Motivation and RewardMotivation and RewardWhat does it mean to be motivated?What does it mean to be motivated?

Questions:Questions:What motivates you? What demotivates you?What motivates you? What demotivates you?

How is one motivated? How is one motivated? Why is one motivated to do x or y? Why is one motivated to do x or y?

Performance problems…Performance problems…

Signs and symptoms:-Signs and symptoms:-

OrganizationOrganizationGroup/TeamGroup/TeamIndividualIndividual

role of ‘motivation’?role of ‘motivation’?

Performance RegulationPerformance Regulation

External regulation (Scientific Mgt)External regulation (Scientific Mgt)Subjective regulation (Human Relations)Subjective regulation (Human Relations)

Regulation through understanding and Regulation through understanding and managing the employee mind-set managing the employee mind-set (cooperative systems approach)(cooperative systems approach)

Topic of satisfaction and motivation entered Topic of satisfaction and motivation entered the agendathe agenda

Motivation and RewardMotivation and Reward…….for love…isn’t that the reason why we do .for love…isn’t that the reason why we do

anything….?anything….?

Do you love to work? Do you work for love? Do Do you love to work? Do you work for love? Do you work to enable you to love? Would you work you work to enable you to love? Would you work if you didn’t have to?if you didn’t have to?

‘‘Pay might be the reason why millions of people Pay might be the reason why millions of people get out of bed in the morning and go to work but get out of bed in the morning and go to work but what they do when they get there is an entirely what they do when they get there is an entirely different manner’….(the lottery question…)different manner’….(the lottery question…)

Herzberg (1968)Herzberg (1968)

The simplest method of getting someone The simplest method of getting someone to move is to kick him in the pantsto move is to kick him in the pantsHowever, if you kick your dog it moves, However, if you kick your dog it moves, but was it motivated to move?but was it motivated to move?

……..it would certainly be motivated to move ..it would certainly be motivated to move away!away!True motivation comes from within the True motivation comes from within the person who wants to moveperson who wants to move=> goal directed=> goal directed

When we go out to play…When we go out to play…

How might the concept of play inform our How might the concept of play inform our understanding of motivation?understanding of motivation?

What is play? What is work? What is play? What is work?

Can we play in work? Can we work in Can we play in work? Can we work in play?play?

What motivates?What motivates?Content Theories = taxonomic ‘lists’ of need (e.g. Maslow’s Content Theories = taxonomic ‘lists’ of need (e.g. Maslow’s

Hierarchy), motives (e.g. sensation seeking, need for Hierarchy), motives (e.g. sensation seeking, need for achievement, need for power)achievement, need for power)

- e.g. Maslow’s Hierarchy: theory of motivation in general - e.g. Maslow’s Hierarchy: theory of motivation in general versus work in particular => attractive ‘holistic’ ideaversus work in particular => attractive ‘holistic’ idea

survival, security/safety, social/belonging, esteem, survival, security/safety, social/belonging, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualisingcognitive, aesthetic, self-actualising

Hierarchical proposition => movement into a higher order Hierarchical proposition => movement into a higher order domain presupposes to fulfilment of lower order needsdomain presupposes to fulfilment of lower order needs

Evaluation..Evaluation..Popularity versus scientific integrity- intuitive plausibilityPopularity versus scientific integrity- intuitive plausibility

Difficult to test – needs can operate simultaneously, Difficult to test – needs can operate simultaneously, depends on relative saliencedepends on relative salience

Arbitrary categorisation – one may seek to fulfil a higher Arbitrary categorisation – one may seek to fulfil a higher order need to satisfy lower order needs - e.g. for order need to satisfy lower order needs - e.g. for employabilityemployability

Does need fulfilment motivate? (complete satisfaction or Does need fulfilment motivate? (complete satisfaction or continuous striving) continuous striving)

So what? How do ‘needs’ they work? How might we use So what? How do ‘needs’ they work? How might we use the theory?the theory?

