chapter iii ecotourism in periyar tiger...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER III
ECOTOURISM IN PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE - A MICROSCOPIC
OVERVIEW
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3.0. INTRODUCTION
The Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR) is one of the well-known protected areas (PA)
for its rich biodiversity and it is a major constituent of the Western Ghats of India. It is
located on the mountains range of peninsular India in the Southern Western Ghats. The
Reserve falls in the 5-B Zone of the Western Ghats. Scenic beauty, religious and cultural
heritage and the rich assemblage of flora and fauna along with the perennial river Periyar
has become a perfect site for the nature lovers. As the PTR is one of the ecotourism sites
in Kerala with abundance scope for studying, admiring and enjoying the natural
habitations, cultural attractions and human life, visitors throng to the site for the purpose
of wildlife sighting during their boat trips in the buffer zone and during their
participations in the various community-based ecotourism programmes.
While conducting the empirical study of this nature, the secondary data are
immensely useful in substantiating the analysis of primary data. All those data are
presented in minute details of the PTR as a protected area as well as an ecotourism site.
Data pertaining to the wildlife population, tourist arrivals, revenue receipts, facilities, etc
have adequately portrayed the insights of PTR as an ideal ecotourism destination along
with commitment for community participation through empowerment and visitor
satisfactions through the direct interactions with the nature and people under the various
ecotourism programmes. The present chapter is relevant from the perspectives of
understanding the core ecotourism strengths and weaknesses with regard to the visitor
satisfaction and community empowerment in the PTR.
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3.1. GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF PTR
The catchment areas form the major portion of the reserve and the area is formed
by the catchment of the river Pamba. The total areas of the reserve spread over 925 sq km
consisting of Core, Tourism and Buffer zones, including ecological, eco-development
and management zone respectively. Presently, it is the biggest wildlife sanctuary in
Kerala. Annexture IV shows the Core, Buffer and Tourism Zone in the PTR. The PTR
with an extent of 881 sq km of core critical tiger habitat areas has become a model of
participatory biodiversity conservation. The fringe areas of communities of PTR act as a
social fence around the park. Annexure III exhibits the map depicting the total reserved
forest areas of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
3.1.1. Location and Boundaries
Lying between the Latitude - from 90-18’- 00 N To 90-41’-00 N Longitude - from
760-55’- 00 E to 770-25’- 00 E, the PTR falls administratively in the district of Idukki and
Pathanamthitta of Kerala. The Forest Division of Theni Srivilliputhur Grizzled Giant
Squirrel Sanctuary and Tirunelvely abutting the Tiger Reserve on the State of Tamil
Nadu. The PTR shares the common border with the three districts of Tamil Nadu such as
Theni, Ramnad and Thirunelvelli. On the Kerala side, it is bordered on the South by the
Ranni Division falling in district of Pathanamthitta and on the west by Kottayam Division
located between the Kottayam and Idukki district. For most parts of area, the Reserve is
surrounded by the forest of neighboring divisions. Large estates and uninhabited private
lands and small portions of the interconnected boundary in Theni Forest Division are
encircled by the Reserve. Only a few settlements in Ranni Division lie on the boundary,
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but a number of habitations and large estates in Kottayam Division fall along the Western
boundary of the Tiger Reserve.
The internal boundaries include Pathanamthitta-Idukki district boundary and the
boundaries of important lease areas like Periyar Lake, Sabarimala and (KTDC). The three
tribal colonies and Pamba valley food production areas are adjoined technically inside the
PTR for all the practical purposes.
3.1.2. Topography
Around the Periyar Lake, the terrain undulates with the chain of rolling hills and
forested valleys, extending towards the west into a conspicuous and extensive tableland
known as the Mount Plateau at an average elevation of about 1200 m. From the edge of
the plateaus, the land falls steeply to the forested tracts of the Sabarimala Hills in the
Pamba river basin. One of the northern sides of the lake, the hills rise up to the state
boundary and fall sharply in to the Kamban valley, excepting along the northeast
boundary flanking the cultivated parts of the Cardamom hills in the northeast. The area is
narrowly linked with the highways offshoot of Theni division. From the highways, the
hill ridge arches around the head of the Varushanadu Valley to meet the Kottamala 2019
m highest peak. The South of Kottamala all along the eastern boundary, the densely
forested slopes rise gradually up to the border ending up in a Saw Tooth like the
formation of peaks and passes dropping abruptly towards the palm of Tamil Nadu.
A high ridge with prominent peaks separates the upper catchments of the river
Pamba. The lowest is 100 m at Pampa valley that is the confluence of Pampa and Azutha
River. However, most of the areas lie between 750 m and 1500 m. Towards the east, the
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terrain is very steep at the adjoining area of the state boundary. There are some well-
known mountain peaks such as Vellimala (2016), Chokkampattimala (1801), Kallimala
(1637), Sundaramala (1808), Pachimala (1800), Nagamala (1733), Kottamala (2019m)
and Komala (1641m). Annexture IX is presented in a table showing three different
altitudes of terrains in the PTR.
3.1.3. Geomorphology
Rocks are Crystalline and Plutonic origin. The underlying rock formation consists
mainly of granites and gneisses. Numerous boulders are found in the ground particularly
in the stream beds and stream banks. Laterite stones are largely deposited at the lower
reaches of the reserve. In higher altitude, the soil is coursed with large amount of quartz
gravel formed from crystalline rock and the soil is acidic.
3.1.4. Climate
The PTR has a cool and humid climate with comparatively high rainfall. In almost
all the months excepting the months of December and January, it receives a few showers
from the southwest and northeast monsoon with a maximum rainfall in July and a
minimum in January. The average rainfall is 2500 mm annually and the temperature
varies from 150 C to 310C with April and May being the hottest and December and
January the coolest months respectively. Generally, the period from December to April is
considered to be the dry season. The average humidity varies between 60 per cent and 85
per cent round the year and the lowest prevails during the month of February–May. Air is
calm with an average wind velocity of 5 km an hour and the wind velocity is stronger on
higher elevations.
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3.1.5. River Basins
The Sanctuary has two river basins such as the Mullayar and the Periyar with its
numerous perennial and seasonal tributaries. It is the River Pamba on the southern side of
the reserve and the River Periyar is originated from Chokkampatti-Kottamalai at
Sivagirimettu and Mullayar from Kottamalai. These two rivers join together had formed
Mullaperiyar Dam in 1895 and it resulted in the formation of the Lake spreading over
about 26 sq km. The maximum depth of water at the maximum water level is 46 m and
the minimum depth is 32 m. The lake has spread extensively to the valleys between hills
catering to the need of the large area. Around the lake, the elevation is about 950 m and
most of the tributaries are not named. However, some of the them are named as
Inchipparathode, Vazhukkapparathode, Churakkottathode and Mullathode.
3.2. VALUES OF THE RESERVE
The PTR is known for its unique natural biodiversity and is a major constituent
ecosystem of the Western Ghats. As such, the climatic conditions of Kerala are largely
influenced by the ecological diversities comprising the largest predator Royal Bengal
Tiger apart from the other species in the food chain of the Reserve.
3.2.1 Ecological Values
The PTR forms one of the single largest compact forest blocks in the Southern
Western Ghats. The Reserve plays a key role in maintaining regional connectivity with
other forest tracts. The adjacent stretch of evergreen forest of the Tiger Reserve along
with the bordering forest area creates one of the 18 biodiversity hotspots of the country.
