Chapter seven

Distribution, uses, status and availability of threatened medicinal plants with

added notes on wild edibles

125

Summary

In view of increasing demand and subsequent pressure on high altitude medicinal plants, it is

highly imperative to document their traditional uses, understand their distribution and diversity

and highlight their availability in their natural habitats. In this backdrop, this chapter discusses

the current conservation status and distribution of seven threatened medicinal plants and reports

their traditional uses across three ethnic tribes of Kashmir. The distribution, the mode and the

frequency of use of wild edible plants across the tribes is also discussed. The data is obtained

by a combination of both ecological and sociological methods- the data on the distribution and

abundance of medicinal plants is based on the results of random quadrate sampling while to

elucidate the information on different ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal uses of the plants,

questionnaire surveys (n= 68), informal interviews (n= 56) and group discussions (n =10) are

conducted. The results show that the distribution of the medicinal plants varies both across the

four grasslands as well as the habitat types and on an overall basis P. hexandrum Royle is most

frequent, P. kurroa recorded the highest density while S. costus and D. hatagirea (D. Don) Soo

are least frequent and recorded the least abundance. Between different habitat types, moist

rocky habitats situated mostly along the water channels record the highest number of assessed

species followed by high altitude tablelands. The altitudinal profile of the species showed that

D. hatagirea is confined particularly to the lower alpine zone (<3500 m.a.s.l), F. roylei extends

further (> 3700 m.a.s.l) and P. kurroa dominates exclusively in the latter altitudinal belts.

Additionally, while these species are used to cure different ailments on a household basis and a

few are sold on a commercial scale, twenty six more species (including medicinally important

P. hexandrum and R. webbianum) are also used as wild edibles. However the degree and nature

of use of both these types (medicinal and edible) varies significantly between the three

126

communities. These findings can act as an aiding tool in formulating a conservation strategy for

the hitherto unknown grasslands of Bandipora, Kashmir.

7.1 Introduction

Mankind‘s continuation on earth is dependent on numerous natural resources, amongst which

plants play an important role, supplying food, clothing, timber, fuel, medicine and the like.

Food and medicine are in fact the best examples of human use. Man has been using plants since

ages to cure different ailments and of the total 2, 97,000- 5, 10,000 (Schippmann et al., 2002)

plant species found worldwide, about 70,000 (c.a 10-18%) are reported to be used in healthcare

(Prajapati et al., 2003) and approximately 75,000 species are believed to be edible (Walters and

Hamilton, 1993). Further it has been estimated that throughout the human history about 3,000

species of plants have been used as food by human beings, with 200 plant species being

domesticated as food crops but the cultivation centering mostly on 103 plant species. However

only three main cereal crops viz wheat, rice and maize contribute the largest share (Allen and

Allen, 1990).

Gathering of wild plants is critical for subsistence as well as for primary health care of millions

of people, especially in developing countries (Hamilton, 2003). But with a growing evidence

that wild edible plants are often superior in comparison to processed foods (Somnasang and

Moreno-Black, 2000), provide substantial nutritional and dietary benefits in remote rural areas

to tribal populations (Sundriyal and Sundriyal, 2001) and can be used to prevent chronic and

under nutrition diseases (Green, 1993) - ethno botanical studies are becoming increasingly

important (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2000, 2004; Bhattarai and Chaudhary, 2009). The role of

ethno-medicinal plants as the prerequisite of culturally pertinent and economically affordable

health care in creating both sustainable livelihoods and the critical conservation of biodiversity

127

is gaining an unprecedented importance and consequently a strong emphasis has now been laid

on the need to broaden the biological diversity in human nutrition as well as to document and

conserve the indigenous knowledge associated with these plants.

In India, medicinal plants have traditionally occupied a central position in the socio-cultural,

spiritual and medicinal arena of people and about 34.3% (c.a 6000) of total plant wealth is

reported to be having a known medicinal value (Ved, 2008). A rich hotspot of these medicinal

plants is the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) with a record total of 1,748 species (Samant et al.

1998) and 6,75 species of wild edibles (Dhar et al., 2002). Significant work in the field of

ethnobotany and ethnomedicine has been made in recent past and various workers have voiced

their concern and highlighted the pressures these species are experiencing (Nautiyal et al.,

2002; Kala, 2006). According to All India Trade Survey of Prioritized Medicinal Plants,

demand for some high-value medicinal plants has increased 50%, but availability has declined

by 26% (Samant and Pal, 2003). Cognizant of this, increasing attention is now being paid to

these plants both from the economic and conservation aspects in the entire Indian Himalayan

region and to understand the intimate relationship that exists between plants and human beings,

especially with respect to medicinal and wild edible plants (Maikhuri, 1991; Arora and Pandey,

1996).

Of the various vegetation formations developed on the high altitude mountain ecosystems in

Kashmir, grasslands are regarded as the most important which provide edible and nourishing

roots and stems for man as well as his animals. In fact these ecosystems are the main source of

ethno botanically important flora. But because of the various anthropogenic disturbances and

an increase in the human consumption and demand, these grasslands have emerged as one of

the potent challenges to the human ingenuity (Shah, 1988) and seek for timely action. This

128

becomes increasingly important in areas where because of the modernization and contemporary

societal ideas, the traditional agro-pastoral life style is vanishing rapidly.