Two Factor TheoryTwo Factor Theory

Herzberg (1968) – Herzberg (1968) – intrinsic (from within)intrinsic (from within)extrinsic (from outside)extrinsic (from outside)

Hygiene needs = ‘disatisfiers’, must be fulfilled to Hygiene needs = ‘disatisfiers’, must be fulfilled to prevent disatisfaction but won’t increase prevent disatisfaction but won’t increase satisfactionsatisfaction

Motivators = ‘satisfiers’, but won’t prevent Motivators = ‘satisfiers’, but won’t prevent disatisfactiondisatisfaction

Evaluation..Evaluation..No direct evidence, but again, plausibleNo direct evidence, but again, plausible- e.g. ‘tip of the iceberg’ effect in absence of satisfiers, - e.g. ‘tip of the iceberg’ effect in absence of satisfiers,

dissatisfiers become more salientdissatisfiers become more salientAlso maybe a threshold of hygiene needs after which more Also maybe a threshold of hygiene needs after which more

pay adds nothing to satisfaction (Law of Diminishing pay adds nothing to satisfaction (Law of Diminishing Returns)Returns)

But, distinction intrinsic and extrinsic dubious e.g. payment But, distinction intrinsic and extrinsic dubious e.g. payment (hygiene/extrinsic) makes possible the fulfilment of (hygiene/extrinsic) makes possible the fulfilment of intrinsic (satisfiers) needs, also depends what ‘pay’ intrinsic (satisfiers) needs, also depends what ‘pay’ means (could be intrinsic motivator for some)means (could be intrinsic motivator for some)

Again, so what? Again, so what?

How does motivation come about?How does motivation come about?

Process theories - e.g. equity theory (distributive justice, Process theories - e.g. equity theory (distributive justice, procedural justice) instrumentality-expectancy theory, procedural justice) instrumentality-expectancy theory, social exchange theory, goal setting theory…social exchange theory, goal setting theory…

Social comparisons = reference pointSocial comparisons = reference pointPresuppose a superordinate need for equity/justice/balance Presuppose a superordinate need for equity/justice/balance

of exchangeof exchange

Presuppose rational calculation of inputs/outputsPresuppose rational calculation of inputs/outputsHighly cognitive … where is the sentiment?Highly cognitive … where is the sentiment?So what? What do they tell us about motivation?So what? What do they tell us about motivation?

What, Why and How?What, Why and How?

Content = what? Arbitrary lists of needsContent = what? Arbitrary lists of needs

Process = how? Cognitive mechanismsProcess = how? Cognitive mechanisms

How useful is either without an answer to How useful is either without an answer to ‘why is one motivated to do x rather than ‘why is one motivated to do x rather than y?’y?’

Importance of theory -> source of Importance of theory -> source of explanation and ‘intervention leverage’explanation and ‘intervention leverage’

Absence of coherent theoryAbsence of coherent theory

Piecemeal/fragmented, mini-models, laboratory Piecemeal/fragmented, mini-models, laboratory based, decontextualisedbased, decontextualised

A theory of motivation must be able to deal with:-A theory of motivation must be able to deal with:-Individual differencesIndividual differencesMotivated behaviour can occur in adverse Motivated behaviour can occur in adverse circumstances - e.g. demoralised but continue to circumstances - e.g. demoralised but continue to work hardwork hardWhy there might be opposite reactions of some Why there might be opposite reactions of some people to the same objective circumstancespeople to the same objective circumstances

Motivation and SatisfactionMotivation and Satisfaction

All theories incorporate satisfaction, but, one All theories incorporate satisfaction, but, one can be motivated even if dissatisfied can be motivated even if dissatisfied

Why?Why?Scenario -> professional person in the Scenario -> professional person in the

caring professions, there is low morale caring professions, there is low morale and high turnover, but not necessarily poor and high turnover, but not necessarily poor performance..performance..

Work => self-expressive (directly or Work => self-expressive (directly or indirectly)indirectly)

Motivation as an expression of Motivation as an expression of identityidentity

What higher order needs does work fulfil?What higher order needs does work fulfil?

Competence/efficacy, achievement, meaning, Competence/efficacy, achievement, meaning, esteem /worth / validation…esteem /worth / validation…

Why are we motivated to do what we do?Why are we motivated to do what we do?