The neighboring forest areas of Theni division are proposed to be declared as
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Meghamalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Srivilliputhur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary and
Tirunelveli Division in Tamil Nadu. Moreover, the Kottayam and Ranni Forest Division
in Kerala spread over an area of evergreen forest in the entire Western Ghats.
At a landscape level, the Periyar Conservation Unit is extended up to the
Shengotta Gap and it has tenuous linkages with the Agasthyamalai Conservation unit
comprising Palakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu and Neyyar, Peppara
and Shendurany Sanctuaries in Kerala. This forest supports the population of species
such as Tiger, Sloth Bear, Elephant, Gaur, Lion Tailed Macaque, Great Indian Horn Bill,
etc. It is a major repository of rare endangered and endemic species of flora and fauna
representing the Periyar region. These vast stretches of forest are specially noted for high
rate of endemism and are home for species of flora and fauna inhabited in the larger
region.
3.3. ECONOMIC VALUES
Apart from being known for its ecological and environmental values, the
economic values of the Reserve are assessed by the authorities of the PTR. Tourism,
Agriculture, Fishing, etc are taken as the key determinants of the PTR in the recent years.
Besides its traditional values of providing water for drinking and irrigation and forest for
the timber, ecotourism has been given due impetus to earn revenue for the meeting the
needs of the surrounding local people and conservation of forest and wildlife.
3.3.1. Nature-based Tourism Activities
The PTR is a world-famous tourism destination for wildlife and soft adventure
activities. Apart from providing sizeable revenue to the state government, the livelihood
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of hundreds of local people is also linked to the inflow of revenues from tourism. The
number of tourists visiting the PTR has been increasing year after year. For instance,
tourist arrivals were reported to be 4.80 lakh during 2010 that was followed by the entry
of 35, 000 tourist vehicles in to the buffer zone. At the same time, boating and
community-based ecotourism activities have become the main sources of generating
revenue for the Forest Department. On the other hand, giving employment opportunity to
the local community in the periphery of the park, the KTDC is running three luxury
hotels, namely the Periyar House, the Aranya Niwas and the Lake Palace inside the Tiger
Reserve. The Lake Palace is situated inside the Tiger Reserve at Edapalayam.
3.3.2. Catchment Values
Three major rivers such as the Periyar, the Pamba and the Azhutha are originated
from the forest tracts of the PTR and form the lifeline for millions of people of Kerala
and Tamil Nadu. Apart from its ecological significance, the unique aquatic system of the
Periyar Lake spreading over an area about 26 sq km is an important water source to
Tamil Nadu for irrigation, drinking and power generation purposes. About 68,000
hectares of land in Theni, Madurai, Ramanad and Dindugal districts are irrigated from the
water of the Periyar Lake.
3.3.3. Subsistence Values
Both the primitive tribes and countryside population, who live in the fringes of the
sanctuary, depend directly and indirectly on the forest for fuel, wood, thatching grass and
Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP). It is estimated that about 20,000/ 30,000 people are
used to make a living on these traditional resources. As a result, their dependencies have
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come down drastically through the implementation of India Ecotourism Development
Project (IEDP) over the last five years.
3.4. CULTURAL VALUES
Cultural values have formed one of the inseparable values for the people of the
PTR areas. People of the area take pride of the inhabitants of the PTR and the nature has
been a boon for the people to live happily and the abode of the Lord Sri Ayyappa is truly
the guardian deity of the area. The annual religious congregations have made the Periyar
region very special for the devotees to realize the importance of cultural values.
3.4.1 Sabarimala Pilgrimage
Sri Ayyappa shrine at Sabarimala, one of the most important pilgrimage sites in
South India, is located in the Southern part of PTR at an elevation of 461m. It is
surrounded by the low altitude evergreen forest. The temple is opened for worship for
only 41 days during the mid-November to mid-January and the first five days of every
Malayalam month and special occasion like Vishu and Onam. Around four million
pilgrims from various parts of India more particularly from Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh visit Sabarimala during the season.
The ecological sanctity of the area was totally affected by the high density
pilgrimage and the Forest Department seldom controls over the pilgrimage activities.
The major hazards caused by the movements of pilgrims include the collection of
firewood from the forest, cutting the poles for the temporary construction of sheds,
littering the biodegradable plastic wastes, noise pollution by chanting the religious
slogans, creating trekking tacks through trampling resulting in soil erosion, lighting at
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night during trekking to the temple, temporary camps and halting places. Involvements of
31 EDCs, which generally cater the food and drinking water to the pilgrims at the
reasonable rates along with two or three traditional trekking routes to the holy shrine as
the basic needs of pilgrims, have taken certain preventing measures to curb the
unregulated pilgrimage activities.
3.4.2. Archaeological Values
The Mangaladevi Kannagi temple is located on the Northern boundary of the
PTR. The temple was demolished by Hyder Ali in 1770 in a war with Poonjar kingdom.
After the end of war, the area captured by Hyder Ali was returned by an agreement in
1772, but the temple was not reconstructed. Thousands of pilgrims from both Tamil Nadu
and Kerala visit Managaladevi temple for worshipping Kannagi on the occasion of Chitra
Pournami. The area is known for high altitude grasslands and Montane forest, Nilgiri
Thar (Hemitragus bylocrius) and an endemic orchid (Habenaria Periyarensis).
Innumerable numbers of local devotees throng to offer their traditional rituals and prayers
at the ruined archeologically important Managaladevi harbor in one of the auspicious
days in a year that falls on the day of ‘Chitra pournami’ (full moon day on the month of
Chitra).The heavy inflow of worshippers in a single day largely cause irreparable damage
to the fragile ecosystem due to the entry of vehicles, urinations, dumping of plastics and
wastes, trampling by tourists, eatery places, etc.
3.4.3. Human Ecological Values
About five tribal groups, who inhabit within and on the periphery of the reserve,
show the inseparable eco-cultural associations with the forest of Periyar. It is in fact the
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first experiment in Kerala, where destroyers of forests (Primitive Tribes) have been
transformed to the creator and preserver of forests. Nevertheless, the PTR is one of the
seven IEDP sites in India. The reserve with its rich flora and fauna along with diverse
habitats and varied socio-cultural heritage on the fringes offers unique opportunities for
research, education and interpretation.
3.4.4. Aesthetic Values
Because of its scenic splendor, the PTR is a popular destination for the tourists
and nature lovers. The high altitude grassland spotted with shoals give the nature lovers a
unique feast with all its beauty and charm. The panoramic scenery of the undulating
mountain interspersed with fast-flowing streams and green meadows along with
salubrious environment attract the peace seekers and nature enthusiasts from all over the
world.
3.5. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The PTR has a long history of protecting the forest and wildlife for the game
safari and the wildlife hunting indulged by the royal family members. There are many
historical events starting from the construction of the Mullaperiyar Dam in 1895 to the
addition of 148 km areas into the PTR from Goodrical Range of Ranni Division in 2007.
These entire historical events connected to the PTR are divided into the early and later
period.