In this backdrop, to highlight the conservation status of the various threatened medicinal plants,

the data collected on their distribution across various habitat types, their uses and traditional

and folklore knowledge linked with this use, is presented here as a separate chapter. As many

of the recorded plant species, based on the available literature are reported to have a known

medicinal property, to include all of them would have diluted the objective, so the procedure is

refined and the selection of the species (medicinal plants) for inclusion is based on the degree

of threat and the present use (both household and commercial) which resulted in the final

inclusion of seven threatened medicinal plants viz. (Aconitum heterophyllum Wall,

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo, Fritillaria roylei Hooker, Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex

Benth, Podophyllum hexandrum Royle, Rheum webbianum Royle and Saussurea costus DC,

which are currently in use and experience pressures of various degrees. The important

characteristic features of the selected species are presented in Table 7.1. Additional notes are

also added on the wild edibles reported from the valley to further document the traditional

ethnobotanical uses of various high altitude species, their richness and the dietary use pattern

among the three ethnic tribes. This effort will not only provide encouragement for preservation

of traditions and knowledge of these ethnic tribes but will also help in the conservation of the

documented species.

129

Table 7.1 Characteristic features of selected species at surveyed grasslands

Note: *CS = Conservation status; CE = Critically endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; H = House hold use; C =

Commercial use; IUCN = International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

Species

Local Name

Alt.(m)

Part Used

Folklore Uses

CS*

(IUCN)

Current use within three

communities

Gujjar Chopan Bakerwal Gujjar Chopan Bakerwal

D. hatagirea Narmad Narmad Narmad/ Hathajadi

2800-4000 Tubers Astringent, controls kidney and skin disorders and increases vitality.

CE H H C

P. hexandrum Kakhri Wanwangun Bankakdi 3000-4000 Fruit/ Root Used to treat septic wounds, gastric

problems besides veterinary uses.

EN H Not used H

A. heterophyllum Patrees Patrees/Atees Patrees 3300-4200 Roots Aphrodisiac, tonic besides used in

fever, cough and chills.

CE C H C

F. roylei Sheetkar Sheetkar Sheetkar 2700-4000 Fruit Tonic, for asthma and in ayurvedic

formations

EN H H C

R. webbianum Chutyal Pambhaak Chutyal 3300-4500 Leaves/

Rhizome

Leaf is useful in chronic bronchitis;

while root is purgative, stringent and

laxative and used to cure constipation.

VU H H H

P. kurroa

S. costus

Kaurd

Kuth

Chobkhor

Kuth

Katki

Kuth

2800-4000

2600-3900

Whole Plant

Roots

Fever, stomachache besides veterinary

uses.

Antiseptic, bronchial asthma,

insecticide.

EN

EN

H

H

Not used

H

H

C

130

7.2 Methods

The methods employed include a combination of both ecological and social techniques. The

availability and distribution of various medicinal plants is based on the results of the data

obtained through routine sampling techniques wherein different habitat types are sampled for

their vegetative characterization. Analytical features for population study and distribution

pattern like percentage frequency (% F), density (plants per sq. m) and cover (visual

estimation) was calculated for each species across all sites. The values are then averaged to

calculate Importance Value Index (IVI) of individual species (Cottam and Curtis, 1956; Misra

1968). Out of the total 41 selected sites, the included plant species were recorded only in 33

sites. Thus the results could not be extrapolated to all the sites and would be applicable for only

such sites where the species occurred. At each habitat type, Shannon–Wiener diversity index;

H' (Eq-1, chapter 5) and Evenness (PIE) (Eq- 2; chapter 5) were calculated. One way ANOVA

is applied to test differences between mean species diversity and species richness among the

different habitat types. The source of variation includes quadrates (df =34), sites (df =10) and

quadrates (df =34), sites (df=1) for all habitats and between any two habitats respectively.

Information and data pertaining to the medicinal uses is obtained by way of structured

questionnaire surveys conducted among the family elders of all visiting households (n=68). As

all the three ethnic community tribes (nomadic Bakerwals, semi nomadic Gujjars and semi-

sedentary Kashmiri shepherds (Puhloo/ chopans in Kashmiri) use these high altitude

ecosystems, this helped in getting a comparative account of the utilization of plants and their

pattern (Table 7.2). But it also added bias to the data as the number differed between three

tribes (18 Gujjars, 30 Bakerwals and 20 Chopan households). In addition, un-structured

informal interview with other family members (n= 56; 38 male and 18 female) and group

131

discussions (n= 10) are also conducted to further comprehend an understanding on the local

name, traditional use, part used, current nature of use (household consumption or commercial)

and recent trend in species status. As the semi sedentary tribe (chopans) migrates without their

women folk, it further added to the bias of data.

Table 7.2 A detailed summary of the field methods used for collecting the non- ecological

data.

Place Method

Questionnaire Informal Interview GD*

Gujjar Bakerwal Chopan ST Male Female ST

Matri 8 NA 3 11 6 2 8 2

Minimarg 9 9 5 23 13 5 18 3

Patalwan NA 16 6 22 14 10 24 3

Viji 1 5 6 12 5 1 6 2

Grand Total 18 30 20 68 38 18 56 10

GD = Group discussion, ST = Site total

7.3 Results

7.3.1 Distribution of species

Based on the topography, site characteristics (frequency and intensity of boulders, moisture,

canopy cover, slope etc) and the physiognomy of the vegetation, the sampling sites (n=33) are

divided into eleven arbitrary habitat types, which were described based on the physical

characters and the dominance of the vegetation. Generally the sites having high percentage of

soil moisture are categorized as moist habitats and those with the low percent of the same as

dry habitats. Similarly the sites having stony surfaces and a high percentage of boulders and

rock pebbles were considered as rocky habitats. The detailed description of the resulting habitat

types is provided in Table 7.3.

