phosphate buffer, and plasma

proteinsproteins Buffers neutralize HBuffers neutralize H++ and OH and OH--

Respiratory system control pH by carbonic acidRespiratory system control pH by carbonic acid Hyperventilation - rapid, deep breathingHyperventilation - rapid, deep breathing Hypoventilation - slow, shallow breathingHypoventilation - slow, shallow breathing

URINARY CONTROL OF pHURINARY CONTROL OF pH

Page 777Page 777 Acidosis and alkalosis page 777-780 Acidosis and alkalosis page 777-780

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