3.5.1. Early Period
From the records of the annals of history of the Poonjar palace, the identification
of the area as a unique place for biodiversity may be dated back to 1100 A.D when the
Madurai kings (two brothers) owned the area after having defeated the local king
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Kulathungancholan. The areas under Thekkady, including Mangaladevi were under the
control of the elder brother. Sundarapandian, who settled at Gudallur and Periyakulam in
1180 A.D simultaneously and purchased the Poonjar along with Munnar. Subsequently,
Poonjar was made as the main province or center for administration. The area comprises
the whole of high ranges lying between Athirapally in the North, Manimala in the South,
Poonjar and Thodupuzha in the West and Dindugal and Theni in the East. It includes
Kodaikanal and the whole of Uthama Palayam high ranges (except the high ranges of
Thodupuzha) and the eastern part of Meenachil Taluk.
The area extends up to Athirappally, including Anamalai and south up to
Sabarimala in the south. The Managaladevi temple, which is located inside the sanctuary,
was demolished by Hyder Ali in 1770 in a war against the kings of Poonjar. The Poonjar
Kings later surrendered their lands to the kings of Travancore in three phases.
Mannans, Uralis, Paliyans, Malarayns and Malampandarams are the main
primitive tribes and settled themselves in the forest. They lived on the shifting cultivation
in a small scale and they used to collect fish, honey and tubers from the forest as other
primary sources of their livelihoods. These tribal groups lived near Poovarasu, Tanikudi,
Mlappara, Navikkayam, Ummikuppan, Vanchivayal, Pampa valley and Moozhikal
(Bourdillon 1893). However, the tribes continued the shifting cultivation extensively that
caused massive damage to the ecology in the subsequent time. They used to visit the
Poonjar Palace in every 10th of Medam month; and carry some crops, honey, tusk, etc as
the token of love and respect towards the local kings. Traditional tribal dances were also
performed by the tribes on the same occasion. These tribes also got engaged in the
merrymaking while celebrating the traditional festivals.
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Hunting was considered as a matter of royal traditions and customs and the kings
were proud of hunting the predators like tiger and leopard. For facilitating the game
safari, the kings used to camp in the forest for 2-3 weeks with all basic services. Though
hunting was meant for seeking individual pleasure and deliberate interests, but efforts
were put in for securing tusk and tiger skin for use of paricha and sword. However, there
was no record of cutting the trees for the commercial purposes. In addition, soap bark
and “maravuries” were extracted occasionally for meeting the greedy personal needs as a
form of status symbol.
3.5.2. Later Period
The Periyar Lake was formed in the year 1895. It was constructed between 1887
and 1895 by the British Government to divert water eastwards to the Madras Presidency
area (present-day Tamil Nadu). It was the largest river in the erstwhile Travancore State
for channeling its waters to irrigate the dry areas in the plains of Tamil Nadu (the then
Madras Presidency under the British Colonial Administration). A lease agreement was
signed to this effect between the two governments for a period of 999 years. The forest
around Periyar Lake having an area of 600 sq km was only a part of the present
sanctuary and it was declared as Periyar Lake Reserve as per No. 39 under Section 18 of
Travancore Regulation Act 1068 in 1899. Having realized the importance of game
preservation, the then Travancore State in 1933 appointed Mr S.C.H.Robinson, a retired
Land Commissioner, as the Game Warden to undertake a feasibility study for
preservation of forest and faunal species. On his recommendation, an area around the
lake was declared as Nellikkampetti Sanctuary in 1934 with the headquarters at
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Peermedu. In 1936, the project for the spotted deer was introduced, but it ended up in an
utter failure.
The Sanctuary became a hunting enclave of the Travancore state and the Lake
Palace was built at Edapalayam for accommodating the Maharaja (King) and his guests
during the animal hunting activities. In 1940, an independent game department was
created to facilitate the game-related activities in the sanctuary. The game management
practices that were carried out in the early years continued even after the independence.
In 1950, the Nelikkampatti Sanctuary was expanded to the Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary
(777sq km) by adding the adjoining forest areas of Rattendon valley (12.95 sq km) and
Mount Plateau (163.17 sq km) to the Periyar Lake Reserve (600.88 sq km). The
headquarters were shifted to Thekkady in 1965. As an effect, the Game Department was
merged with the Forest Department in 1966. The Sanctuary was included in the Project
Tiger in 1978 as the 10th Tiger Reserve in India. In 1982, the first notification was issued
to declare the core area (350 sq km) as a National Park. The Tiger Reserve was also
placed under the Project Elephant in 1991. During 1996, the focus of management got
shifted to biodiversity conservation with people’s participation in the implementation of
IEDP.
The first Prime Minister of Independent India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was
attracted with the rich biodiversity and scenic beauty and visited the Sanctuary in 1950.
The Aranya Niwas Hotel was constructed as per the direction of Pandit Nehru for the
creation of provision of facilities to the visitors for which the hotel Lake Palace was
handed over to the KTDC to better professionally manage the unique property.
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Subsequently, some lands were leased out to the KTDC for carrying out the responsible
tourism activities within the sanctuary.
Reorganization of the PTR as Periyar East and Periyar West was done in
2001.Shifting of the tribal population (except the nomadic Malapandaram) from the core
areas of Sanctuary to the periphery started during 1930s and it was over by 1984 when
lease rights of the Mannans got expired. Ummikuppan cardamom leases of planters in the
interior areas around Mlappara also continued until 1984.
Meanwhile, the PTR has become a very popular destination for attracting lakh of
tourists from different corners of the world. Due to the unprecedented demand for the
production of forestry products in 1996, a functional division namely the Grassland
Afforestation Division(GLAD) was formed with a large stretches of grasslands available
inside (48.77 sq km) and outside (19.72 sq km). The PTR They were planted with
eucalyptus available inside (48.77sq km) and outside (19.72 sq km). Plantation of the
eucalyptus trees continued under the Grass Land Afforesting Development Programme
(GLADP) till 1967 to ensure the availability of the supply of raw materials to Hindustan
News Print Limited.
Overlapping the conservation measures of the Project Tiger, the extraction of the
plantations started from 1980 onwards. Many of the field areas were restocked from 1980
to 1985. Further, the wing of the Forest Department also planted up in some of the areas.
Further, the forest roads of about 159 km were laid as a part of extraction work.
Meanwhile, the higher level expert committee on the forest policy and management in
Kerala was formed in 1987 to recommend for a ban on Eucalyptus planting in wildlife
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sanctuaries. Finally, the Honorable Supreme Court of India banned all sorts of extraction
works from sanctuaries and national parks in 1996, which necessitated a separate
management plan for the GLADP for the extraction of Eucalyptus. Subsequently, all
forms of extraction were stopped as per another order of the Supreme Court in 1999.
The Sabarimala Temple situated on the southern part of the park attracted only a
few thousand pilgrims during 18th century. The numbers of pilgrims visiting the holy
temple have been increased tremendously over the last several years, especially after the
sixties when all the motorable roads were opened in connection with the Moozhiyar
Power Project in the neighboring Ranni Division during the peak pilgrim season. An area
of 60 acres at Sannidhanam and 10 acres at Pampa was leased to TDB (Travancore
Devasome Board) during 1962. As a result, large scale constructions were made in the
leased area during 80s and 90s. The number of pilgrims visited the shrine annually is 50
lakh and the pressure as a result of large inflow of Sabarimala devotees and their
pilgrimage activities has caused the maximum threats to the biodiversity of Periyar
region.