132

Table 7.3 Description of the various habitat types identified in the study area

Habitat Characteristics

Moist shady slope Partially shaded slopes under the open canopy of Betula utilis with a moderate slope (<30

degree), relatively high moisture and dominated chiefly by herbaceous plants

Open gentle slope Gentle open slopes mostly at lower elevations, largely exposed and dominated by an

intermixing association of various species with few small boulders scattered all over.

Moist slope (Rocky) Partially shaded to fully exposed areas with a moderate slope mostly along the water

channels with many flat rocks and boulders offering numerous rock crevices and

enclosing well moistened long soil patches in between.

Flat tableland High altitude highly exposed tablelands at >3900 mts growing long flat vegetation mats

which are occasionally dotted by few small sized boulders.

Stable meadowland Nearly flat, well exposed and stable upland meadows dominated mainly by species of

Geum, Pedicularis, Lagotis and Sibbaldia and usually devoid of any bouldery and rocky

material.

Narrow gorge A narrow and shaded mountain gorge run through by a seasonal stream with a slope >40

degree and many small rocky outcrops along the sides.

Dry shady slope Shady dry slopes found close to the forest area under the canopy of Pinus and Acer.

Moist meadow Moist, stable and exposed surfaces at lower elevations with few occasional angular rocks

usually on the periphery.

Rocky flatland Flat, open and fully exposed patches of soil with several small and big rocks through out

which at places appear as a surface layer.

Dr rocky slope Well exposed but largely less stable dry mountain slopes covered with numerous small

loose rocks and several crags.

Open grassy slope Areas with slope <30 degree, fairly exposed, with few small scattered boulders and

dominated chiefly by herbaceous plants.

The availability of the species varied greatly and except P. hexandrum whose individuals are

observed across all the habitats, none of the other surveyed species occurred on all habitat

types. Fritillaria roylei and Picrorhiza kurroa are the other species which also show a

relatively wide distribution and their individuals are also found scattered on several different

habitat types. However Saussurea costus presented the least occurrence and its individuals are

recorded only on a single habitat type. Other surveyed species also showed a contagious

133

distribution across different habitats with flat tablelands, stable meadows and open gentle

slopes characterized by relatively less boulders and less slope being occupied frequently by

Aconitum heterophyllum and Dactylorhiza hatagirea. This reflects the ecological

characteristics and the significance of microtopographic features for these species.

7.3.2 Phytosociological assessment (Population status)

Results on the phytosociological features of the surveyed species are presented separately for

the grasslands and habitats to highlight the observed differences.

7.3.2.1) Grassland basis

Observations on the distribution (measured in terms of frequency and abundance) of the

surveyed species showed significant differences both across the grasslands as well as habitat

types for all the species. On an overall basis (Table 7.4) P. hexandrum is the most frequent

(11.25%) while S. costus is least frequent (0.17%).

Table 7.4 Phytosociological parameters of the threatened medicinal plants on an overall basis

Species F (%) R.F D* IVI IVI %

A. heterophyllum 3.37 0.43 0.24 0.61 0.21

D. hatagirea 0.95 0.12 0.04 0.15 0.05

F. roylei 7.35 0.95 0.72 1.44 0.48

P. kurroa 5.10 0.66 1.72 1.23 0.41

P. hexandrum 11.25 1.46 1.04 2.61 0.87

R. webbianum 3.89 0.51 0.21 1.79 0.59

S. costus 0.17 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.03

F = Frequency; R.F = Relative Frequency; IVI = Importance Value Index; D* = Density

(Plants /m2)

However across the four grasslands, the differences are more evident with the most frequent P.

hexandrum recording the highest frequency at Matri (20.71%) and Minimarg (11.11%) while at

Patalwan and Viji, it is the second frequent species after F. roylei (20.00%) and P. kurroa

134

(14.85%) respectively (Table 7.5). These observations are significant as they reflect the relative

importance of each area for respective species. The abundance of the species behaved

differently and on an overall basis the highest density (1.72 Ind/ m2) is recorded for P. kurroa

while the highest frequent P. hexandrum has a density of 1.04 Ind/ m2. The least frequent S.

cuneata recorded the least abundance (0.03 Ind/ m2). However on an individual grassland, the

abundance of the species seem to follow a uniform trend with few exceptions and most

frequent species recorded the highest abundance and vice versa. Accordingly P. hexandrum

showed the highest density (1.44 Ind/ m2) at Matri, (1.24 Ind/ m

2) and (1.64 Ind/ m

2) at

Minimarg and Patalwan while at Viji P. kurroa (2.68 Ind/ m2) showed the highest abundance.