Can one be motivated in a ‘have to’ situation? - i.e. Can one be motivated in a ‘have to’ situation? - i.e. is pure ‘want to’ or intrinsic motivation possible is pure ‘want to’ or intrinsic motivation possible without constraint?without constraint?

Implications…Implications…

An identity theory of motivation…An identity theory of motivation…

Does the term ‘motivation’ signify something Does the term ‘motivation’ signify something unitary (uni-dimensional) or multi-unitary (uni-dimensional) or multi-dimensional? dimensional?

Is it more useful as an analytic framework Is it more useful as an analytic framework than a concept?than a concept?

Still doesn’t answer the question of how?Still doesn’t answer the question of how?

How?How?

Theories of goal directed and self-regulated Theories of goal directed and self-regulated behaviourbehaviour

Psychological Contract Theory = schema theory Psychological Contract Theory = schema theory (Rousseau) and/or relationship psychology (Rousseau) and/or relationship psychology (Herriot)(Herriot)

Critical importance of understanding processes, Critical importance of understanding processes, not just inside the head, but between people and not just inside the head, but between people and the artefacts in their environmentthe artefacts in their environment

Universal and ParticularUniversal and Particular

How can universal theories be used in How can universal theories be used in particular instances?particular instances?Importance of context…Importance of context…

universal theories are acontextualuniversal theories are acontextualparticularistic situations – apply only particularistic situations – apply only

in in a particular context a particular context

Contingency theory….Contingency theory….

The context of motivation…The context of motivation…

Adequacy of individual level of analysisAdequacy of individual level of analysisGroups as a critical link pin and source of Groups as a critical link pin and source of

psychological leveragepsychological leverageUnderstand group processes – formal and Understand group processes – formal and

informal – e.g. how do people maintain informal – e.g. how do people maintain motivation in boring jobs? Informal motivation in boring jobs? Informal compensatory mechanisms where there is compensatory mechanisms where there is some creative licence afforded by mgt some creative licence afforded by mgt (informal job redesign) (informal job redesign)

The context of rewardThe context of reward

Payment systems => rarely truly contingent on Payment systems => rarely truly contingent on performance (PRP)performance (PRP)

Complex relationship between payment and Complex relationship between payment and intrinsic motivation – e.g. can change the intrinsic motivation – e.g. can change the meaning of workmeaning of work

Individual PRP in a team context can undermine Individual PRP in a team context can undermine teamwork by creating interpersonal competitionteamwork by creating interpersonal competition

Control or FacilitationControl or Facilitation

Balance between management control Balance between management control and personal/team autonomyand personal/team autonomyCritical importance of informal as well as Critical importance of informal as well as formal processesformal processesImposition of new formal processes (e.g. Imposition of new formal processes (e.g. job redesign, new technology) can job redesign, new technology) can undermine informal processes with big undermine informal processes with big performance costs…performance costs…

Doing more harm than good…Doing more harm than good…

Sweeping ‘potted’ job design solutions, out-of-Sweeping ‘potted’ job design solutions, out-of-context, potentially disruptive of informal context, potentially disruptive of informal processes naturally evolved to increase/maintain processes naturally evolved to increase/maintain motivation in otherwise boring (formal) jobs..motivation in otherwise boring (formal) jobs..Context, history, meaningContext, history, meaning What is the context? Context is created in part by What is the context? Context is created in part by

informal processesinformal processes History? Of the current situation, of the History? Of the current situation, of the

individual/group situation..individual/group situation.. Meaning? What does work mean to an individual or Meaning? What does work mean to an individual or

group…group…

Work flow…Work flow…

What is the task and task objective?What is the task and task objective?What are the task conditions and constraints?What are the task conditions and constraints?How will the task be completed (processes)How will the task be completed (processes)-optimise process by taking into consideration -optimise process by taking into consideration the task and its requirements and the people the task and its requirements and the people involvedinvolved-select process that is win-win for task and -select process that is win-win for task and people; involve people in deciding on processpeople; involve people in deciding on process

Control versus Autonomy – Formal versus Informal Control versus Autonomy – Formal versus Informal ProcessesProcesses