Towards the southwest region, there were cultivations by the local inhabitants
due to the announcement of food policy adopted by the government during the Post-
Independence period that resulted in the encroachment of forest lands for sustaining
their livelihoods. In 1962, an area of 460.50 Ha of land inside the sanctuary at Pampa
valley was allotted to 692 families. Subsequently, the encroachment also took place and
efforts to relocate the settlers were stopped by government in 1968 as per the Official
Order for legalizing the occupations. The number of families has so far grown to about
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1000 in an area of 502 Ha. Table 3.1 depicts the landmark years of historical events in the
PTR.
Table 3.I
Historical Events
Year Landmark Years
1895 Construction of the Mullaperiyar Dam
1899 Formation of the Periyar Lake Reserve
1933 Appointment of S.C.H. Robinson as the first Game warden.
1934 Formation of Nellikkampatty Game Sanctuary
1950 Consolidation of Periyar as a Wildlife sanctuary
1978 Declaration of Periyar as a Tiger Reserve
1982 Preliminary Notification of the core area as a National Park
1991 Status of the Project Elephant
1996 Establishment of India Eco-Development Project
2001 Re-organization of Two Divisions: Periyar East and Periyar West
2004 Formation of Periyar Foundation
2007 Addition of 148 sq km from Goodrical Range of Ranni Division
Source: Official Records, Rajiv Gandhi Interpretation Center, Department of Forest & Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Thekkady
3.6. ADMINISTRATIVE AND TOPOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND
Administratively, the PTR falls into Idukki and Pathanamthitta Dist of Kerala.
Periyar is divided into two divisions: Periyar East with three ranges under it Periyar (376
sq km), Thekkady (99 sq km) and Vallakadavu Range (143 sq km) and Periyar West with
two ranges under it Azutha Range (68 sq km) and Pampa (91 sq km). The Periyar Lake
Reserve, Mountain Plateau (163.17 sq km) and Rattenden Valley (12.95 sq km).
Annexture X is presented in a table showing the names of various protected areas in
Kerala.
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The PTR is divided into two territorial divisions: Periyar West and Periyar East
with the headquarters at Thekkady and Peermede respectively. The Periyar West Division
is divided into two ranges: the Azutha Range and the Pampa Range. Further, the Azutha
Range is divided into five sections such as Pampa Valley, Puthserry, Karimala,
Sabarimala and Pachakanam. Annexture VII presents the map of Thekkady town as it is
the gateway to the PTR.
3.6.1. PTR East Division
The Periyar East Division is divided into three ranges such as Periyar,
Vallakadavu and Thekkady. Thekkady is again divided into five sections: Thekkady,
Edapalayam, Nellikkampetty, Mullakudy and Medakanam. Periyar Range is further
divided into twelve sections: Kottamala, Thamara, Randattinkara, Manalar, Eravangalar,
Mavady, Thannikudy, Mlappara, Ummikuppan, Moolavaiga, Sundaramala and Periyar.
Vallakkadavu range is divided into five sections: Thondiyar, Vallakkadavu, Kozhikanam,
Kallaradichan and Aruvioda. Thekkady Range consists of Edapalayam, Thekkady,
Medakanam, Nellikampetty and Mullakudy sections.
Of these, the Medakanam section is the largest range and Thekkady is the smallest
range. Most of the mainstream tourism related activities are reported in Thekkady
section. Thekkady Range was earlier called as Tourism Range consisting of Edappalam,
Thekkady and Nellikampetty sections. Thekkady section is surrounded by the forest on
all sides excepting Kumily Region. On the northern side of the range, the forest areas of
Tamil Nadu are located. The interstate boundary forms the northern boundary of the
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sections. The southern boundary also runs along the watershed. Finally, the canal forms
the western boundary.
The Division and Range offices and several public buildings such as rest house,
quarters and KTDC-managed hotels are situated inside this area. The northern side is
surrounded by the forest of Tamil Nadu. The Medakkanam section is located on the
eastern side, Nellikampetty section is situated on the southern side and Kumily town is
located on the western side. The section headquarter of forest division is located at
Kokkara. The Edapalayam section is situated to the west of Nellikampetty and Thekkady
Section. On the western side, there are cardamom estates and inhabited areas. The eastern
boundary goes along the marshy lands through which the canal passes. Edapalayam is
one of the sections that adjoin inhabited areas. In this case, the adjoining areas are mostly
covered with the mixed cultivation of Coffee, Pepper and Tapioca. The headquarters of
this section is located at Mullayar.
The Nellikampetty section is situated in the south of Thekkady Section, the west
of Medakanam South, the north of Kozhikanam section and the east of Vallakadavu and
Edapalayam section. Nellakkampetty is a hilly area near Edappalayam. Most of the areas
are covered by the arms of the reservoir. There are several islands of the forest inside the
reservoir. The corridors between the islands are usually marshy areas which get
submerged only at high water level. The Nellikampetty section starts immediately
opposite to the boat landing. The dam site itself is situated in the southwest corner of the
section.
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Regions near Manakavala are accessible by boat. Boat route starts from the boat
landing and go past Edapalayam and take a sharp bend and come near the Deer Island.
The headquarters of Nellikampetty section is located at Karadikavala. The Mangaladevi
road is deviated from this point. The Medakanam section is an important section with the
state border on one side. Several major streams are originated from this area. Grasslands,
deciduous forest and evergreen forest are largely seen in this area. Many bamboo brakes
can also be seen in this area. Most of the mainstream tourism related activities take place
in the Thekkady section.
3.6.2. Vallakkadavu Range
The Vallakkadavu range consists of five sections: Thondiyar, Vallakadavu,
Kozhikanam, Kallardichan and Aruvioda. All these sections have grasslands and
eucalyptus plantations. Cardamom Estates and Tea Estates are situated on the western
side. The Vanchivayal tribal settlement is on the periphery of this section. This section
has a large stretch of grasslands and evergreen forest. Some of the eucalyptus plantations
are still seen in this area. On the eastern side, the section extends up to the reservoir. This
section is situated on the right side of the Periyar River downstream of the dam.
The Vallakadavu section is situated down the Thondiyar section on the left side of
the river. The Vallakkadavu via Pachakanam road forms another boundary. On the east,
the forest extends up to the lake. Some of the Ceylon repatriates are resettled near
Pachakanam. The forest of Kozhikanam section extendes from the Pamba crest line to the
lake edge. The Aruvioda section is the largest section in Vallakkadavu range. Major areas
of the section are covered by thick evergreen forest with reeds as the main under growth.
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The lake side is mostly moist and deciduous forest. Away from the lake, the vegetation
changes to semi evergreen and evergreen type of forest.
The Aruvioda section contains some good eucalyptus plantations. This section is
accessible from the Vallakkadavu Pachakanam with a distance of 09 km. The road goes
up to Aruvioda forest quarters covering about 20 km distance from the main road. From
the main road, the mud road passes through the area of the Kozhikanam section up to the
Aruvithode. Moreover, Aruvithode is a perennial stream and this is located next to the
Aruvithodu. The road crosses the Aruvithodu through a concrete building. The Aruvioda
section area is also accessible by boat from the dam site. The forest region of Aruvioda in
the lower side of Swamikayam Mala is accessible from Mullakudy region by crossing the
Lake. After the Aruvithodu, the thick evergreen forest starts. The Kumarikulam station
and Mangaladevi region and a major part of the lake are visible from the watch tower.