7.3.2.2) Habitat basis

On a comparative basis, moist rocky slopes represented the major habitat type of all the

surveyed species and across all the four grasslands, all the surveyed species occurred on this

habitat type. However, the variation in abundance and frequency across different habitats is

much evident and interesting to note is the observation that on same habitat type but at different

altitude, the abundance showed differences e.g. on open gentle slope, the density ranged

between 0.16 Ind / m2 to 2.04 Ind/ m

2 for P. hexandrum. Among other factors, this reflects the

role of the altitude in affecting the distribution of species. F. roylei showed the highest density

(8.68 Ind/ m2) on moist rocky slope while for P. kurroa rocky flatland (12.2 Ind/ m

2), flat

tablelands (9.84 Ind/ m2) and dry rock slope (9.68 Ind/ m

2) at higher altitudes are the

preferential habitats. Similar results are observed for other species which indicated that

although few species may be present on a variety of habitats but their population would be

confined more to a particular habitat.

135

7.3.2.3) Importance value index (IVI)

Importance value index of each species is calculated to measure the numerical strength and

assess its contribution to the overall community. On a percent basis, the contribution of species

together to the overall IVI is too small (2.64), which further specified the low availability of the

species across the habitats and emphasized their current status for the whole area. Further

between the species, the highest (0.87%) and lowest (0.03%) IVI recorded is for P. hexandrum

and S. costus respectively.

7.3.3 Altitudinal variation of species

Th densities of the surveyed species plotted against the altitudinal gradient are shown in Figure

7.1.

Figure 7.1 Change in densities of the assessed species along the altitudinal gradient.

AH= Aconitum heterophyllum, DH = Dactylorhiza hatagirea, FR= Fritillaria roylei, PH =

Podophyllum hexandrum, PK = Picrorhiza hatagirea, RW = Rheum webbianum, SC =

Saussurea costus.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

3100 3200 3300 3400 3500 3600 3700 3800 3900 4000 4100 4200 4300

Den

sity

(P

lan

ts /

m2)

Altitude (m)

AH DH FR PH

PK RW SC

136

As is evident the curves overlap highly in the lower altitudes while for the latter belts the

separation is quite clear with definite bell shaped structures. Species such as D. hatagirea is

confined particularly to the lower alpine zone (<3500 m.a.s.l), F. roylei extends further but for

the latter belts (> 3700 m.a.s.l) P. kurroa dominates exclusively. An important feature observed

is the uniform distribution and availability of P. hexandrum without any definite peaks along

the altitudinal profile. This highlights its ability to grow along the broad elevational gradient.

7.3.4 Diversity of the habitats

The values of the Shannon diversity index (H´) and evenness (E) as measured by Hurlbert‘s

index- PIE, indicated marked differences among the different habitats and ranged between 1.01

in narrow gorge to 2.76 in moist rocky slope for diversity (H´) and 0.36 to 0.87 in narrow gorge

and moist rocky slope for evenness (PIE) respectively. As a general feature, in habitat types

where the species diversity is lower, evenness is higher. On a lower scale of measurement

(0.25m2), the values also followed the same trend and the highest averaged diversity (H avg´=

1.55) us observed for the moist slopes while the narrow gorge is least diverse on the lower scale

also (H avg´= 0.76). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) reflected significant differences

between the diversity (F= 12.46, Fcric=1.83, P<0.01) and evenness (F= 12.26, Fcric=1.83,

P<0.01). On these basis, moist rocky slopes, flat tablelands and open gentle slopes are the best

habitat types where the species are relatively equal in abundance while narrow gorge, stable

meadows and shady slopes represented the habitat types where dominance is relatively higher,

which indicated uneven abundance and dominance of only few species in these habitat types

(Table 7.6).

137

Table 7.5 Phytosociological parameters of the assessed species at the four grasslands

Name of species Site name

Matri Viji Minimarg Patalwan

F D IVI F D IVI F D IVI F D IVI

A. heterophyllum -- -- -- 1.71 0.08 0.31 4.44 0.28 0.59 5.42 0.48 1.07

D. hatagirea 1.42 0.04 0.21 -- -- -- 2.22 0.12 0.28 0.57 0.04 0.11

F. roylei -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.76 0.36 0.71 20.00 1.08 4.02

P. kurroa. -- -- -- 14.85 2.68 5.02 2.22 1.20 0.68 -- -- --

P. hexandrum 20.71 1.44 3.64 2.28 0.16 0.45 11.11 1.24 2.19 16.57 1.64 3.91

R. webbianum 4.28 0.20 0.89 1.71 0.08 0.43 2.86 0.16 0.68 6.85 0.44 3.40

S. costus -- -- --- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.57 0.09 0.25

F = Frequency (%), D = Density ( Ind/m2 ), IVI = Importance Value Index.

138

Table 7.6 Diversity (H') and Evenness (PIE) of various habitat types across the grasslands.

S. No Habitat type Diversity (H') Evenness (PIE)

1 Shady slope (Moist) 2.21 0.79

2 Open slope 2.52 0.86

3 Moist slope 2.76 0.87

4 Flat tableland 2.18 0.77

5 Stable meadow 1.85 0.70

6 Dry shady slope 2.58 0.86

7 Moist meadow 2.53 0.85

8 Rocky flatland 2.26 0.81

9 Dry Rock Slope 2.17 0.77

10 Narrow gorge 1.01 0.36

11 Open grassy slope 2.44 0.85

7.3.5 Folklore uses of assessed species

Knowledge on habitat distribution, uses and mode of use of the surveyed plants is maintained

well within all the three ethenic tribes.Community elders and women folk have a good

knowledge of the habitat, life history features, regeneration and uses of medicinal plants that

they collect.The continued belief on traditional medicine besides the absence of alternative

modern medicine facilities at high altitudes have greatly affected their source of medicine. Data

collected through the questionnaires reflected the indeginious local uses (Table 7.1) and

reliance of these ethnic people on the surveyed medicinal plants (Table 7.7) .