The Kallaradi section is on the southern boundary of the range and it is mostly evergreen
forest.
3.6.3. Periyar Range
The Periyar Range consists of 12 sections, of these Thannikudy is the largest and
Mavady is the smallest. The Kottamala section forms the northern catchment area of
Mullayar, It is a remote section with the catchment area of Mullayar on the left blank.
The Randattin Kara Section consists of valleys drainage to Mullayar with a large section
situated on the northern side of Mullayar. It extends up to interstate ridge. This section
contains mostly evergreen forests and grasslands limited to a few hill tops. This section
can be accessed from Tamil Nadu and Mullakudy previously. The Mavady section has
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been split into Mavady and Eravangalar section. The Eravanglar section is situated in the
state border. Mavady is a small section situated north of Mullakudy. This section is
accessible by road as the Kumily-Mullakudy road passes along the western side of the
section.
3.6.4. Periyar West Division
The Periyar West Division is divided into the Azhutha and the Pamba ranges. The
Azhutha range consists of two sections and the Pamba range consists of three sections.
3.6.5. Azhutha Range
The Azhutha Range consists of four sections. The main access to the present
Moozhikal section is through Koruthode, where the section headquarters are located. The
Choozhy section is the second section. The Sathram and Uppupara sections are also parts
of Azhutha Range. The Moozhikal section occupies the western most portion of the PTR.
On the northern side, the Forest of Erumeli ranges are situated. The western and southern
sides are inhabited. One of the routes to Sabarimala starts from this section. The forest of
this section is situated amidst the Azutha River. There are a series of hills situated at the
right angles to the river. This section has evergreen forest, semi evergreen forest, moist
deciduous forest and grasslands. This evergreen forest and semi evergreen forest seen at
the low elevation is particularly notable.
The Choozhy section contains a good amount of undisturbed forest. The forest of
Erumely Range serves as a buffer area. The Sathram section is notable for extensive
grasslands with extensive eucalyptus plantations. The eastern portion of the section is
covered with evergreen forest. The section gets its name from an abandoned camping
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place for Sabarimala Pilgrims. The Sathram section is drained by the streams joining
Periyar and Sabarimala Thodu. The relatively plain area of Uppupara is now brought
under the new section. This section is located on the right side of the road to Uppupara.
3.6.6. Pamba Range
The Pamba range consists of five sections: Pambavalley, Puthussery, Karimala,
Sabarimala and Pachakanam. The Pachakanam and Puthurssery sections are the largest of
all the sections. These two sections of Pamba Range are very important as far as the
vegetation and pilgrimage to Sabarimala Temple is concerned. The Pampa valley section
lies on the right bank of Pamba River downstream of Pamba-Azutha sangamam. The
notable features of this section are evergreen, grasslands, semi evergreen and deciduous
forest, pilgrim route and settlement in Pamba valley. A headquarter of the section is
located at Pamba Valley. Areas near the river are inhabited and Udumpara is a small
patch of forest on the hilltop surrounded by cultivation on all sides. The Sabarimala
section is important from the three respects such as the holy Ayyappa temple, a good
stretch of evergreen forest and grasslands. Pachakanam is situated to the east of
Sabarimala section. The entire section is drained by the tributaries of Pamba River.
On the northern side, the waters shed to the Periyar form the boundary. This
section is notable for the presence of evergreen forest in highly steep terrain. Chentamara
Kokka is one such region where the altitude varies from 1200m to 1100m. The tributaries
to Pamba flowing through this gorge create a scenic waterfall. This section is also notable
for the grasslands in Uppupara region. One of the Pilgrimage routes to Sabarimala passes
through this area. The ring road forms one of the boundaries. The Eucalyptus due to
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repeated harvesting and degrading factors has practically been vanished and the areas
have now become the grasslands. There are several shoals of evergreen forest in valleys
of these grasslands. The part of Poonkavanam which is sacred forest for Sabarimala
pilgrims falls in this section.
3.6.7. Riverine System
The four major rivers draining the PTR are named as the Mullayar, the Periyar,
the Azhutha and the Pamba. These two Rivers: the Mullayar and the Periyar come
mostly under the high elevation, medium elevation and low elevation altitude. However,
the Mullayar and the Periyar fall under the high elevation category. On the Western Side,
there are two rivers: the Azhutha and the Pamba come under the low elevation area. The
Azutha River forms the northern boundary of western side of the PTR. The river Pamba
forms the southwestern boundary of the PTR. On the southern side of the lake is Pamba
Periyar divide a chain of hills about 1200m in elevation, the northern side draining to
Periyar Basin and the southern side draining to Pamba Basin. Unlike the streams in high
altitudes, some of the streams feeding the Azhutha and the Pamba dry up in peak
summer.
3.6.8. The Periyar Lake
A masonry dam creating a lake of about 26 sq km was constructed near Thekkady
in 1895. The Catchment area of the lake is 603 sq km. The water levels in the lake
fluctuate between a maximum of 46m and a minimum of 32m.The two main river
systems: the Mullayar and the Periyar join together near Mullakudy, thus draining their
water in to this lake.
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3.7. TYPICAL BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity of the PTR forms to be an important attraction for the eco-tourists,
wildlife tourists and nature tourists to understand the intricacies of the biotic factors. It is
one of the important parts of the biodiversity of the Western Ghats. The rich diversities of
living and non-living elements in the ecosystem of the PTR have been protected by the
Forest Department in association with the local community members under the
ecotourism projects. The EDC has been instrumental in working in tandem with the
Forest Department to preserve the biodiversity of the PTR.
3.7.1. Vegetation Types and Floristic
The PTR harbours an array of vegetation for wilderness activities. Seven types of
forest ecosystems have been identified in the Tiger Reserve, of which the evergreen and
semi-evergreen forests form the major chunk of the total forest areas. Besides, the marshy
grasslands and streams form extremely valuable micro ecosystems. Major types of
vegetation in the PTR include tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (74.6%),
moist deciduous forest (12.7%), grasslands (1.5%) and eucalyptus plantations (7.1%).
The Periyar Lake forms an important aquatic ecosystem with an area spreading about 3.5
per cent of the total protected areas. Annexture XI is presented in table showing types of
vegetations seen in the PTR.
3.7.2. Classification of Forest Areas
There are eight different types of forest areas which are commonly seen in the
PTR. Each forest area is unique in its ecosystem and biodiversity to make the eco-tourists
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spellbound and enthralled with awesome floral and faunal species. Table 3.2 presents the
eight different types of forest areas in the PTR.
Table 3.2
Classification of Forest Areas
Sl. No. Name of the Forest Area 1 West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forest
2 Southern Hilltop Tropical Evergreen Forest
3 West Coast Semi Evergreen Forest
4 Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest
5 Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forest
6 Southern Montane Wet Grasslands
7 South Indian Subtropical Hill Savannahs
8 Marshy Grasslands (Vayals)
Source: Official Records, Department of Forest & Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Thekkady
West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forest: This classical Malabar rainforest of the
Western Ghats forms an extremely rich biotope in terms of biological diversity. Seen at
an altitudinal range of 150-1300m, these forests are characterized by the presence of very
tall trees. The forest canopy is well stratified into four to five layers. Mesua, Palaquim,
Cullenia, Hopea, Dipterocarpus, Vateria, Polyalthia, Myristica, Calophyllum are some of
the important tree associations largely seen in this area. In the PTR, these types of forest
are distributed across Koruthodu, Sabarimala and Poonkavanam areas. Different species
of Strobilanthus and Psychotria are mainly distributed in the Shrubby layer. The
important woody climbers are Gnetumula and Butea Parviflora. Balsams, Aroides and
Ferns form the typical environment for the growth of floral population.
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Southern Hilltop Tropical Evergreen Forest: Distributed mainly in an
altitudinal gradient between 1300 and 1700m, this type of forest forms the dominant
vegetation of the core area of the Tiger Reserve especially at Mlappara, Aalady and
Chokkampetty. Syzygium, Palaquium, and Cullenia are the common trees of this place.
These forests also harbour two threatened tree species of the Tiger Reserve: the endemic
Syzgium Periyarensis, the indigenous conifer and Nagaea Wallichiana.
West Coast Semi Evergreen Forest: An assemblage of evergreen and deciduous
forest is mainly distributed in Thekkady, Swamikayam, Vallakkadavu and Mullakkudy.
Further, Terminalia, Syzygium, Actinodaphne and Bichofia javanicia and Artocarpus
hirsutus form the major floristic elements. Strobilanthes, Psychotria and Memecylon are
some of the important shrubs seen in the forest. The climbing creepers include Jasminum
and Mucuna, Entada rheedi and Gnetumula as the major woody climbers.
Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest: The PTR comprising chiefly the
deciduous species under the vegetation category spread over around 100 sq km of the
reserve. Thanikkudy, Mullakkudy, Methakanam and Edapalayam are importantly known
for the rich vegetations. These forest areas harbour some of the most valuable timber
species like Teak and Rose wood. Tectona grandis, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia
paniculata and Lagerstroemia microcarpa are some of the important tree species that
support the natural ecosystem of the PTR.
Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forests- Sholas: It is generally called as
Shoal forests and these types of forests are seen in the valley and cliffs across the peaks
in the PTR. These forests are characterized by a high degree of humidity and a-year-
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round dampness that result in the abundance of epiphytic orchids and ferns. They are
ecologically hyper sensitive to disturbances of the ecosystem. Seen normally above
1700m, these forests are mostly confined to Vellimala, Kottamala, Sundaramala and
Chokkampetty. Unlike other types of evergreen forests, the distinct canopy stratification
is absent in the forest. Rhododendron arboretum, Vernonia travancorica, Syzygium
Parameswaranii etc are some of the important tree species unique to the Periyar
ecosystem.
Southern Wet Montane Grasslands: Like shoal forests, this type of vegetation
is ecologically very sensitive. This unique grassland system is seen on the roofs of
mountain that houses rare species of orchids and balsams. Spreading over a small area at
Mangaladevi, Arjunankotta and Kalvarimala, they represent a unique form of ecological
diversity evolved through millions of years. Strobilanthus kunthianus and Hypericum
hookerianus are the important shrubs grown almost exclusively in these areas.
South Indian Subtropical Hill Savannahs: Tall grasses interspersed with
deciduous trees provide a typical vegetation character of the reserve forest. Elephant
grass and Cymbopogon are the important varieties of vegetation that are largely used for
covering roof of the tribal huts. Some of the major trees, which are seen in the PTR,
include Terminalia chebula, Careya arborea, Phyllanthus emblica and Bridelia airy-
Shawii. The main areas of distribution across the forest include Kavalapara,
Thannikkudy, Edapalayam and Manakkavala.
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Marshy Grasslands (Vayals): Vayals are marshy grasslands and they are wet
and humid throughout the year. These important ecological zones are rich in grasses and
herbaceous species, which make the islands a unique biodiversity. Several herbivores
prefer these habitats for food, thus paying a key role in the food chain. Among the several
vayals located in the Tiger Reserve, the important ones are seen at Kokkarakandam,
Pothukandam, Aanakuthivayal and Nellipparakandam. Panicum repens, Leersia
hexandra, Eragrostis sp.and Eriocaulon sp. are abundantly seen in these areas along with
species like Cyperus, Drocers and Lindernia.
Riverine Vegetation: Even though distinct riparian ecosystems are absent in the
Reserve, the streams and rivulets often harbour many typical riparian species. Different
species of Algae and Utriculaaria are some of the examples to the vegetation in the
riverine ecosystem. Important medicinal plant namely Rotula aquatic and a species of
Balsam (Impatiens verticillata) grow commonly in Rocky River beds. Homonoia riparia
is a common shrub growing in the fast-flowing streams along with the members of
Podostemonaceae. The important trees associated with riparian ecosystems are
Humboltia vahliana, Ixorabrachiataa and Neonauclea purpurea.
Bamboo and Read Breaks: Important hill slopes of Sundaramala, Melmala and
Manikyamala are luxuriant with reed breaks where Ochlandra travancorica is abundant.
The areas like Vellimala and Upper Manalar a scandent reed and Pseudoxytenanthera
monadepha are more commonly seen. Extensive bamboo breaks are seen along the
stream sides of Thannikudy and Mullakkudy areas.
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Plantations: Eucalyptus grandis plantations have naturally grown at Aruvi,
Kozhikkanam, Thondiyar and Uppupara. Though the plantation of this plant is
encouraged for commercial pulp wood plantations, but it subjugates other species in the
forest. These areas are now left for natural regeneration. Several abandoned cardamom
estates are seen in the areas like Mlappara and Naduthottam, where natural regeneration
is fast catching up.
3.8. PLANT DIVERSITY
The PTR is unique in floral diversity with the presence of more than 50 per cent
of the entire flowering plants of Kerala. It includes 149 species listed under various threat
categories. Out of the estimated 3800 species of flowering plants (Angiosperms) of
Kerala, the Tiger Reserve is endowed with 2000 species. This is in fact the highest
number from a protected area of the state. Moreover, three of them are endemic to the
PTR. The Angiosperm includes 1441 species of Dicots and 525 species of Monocots. The
Dicots are represented by 613 genera spreading over 128 families, while the monocots
are distributed under 210 genera belonging to 23 families. All the Angiosperms represent
823 genera under 151 families. Poaceae (Gramineae) with 168 species forms the largest
family of the reserve.
3.8.1. Orchids
The family Orchidaceae is the third largest family of the flowering plant in the
Reserve. It is represented by 145 species under 52 genera, including 53 endemics. The
presence of 145 species of orchids from the enlisted 216 species in Kerala is quite
remarkable. The Reserve is the only known home in the entire planet for the endemic
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species like Habenaria Periyarensis. For example, some of the rare and endangered
orchids are Vanda thwaitesii (a Srilankan Species).
3.8.2. Grasses
Grasses are the largest family of the flowering plants in the Tiger Reserve.
Poaceae is represented by 168 species of grasses spreading over 76 genera and out of
which, 25 species are southern Western Ghats endemics. Panicum with nine species is the
largest genera. Similarly, two species of rice Oryza meyeriana and O.rupogan have been
recorded from the Reserve. Arthraxom lanceolatus and Isachne setosa are two threatened
grass species. Four species of bamboo and one species of reed are also present in the
reserve. The Tiger Reserve has four species of bamboos and one species of reed. Apart
from the commonly seen Bambusa Bamboos, two species of small bamboos and one
species of Taeniostachyum are also reported. For example, Ochlandra travancorica is the
reed species.