Table 7.7 Categorization of the assessed taxa into different groups

*denotes the price which people get/Kg from the middlemen and thus does not reflect the

market price.

Sp

ecie

s

na

me

Ra

te i

n

ru

pees*

Consumption

Tra

de

va

lue

(ex

isti

ng

)

Na

ture o

f

tra

de

Mostly

household

Mostly

commercial

Both

A. heterophyllum 3000 + High Illegal

D. hatagirea 1250 + High Illegal

F. roylei 500-800 + High Illegal

P. kurroa 400-800 + Low Illegal

P. hexandrum 250-500 + Lowest Illegal

R. webbianum

S. costus

400-500

+

+

Low

High

Illegal

Illegal

139

Nearly all plant species are used to cure common ailments like cough, cold, headache, asthma,

fever, bronchitis, stomach pain by all three ethnic tribes while few species like D. hatagirea, S.

costus and A. heterophyllum are also used for other specific cases. The broad spectrum

medicinal applications of F. roylei are evident from its vernacular name (Sheetkar- meaning it

is useful for eighty different diseases). A comparative analysis of species indicates that A.

heterophyllum, D. hatagirea and P. kurroa and S. costus are among the prioritized medicinal

plants for these people in terms of their ethno medicinal properties and uses. These plants

having antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties have high market value, and

hence are species of choice among all the three communities. These plants are also used

frequently for their ethno veterinary applications by these tribes. Notable in this regard is R.

webbianum and P. kurroa which are used by all the three communities to cure different

diseases of their livestock. Specifically R. webbianum is used to cure cough, dysentery, eye

diseases, skin disease, constipation, mastitis, hoof diseases, internal injury and broken horn of

livestock by these communities while P. kurroa is used by Bakerwals and Gujjars mostly to

cure alimentary disorders, indigestion, tonsils and intestinal worms of livestock. Similarly P.

hexandrum and D. hatagirea are specifically used for treating cuts, wounds and bone fracture.

The degree of use varies greatly among the ethnic groups. While the Bakerwals and Gujjars use

the plants for both household and commercial purpose, the semi sedentary shepherds use them

mostly for their household consumption only. Furthermore the pattern of the collection also

differed between the communities. The womenfolk of Gujjars and Bakerwals continually

migrate with their men to these high altitude grasslands and collect and process these medicinal

plants. But in semi sedentary Chopan community such a division is lacking as their womenfolk

do not migrate.

140

7.3.6 Wild edibles

Twenty six plant species are reported from the surveyed grasslands that are used as wild

edibles. These species belong to 21 genera and 14 families, with Polygonaceae as the single

largest family with 7 species followed by Liliaceae (4 species) while a majority of the families

(n=11) were monotypic and represented by only a single species (Table 7.8). Notable among

such families are Podophyllaceae, Dipsacaceae, Violaceae, Malvaceae, Rosaceae,

Caryophyllaceae, Brassicaceae and Lamiaceae. Across the surveyed grasslands, the number of

the species differed greatly and the maximum (n= 21) were recorded at Minimarg followed

closely by Patalwan (n=20) while Matri (n=13) and Viji (n= 11) recorded the minimum. The

recorded species grow in varied habitats with Taraxacum officinale, Trifolium pratense and

species of Plantago occurring most frequently on the flat meadow surfaces while Frageria

nubicola, Malva neglecta, Rumex nepalensis and Polygonum aviculare being most conspicuous

in areas adjacent to the camping sites, human settlements and areas where animals are usually

kept for night stays (resting places). Additionally while few species like Oxyria digyna and

Lactuca lessertiana are more apparent on the shady slopes and under the canopies of trees like

Betula utilis and species of Pinus, others like Gagea elegans and Allium humile grow at

relatively higher elevations.

Between the communities, although the local names of the species varied greatly, only few

species shared the common names across all tribes (Table 7.9) yet the mode of use and the part

used are same; with flowers, leaves, fruits, young shoots and tubers being used mostly by all

the tribes. In species like Malva neglecta, Eremurus himalaicus, Polygonum aviculare, Rumex

nepalensis, Plantago himaliaca, Silene vulgaris and Taraxicum officinale, fresh and tender

leaves are collected washed and cooked fresh as vegetables. Species like Eremurus himalaicus,

141

Table 7.8 List of wild edible plants used by the pastorals at alpine grasslands of Bandipora,

Kashmir.

Name Part Used Uses

Allium humile Whole plant,

Bulbs

The whole plant is used in vegetable curry, either with other vegetables

or alone. It is also used in making achar- a spicy condiment.

A. carolinianum Whole plant.

Same as above.

Angellica glauca Roots Roots are used as spice and condiment on various occasions.

Capsella bursa

pastoris

Leaves and

aboveground parts

Young tender leaves and above ground parts are cooked and taken with

meals. Dried leaves are boiled before cooking.