3.8.3. Legumes
In the PTR, the family Leguminosea is represented by 155 species under 52
genera and Crotalaria with 22 species in the largest genera. In the subfamilies, Faboidae
represents 121 species under 40 genera, Caeesalpinioideae represents 21 species under
six genera and Minmosoideae represents 13 species under six genera. A variety of
common Cowage, Mucuna, Smithia, snd venkobarowii are the two species, which have
been formerly considered as possibly extinct species from the Reserve.
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3.8.4. Balsams
The family Balsaminaceae is well represented in the Tiger Reserve with 28
species under single genus Impatient. Majority of them are endemic and are highly
sensitive to changes in the climatic condition. Out of the 28 species, 26 species are
endemic to South India. Impatiens verecunda is a critically endangered species, whereas
Impatiens Parasitica is a rare epiphyte.
3.9. ANIMAL DIVERSITY
Mammalian fauna is unique in the PTR and as many as 63 species have been
identified. Of these, seven are endemic and endangered to South Western Ghats like Lion
Tailed Macaque (Macaca Silenus), NilgiriThar, (Hemitragus Hylocrius), Nilgiri
Langur,(Trachpithecus johnii),Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsi) and Travancore Flying
Squirrel (Petynomis fuscocapillus). It is the only Tiger Reserve in Kerala which forms
one of the finest breeding sites in the entire Western Ghats. Tigers are found in all types
of habitats, but the density is very less in the evergreen forests. As a result, the big cats
are difficult to be traced out in the evergreen forests. Still pugmarks, scats, scratches and
carcasses are located in many places around the forest at the time of trekking or jungle
walks. Some of the major carnivorous mammals of the PTR are Leopard (Panthera
Pardus), Wild dog (Cuon alpines), Leopard Cat (Felis bengalensis), Jungle Cat (Felis
Chaus), Rusty spotted cat (Felis Rubiginosa) and fishing cat (Felis viverrina). Other
major carnivores are also distributed across the Reserve.
The Periyar holds a credit of a sizeable population of Elephants (Elephas
Maximas) with as many as more than 1000. This unique ecosystem is home to Gaur (Bos
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Gaurus), Sambhar Deer (Cervus unicolor), Barking Deer,(Muntacus muntjac), Mouse
Deer(Tragulas meminna),Nilgiri Thar, Porcupine,(Hystrix indica) and Black Naped
Hare( Lepus nigricollis). Among the five primates found in the southern Ghats, four are
distributed in the Periyar natural region. Further, Lion tailed macaque, Bonnet macaque,
Nilgiri Langur and Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus) and Nilgiri langur are the common
primates and they enjoy a wider distribution throughout the Sanctuary. The tiger reserve
is a potential lion tailed macaque’s natural habitat place and it is the second to the Silent
Valley National Park in the state.
Malabar giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) is the commonest among squirrels, but the
three-striped palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum) is also frequently sighted in the
forest. Though the presence of small Travancore flying squirrel is recorded, but the large
brown flying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista) is one among the mongoose (Herpestes
viticollis) is not very common in the forest. The presence of common mongoose
(Herpestes ededwardsi) and Ruddy Mongoose (Herpestes smithi) are also seen in their
habitats.
Bat species of the reserve include very rare species like Salimali’s fruit bat
(Latidens salimali) and Painted bat (Kerivoula picta). The bat is listed as critically
endangered and considered as very rare in the world. Rats are the least studied
mammalian group in the reserve. However, about 12 species were recorded from the
PTR. Among the musttellids, Periyar holds a comparatively good population of Nilgiri
marten that is the potential habitat to be affected in the future. Periyar Lake is an abode
of two species of semi aquatic mammals like the common otter (Lutra lutra) and the
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smooth Indian otter (Lutra persipicillata). A recent study on Otters revealed that the total
population size ranges around 60 in the Lake.
3.9.1. Wildlife Population
Table 3.3 shows the wildlife populations in the PTR other than the Royal Bengal
Tigers from 1978 to 2002. The periodic census of the mammalian animals given in the
table includes Bonnet Macaque, Lion Tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Sambar Deer,
Gaur, Leopard, Wild Dog, Elephant, Wild Boar, Barking Deer, Mouse Deer, Malabar
Giant Squirrel, Indian Porcupine, Small Indian Civet and Common Palm Civet. As many
as 16 different varieties of mammals are the natural habitats of the PTR. Like the tiger
census carried out by the PTR in 1978, the census for the mammalian populations was
also conducted along with the tiger census in the same year. The year 1978 is historic in
conducting the tiger census along with other wildlife census in the PTR. It is reported in
1978 census that there was a very high count for the Bonnet Macaque with only 10
troops. After a gap of 25 years, only 102 Bonnet Macaques were counted in an area of
59 decimal sq km during the 2002 wildlife census in the PTR.
As the Lion Tailed Macaque is an endangered species in Western Ghats, the 1978
census captured a count of 11 troops and 210 Lion Tailed Macaques in 2002 were
reported. Nilgiri Langur is one of the most frequently sighted animals with 170 troops in
1978 and they constitute the major wildlife population a count of 573 Nilgiri Langur in
2002. The Sambar Deer population was 452 in 1978 and it is one of the important
mammalian habitats in the PTR ecosystem. Further, it was last reported that there were
249 Nilgiri Languar in an area of 0.2495 decimal.
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As far as the Gaur population is concerned, there was an increase from 100 Gaurs
in 1978 to 438 Gaurs in an area of 0.5376 decimal in 2002. Similarly, the leopard
population has significantly been reduced from 14 in 1978 to 8 in 2002. As reported from
the census, there was remarkable increase in leopard population in 1987, 1988, 1989 and
2002. The Wild Dog population, as reported in different census, was 49 packs in 1978
and was 18 in 1630.88 decimals in 2002. As elephant is one of the key species in the
hierarchy of wildlife population in the PTR, the census reports revealed that 588
elephants were counted in the survey conducted in 1978 and the number went down to
177 as per the 2002 census. The remaining other mammalian species have also been
covered in the later wildlife census in the PTR.
The distribution of wildlife population in the PTR, excluding the Royal Bengal
Tiger speaks so much about the wildlife diversities in the reserve area. The attempt for
conducting various censuses with the huge financial support of the government could
yield fruitful results with regard to the wildlife population and their habitats. Since
wildlife of the PTR is a key element of ecotourism activities and the visitor satisfaction is
directly related to the wildlife sighting, the wildlife census data is handy for the visitors to
pay their visits.
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Table 3.3
Wildlife Population in PTR Sl. No.
Name of the Species
Year-Wise Wildlife Population 1978 1987 1988 1989 1991 1993 1995 1996 1997 2000 2002
1 Bonnet Macaque 10
troops 50
Nos. 65 Nos.
32 Nos.
* 43 Nos. * * 4.84 D 128 Nos. 102
Nos./0.0759 D
2 Lion Tailed Macaque 11
troops 200 Nos.
235 Nos. 182 Nos.
* 90 Nos. * * 60 Nos. 178 Nos. 210 Nos.
3 Nilgiri Langur 170
troops 300 Nos.
839 Nos. 765 Nos.
* 1530 Nos. * * 6.59 D/155 Nos. 322 Nos. 573 Nos.
(0.6495 D)
4 Sambar Deer 452 Nos.
490 Nos.
560 Nos. 580 Nos.
* 10.37 D * * 86 Nos./0.27 D 57 Nos. 249 Nos.