Cucubalus baccifera Leaves Tender leaves are cooked and eaten with rice.

Dipsacus innermis Leaves Shade dried leaves are used as vegetable.

Eremurus

himalaicus

Leaves Tender leaves are cooked as vegetable.

Frageria nubicola Fully ripe

Fruit

Mostly young people take this wild strawberry and is said to be

delicious when ripe.

Gagea elegans Leaves and bulb Leaves are cooked as vegetables while the bulb is used as condiment.

Lactuca lessertiana Leaves While fresh leaves are eaten after boiling, older leaves are parboiled.

The leaves are very sour when young and are thus boiled to make them

less sour.

Malva neglecta Leaves and

young shoots

Cooked as vegetable and rarely taken as salads.

Oxyria digyna Leaves Leaves are taken both raw as well cooked as vegetables. Because of

high content Vitamin C it is sour, so before cooking it is washed few

times with hot water to make it less sour.

Plantago himaliaca Leaves Young tender leaves are cooked during early summer by Bakerwals.

P. major Leaves Young tender leaves are cooked during early summer by Bakerwals.

Podophyllum

hexandrum

Ripe Fruit When ripe children usually eat its fruit.

Polygonum alpinum Leaves and

Stem

Young leaves and tender reddish stem is cut into pieces, washed in hot

water few times to lower its acidity and then cooked.

P. aviculare Leaves Young leaves are cooked, frequently by the Gujjars.

P. plebjum Leaves Young leaves are cooked as vegetable.

Rheum webbianum Leaves, stalks Tender leaves and stalks are used in salads and chutney.

Rosa webbiana Fruits Fruits are eaten raw but many people do not prefer it because of its thin

flesh and hairy layer around its seeds.

Rumex acetosa Tender leaves

and stems

Raw leaves are sour, so requires washing with hot water before

cooking. Usually taken with the egg dishes.

R. nepalensis Leaves Young and tender leaves are cooked as vegetables in the early summer

months.

R. patientia Leaves Bakerwals use the plant in making chutney.

Taraxicum officinale Leaves Frequently available all over the places, it is cooked as vegetables.

Thymus linearis

Whole plant

After softening it by pounding on a stone slab, it is used in making

achar.

Trifolium pratense Leaves The tender leaves and young stem is cooked while in salads it is taken

rarely.

Viola biflora Flowers Flowers are edible while the elders use the soup as a substitute for tea.

tender leaves are collected, himalaicus which usually occupies the relatively flat and gentle

surfaces of lower elevations start growing early than many other associated species and the

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Table 7.9 Distribution, local names and frequency of use of wild edibles among the pastorals at the surveyed grasslands, Kashmir

S. No Name Frequency of Use Incidence Local Name

Bakerwals Chopan Gujjars Ma V Mi P Bakerwals Chopan Gujjars

1 Allium humile Fr F Fr -- -- + -- Wanpran Wangunda Wangunda

2 A. carolinianum Fr F Fr -- -- + + Wanpran Wangunda Wangunda

3 Angellica glauca F R F -- -- + Chora Frin Chora

4 Capsella bursa pastoris F R F -- -- + + NA Krale mund Krale mund

5 Cucubalus baccifer F R Fr -- + + + Makhan saag NA Makhansaag

6 Dipsacus innermis Fr F Fr -- -- + + Wopal hak Wopal hak Wopal hak

7 Eremurus himalaicus Fr F Fr + -- + + Vilket Vilket Vilket

8 Frageria nubicola Fr F F + + + + Bout meewa Chhaunch Bout meewa

9 Gagea elegans Fr F Fr -- -- -- + Dudal NA Palyari

10 Lactuca lessertiana F R F -- + + + Dudal Jangli palak Dudal

11 Malva neglecta Fr Fr Fr + -- + + Sotchal Sotchal Sotchal

12 Oxyria digyna F R Fr -- + + + Chooka hak Chooka hak Khata Ooli

13 Plantago himaliaca R R R + + + + Isbhagol Gula Isbhagol

14 P. major R R R + + + + Isbhagol Gula Isbhagol

15 Podophyllum hexandrum F R F + + + + Bankakri Wanwangun Khakri

16 Polygonum alpinum Fr R F + -- + + Masloon Chok addur Masloon

17 P. aviculare F R Fr + + -- + Drouba Drouba Drouba

18 P. plebjum Fr R Fr + -- -- -- Drouba Drouba Drouba

19 Rheum webbianum Fr F Fr + + + + Chatyal Pambhaak Chatyal

20 Rosa webbiana Fr R F -- + + + Jangli gulab Bichir Chhaunch

21 Rumex acetosa Fr R F -- + + + Gordi Jangli abbij Gordi

22 R. nepalensis F R F + + + + Oola Abbij Abbij

23 R. patientia Fr R Fr -- + + + Gordi Jangli abij Gordi

24 Taraxicum officinale Fr F Fr + + + + Hannd Hannd Hannd

25 Thymus linearis F R F + + + + Jawaind Ujwain Jawaind

26 Trifolium pratense F R F -- + + + Tridipater Batakhnuur Batakhnuur

27 Viola biflora F R F + + + + Bunafsha Bunafsha Bunafsha

Note: Fr, Frequent; F, Fair; R, Rare; + indicates presence; Ma, Matri; V, Vijji; Mi, Minimarg; P, Patalwan; NA, Not available.

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leaves must be tender to be used as vegetables. The edible form of such species remains

available for only short duration and therefore is consumed immediately after the nomads camp

in these areas. Similarly at higher altitudes, immediately after the snow melts especially on the

flatter surfaces, the bulbs and tender stems of the species of Allium are collected and used as

vegetables. The women usually move in groups to these higher altitudes and collect these

species well before these are lost to the grazers. This reflects the liveliness of their traditional

knowledge about the growing season and availability of a particular species. While in species

like Dipsacus innermis and Rheum webbianum, the leaves are dried before cooking, few other

species like Oxyria digyna and Lactuca lessertiana require few washings with hot water to

make them less sour. Still other species viz. Angelica glauca, Thymus linearis and Allium spps

are used mostly as secondary condiments to dishes prepared for domesticated cultivars while

for few species like Podophyllum hexandrum, Rosa webbiana and Frageria nubicola only the

fruit is consumed mostly by children.

7.4 Discussion and conservation implications

Considering that IVI provides an excellent marker for understanding the distribution status and

availability across varying environmental and biotic conditions (Negi et al., 1992; Ram and

Arya 1991), this chapter has described the distribution pattern and the current conservation

status of threatened medicinal plants from hitherto unknown grasslands of Bandipora, Kashmir.

Relative values of the assessed species were tabulated and compared (Table 7.4 and 7.5) and

based on this, it is found that P. hexandrum is widely distributed in different habitat types, P.

kurroa and R. webbianum are heavily localized while F. roylei and D. hatagirea have low

distribution and density. The high frequency of P. hexandrum stems from its ability to grow in

varied habitat types and complete the life cycle. In addition, it‘s relatively lesser use and fruit

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being the part used frequently also adds to its high frequency and density. However, the other

species are highly localized and prone to grazing and trampling besides the part used being

rhizomes and tubers which require destructive harvesting. All these factors add to their low

density and availability, which is well reflected from results.

Species frequency and density are efficient ways to reveal the distribution and strength of any

species in a landscape (Alhamad, 2006). Comparing these features with similar studies

conducted outside Kashmir valley, it is evident that the obtained values on density and

distribution are low (Table 7.10).

Table 7.10 Comparative account of population status (density/sq m) of studied species in

different Himalayan regions

Species Present

Study

Trans

Himalaya*

Upper Gori

Valley†

Garhwal

Himalaya€

Kumaon

Himalaya€

A. heterophyllum 0.24 - - - 1.4

D. hatagirea 0.04 16.3 0.47 0.5 -

F. roylei 0.72 - - - -

P. kurroa 1.72 0.71 3.89 3.9 -

P. hexandrum 1.04 2.5 0.19 0.2 -

R. webbianum

S. costus

0.21

0.03

3.0

2.0

-

-

-

-

-

-

Source: *Kala, CP 2000, 2005; †Uniyal et al., 2002; €Nautiyal et al., 2002. (-) indicates non

availability of the data.

As no scientific reporting from the area has been done and there is no historical data on the

distribution of the assessed species from the upper reaches of the district which historically

have been used for grazing, it appears that the sampled species are the remnants of a previously

large population which over the years have narrowed in their distribution due to a multitude of

factors, many of which have gone unnoticed. Although not all the assessed species are

preferred by the animals but since the area is visited mostly by the goat and sheep (personal

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observations) which are both non-selective in foraging (Chandrashekhar et al., 2007), it adds to

the damage.

Trampling is the other damaging factor which seems to have affected these species enormously

in open areas and squeezed their distribution. In other Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), earlier

studies (Nautiyal et al., 1997, Pandey et al., 2000) have also reported grazing, trampling, biotic

interference and low seed viability to be responsible for the diminishing population of these

species. The currently presented results also highlighted the low availability (population size)

and habitat specificity of these species in the wild. This has important conservation

implications as the species with specific habitat requirements are at greater risk than the species

with broad habitat range (Samant et al., 1996) besides a minimum population size is required

for the long term viability of rare and endangered species (Cunningham and Saigo, 1999).

The valley of Kashmir is very diverse in containing an assortment of various ethnic groups like

Gaddis, Gujjars, Bakerwals, Paharis, Hanjis, Dards and Chopans among others which make

their daily requirements by utilizing available bio-resources of the region and have their own

folk system of medicine for health care (Singh et al., 2000). The communities included in the

present study are traditionally rural in nature. These people seasonally migrate to the higher

alpine areas to graze their livestock and have learned and practiced the medicinal usage of

plants that grow in their proximity since ages (Khuroo et al., 2007). The possession of the

marvelous customary knowledge of these plants, their distribution and the traditional uses is

also evident from the information collected through the questionnaire survey and group

discussion. People use medicinal plants for both self medications, for preventive, promotive

and curative applications. However to represent the best range of the ethnomedicinal use of

various high altitude species, more efforts need to be put in conducting a comprehensive

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ethnobotanical survey of the whole area particularly Gurez valley with due attention paid

towards studying the conservation status of the important and rare medicinal herbs.

The documentation of twenty six wild edible plant species across the surveyed grassland sites

highlights the food habits of the three ethnic rural tribes. Historically, at Kashmir valley, wild

plants have always played a crucial role in meeting nutritional needs in general and in remote

rural areas in particular. Koul et al., (1982) reported the use of 20 plants collected from the

region, including Coronopus didymus L., Eremurus persicus Boiss, and species of Gagea,

Lactuca, Silene and Ranunculus that are used as vegetables. The use of Taraxacum, Dipsacus

and Plantago species is still common in Kashmir (Dhar and Sarin 1995). Except for Matri,

where the availability of food items is much easy owing to its location close to the district

headquarters, for the other three grasslands the only route to get the food and other eatables is

the Gurez valley. However at the valley the agriculture is mostly primitive and traditional and

practiced mostly on forest clearings and other cultivable land to raise few cereal crops like

millet (Setaria italiaca L., P. Beauv.), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench), maize

(Zea mays L.) and barely (Hordeum vulgare L.) and few vegetables like potato (Solanum

tubersum L.), Pea (Pisum sativum L. var. arvense L.) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) (Ara

and Naqshi, 2003). But due to less availability of arable land and the climatic constraints, these

cannot be grown year- round and hence the availability of food and cultivation of crops is

usually low. At higher altitudes because of the high inaccessibility, limited access to market

places, harsh climatic vagaries and short growing season, the availability shrinks further and

consequently these transhumant communities, which harbor huge traditional and indigenous

knowledge, have made use of large number of different species at such places to supplement

their diet.

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The growth form analysis of the reported species showed that herbs make up most of the wild

diet of these communities with few small shrubs like Rosa webbiana and E. himalaicus being

the other minor contributors. These results are in agreement with Rashid et al., 2008 who while

studying the wild edible plants of Gujjars at Rajouri Kashmir also reported herbs as the single

largest life form of wild diet of Gujjars. Depending on the frequency of use of the particular

species by the communities, plants were categorized into three categories viz. frequent, fair and

rare, in a decreasing order of their usage. The frequency of use of these plants varied

significantly across the three tribes. While Bakerwals and Gujjars are frequently using these

plants in numerous ways (Table 7.7 and 7.8), the Chopans use them only occasionally. In fact

some of the plants which are of frequent use by both Bakerwals and Gujjars like P. plebjum, R.

nepalensis and S. vulgaris are rarely used by the Chopans. Traditionally in alpine grasslands of

Kashmir while the men take the livestock to the pastures for grazing, it is the women folk (Plate

12) who usually collect these plants and after necessary preparations cook them for the family

(Ara and Naqshi, 1992; Rashid et al., 2008). Thus the low use of these plants by Chopans can

be both due to their semi sedentary life style as well as absence of women folk who do not

accompany their men folk to these high alpine pasturelands. In addition it can also be because

of the differing work nature of the three communities. Unlike the Gujjars and Bakerwals who

mostly have their own flocks, Chopans are different. These people are largely settled

pastoralists, do farming down at the plains and visit the alpine pasturelands not only to raise

their own flocks but are also entrusted by the farmers living in the plains to graze their

livestock at these places and are being paid for it in cash as well as kind. An important

component of this kind is the food items, which these people use at these grasslands and thus

do not rely much on collecting the plants from wild or using them as edibles. As a result the

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traditional knowledge of the community is currently threatened by this loss of

traditional/cultural systems. Additionally the younger generation also treats the folklore

knowledge as primitive and incompatible with the contemporary societal ideas and

consequently, the older generation, which harbours this wealth of the knowledge, is unable to

pass on this invaluable legacy. This subtle change reflects the inconceivable effects of their

sedentarization and will bear a long-term upshot on the maintenance and continuation of the

indigenous knowledge to subsequent generations which will greatly affect the way these plants

are used and managed by these communities.

Moreover, the frequency is relatively independent of the availability of the species and

depended mostly on the food habits of the communities, e.g. both P. himaliaca and P. major

are quite common on these surveyed grasslands but only rarely did any community uses them.

These species are used mostly by the elder Bakerwals, who during the initial stay of the

summer camping collect their tender leaves in their surroundings and cook them. On the other

hand some other plants, far less common and restricted to particular elevation belts and zones

have relatively higher food value. These species are collected with fervor and include A.

humile, A. carolianum, and C. baccifer among others. This high preference for few species

suggests the broad scope for the nutritional profiles and phytochemical investigations of these

species.

On the basis of the present investigation through which the localized distribution and low

availability of assessed medicinal species across these grasslands is inferred, it is not possible

to extrapolate the findings to the whole area and draw any causal relationship between their low

availability and the historical use of the grasslands. But given various impediments to the

conservation of these threatened medicinal plants and limited efforts put by the government,

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local institutions and little scientific reporting done by the academicians, there is an urgent need

for an effective and long term biodiversity conservation programme for these high altitude

ecosystems. In this direction it is proposed that the elucidated information can be utilized in

establishing potential habitats for the long-term conservation of the assessed species and

formulating a conservation strategy for these high altitude ecosystems. Additionally the species

with a very low density and population size like D. hatagirea and A. heterophyllum demand

immediate attention. Steps that ensure the protection of wild populations without adversely

affecting the lifestyle and livelihood pattern of these communities and promoting cultivation of

these species for commercial purposes are two important steps advocated for the long-term

sustenance of these medicinal plants in these ecosystems.

Young leaves of Eremurus himalaicus used as wild vegetable.

PLATE 12

An elderly Bakerwl woman collecting edible plants from wild.