(0.2495 D)
5 Gaur 100 Nos.
350 Nos.
378 Nos. 412 Nos.
* 1.59 D * * 108 Nos./0.42D 201 Nos. 438 Nos.
(0.5376 D)
6 Leopard 14 Nos. 26
Nos. 27 Nos.
21 Nos.
* 7 D * * 23 Nos. 8 Nos.
7 Wild Dog 49
packs 55
Nos. 64 Nos.
62 Nos.
* 216.6 D/E * * 653.61 D/E * 18 Nos. (1630.88
D/E)
8 Elephant 588 Nos.
950 Nos.
1020 Nos.
980 Nos.
* 615 Nos. * * 175 Nos./0.72 D 144 Nos. 177 Nos. (0.1595 D)
9 Wild Boar 500 Nos.
1100 Nos.
1300 Nos.
1290 Nos.
* 27.14 D * * 119 Nos./0.43 D 224 Nos. 422 Nos.
(0.4951 D)
10 Barking Deer * * * * * 30 Nos. * * 30 Nos./3992.47
D/E 8 Nos.
58 Nos. (2.1781 D)
11 Mouse Deer * * * * * 200 D/E * * 1049.52 D/E 4 Nos. 8 Nos.
(837.16 D/E)
12 MG Squirrel * * * * * 6.75 D * * 141 Nos./0.26 D 90 Nos. 208 Nos.
(0.2186 D)
13 Indian Porcupine * * * * * 417.5 D/E * * 1188.28 D/E 1 No. 1653.48 D/E
14 Small Indian Civet * * * * * 84.29 D/E * * 929.44 D/E * 344.24 D/E
15 Common Palm Civet * * * * * 218.11
D/E * * 1135.04 D/E 4 Nos. 1043.44 D/E
16 Sloth Bear * * * * * 284.68DS * * 3026.78 D/E 3 Nos. 3 Nos.
(1502.20 D/E)
Source: http://www.periyartigerreserve.org/result.php, Accessed on 15/06/12.
3.9.2. Tiger Population
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information
about the members of a given population. It is a frequent occurrence of official count of a
particular population. A wildlife census determines three things such as the abundance
and distribution of wildlife species, the trend in species numbers compared with past
counts and the extent of human activities in the ecosystem.
This information is used to identify threats to wildlife and to design conservation
activities to address these threats in scientific manner (www.awf.org). Table 3.4 shows
the census of the tigers in the PTR form 1978 to 2008. It is a-thirty-year efforts of the
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Periyar Foundation to carry out the census by using all scientific methods in order to
ensure precision in the data. The Forest Department, Government of Kerala conducted
the survey of the tigers as many as eight times that include the survey conducted in
1978, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1995, 1996 and 2000.
Further, both the Forest Department and Kerala Forest Research Institute have
conducted the Tiger census in 1993, 1997 and 2002 respectively. In the year 2002, the
Easa, a wildlife NGO also conducted a Tiger Survey at the PTR. Similarly, the Wild Life
Institute of India (WII) conducted a Tiger Survey in 2006. The Management of the PTR
conducted a Tiger Census in 2008. However, all the census surveys carried out between
1978 and 2002 primarily used the pugmark method to capture the data pertaining to the
tiger. On the other hand, all these agencies involved in the tiger census from 2006 to 2008
used the Camera Trap method to conduct the survey. As per the latest census there are 23
adult tigers and there would be requirements of 640 sq km as per the estimated by the
Department of Forest and Wildlife.
As per the census results of the various agencies given in Table 3.4, the Kerala
Forest Department revealed about 34 tigers in 1978 and it rose to 45 and 46 as per the
results conducted between 1987 and 1991. The results of the Department and the Kerala
Forest Research Institute (KFRI) unveiled a downfall of tiger census that was 33. The
results of survey conducted by the Department in 1995 showed 39 tigers. It subsequently
declined to 30 in 1996 survey and got increased to 40 in 1997 survey conducted by the
KFD.
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It astonished the wildlife lovers in general and the Government of Kerala in
particular when the Easa revealed about a total 21 tiger population in 2002. Subsequently,
the tiger population has been under the grave threat since the results of the survey
conducted by the Department in 2002, the WII in 2006 and the Tiger Reserve
Management (TRM) 2008 showed the marginal increase in tiger population. However,
the increase is not so encouraging given the cost, time and manpower employed for
increasing the number of tigers in the ecosystem.
Therefore, the present efforts of the authorities of the PTR to combine ecotourism
into the management of forest and wildlife may be productive to increase the tiger
population. It is substantiated with the facts that almost all the traditional poachers and
hunters have been brought to the folds of the management of the PTR. Hopefully, the
present study based on visitor satisfaction and community empowerment may provide
practical solutions to increase the tiger populations.
Table 3.4 Wildlife Population in PTR (Tigers)
Year of Census
Name of the Agency
Tiger Census
Techniques Used
1978 DFW 34
Pugmark Method
1987 DFW 45 1988 DFW 45 1989 DFW 46 1991 DFW 46 1993 DFW /KFRI 33 1995 DFW 39 1996 DFW 30 1997 DFW /KFRI 40 2000 DFW 36 2002 Easa 21 2002 DFW /KFRI 29±3 2006 WII 23*
Camera Trap 2008 TRM 24**
Source: http://www.periyartigerreserve.org/result.php, Accessed on 17/8/12
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3.9.3. Avifauna
A total of 525 species of birds have so far been recorded in the Tiger Reserve. Out
of which, 14 are endemic to Western Ghats that include the birds of prey (Raptors), water
bodies, galli form birds, pigeons, woodpeckers and passerins. The southern part of
Western Ghats is known for high avian endemism. About 14 endemic species are
reported from southern Western Ghats. Malabar Grey Hornbill (Tockus griseus), the
Nilgiri wood pigeon (Columba elphinstoni), Blue winged parakeet (Psittakula
columboides), Crimson throated barbet, (Megalaina rubricapilla), Rufous Babbler
(Turdoides sabrafous), White breasted laughing thrush (G.Cachinnas), Black and orange
flycatcher, ( Muscicapa nigrorufa) and Nilgiri flycatcher (M albicaudata) are some of
the bird species. Except the Nilgiri laughing thrush, all other aviafauna are endemic
in the Western Ghat endemics as reported from Periyar. Among the endemic, the White
bellied short wing is seen fairly good numbers in the Reserve. The White breasted
laughing thrush, the black and orange flycatcher and Nilgiri flycatcher are restricted to
the high altitude grasslands.
3.9.4. Reptiles
A total of 45 reptile species are reported from the PTR, that includes two species
of testudine, 11 species of lizard and 31 species of snake. However, eight species are
endemic to the Western Ghats and out of these, the status of five species is rare. Among
the two species of testudines, the Travancore tortoise (Geochelone elegans is endemic to
Western Ghat endemics. The King Cobra (Ophiophagus Hannah), an endangered
rainforest reptile is also found in the evergreen forest of the core zone and in Sabarimala
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region. Out of the 11 species of lizard, four of them are endemic to Western Ghats. They
are Dwarf forest gecko (Cnemaspis Indica), Spotted tree lizard (Calotes ellioti), Forest
calotes (Calotes rouxi) and common skink (Mabuya Carinata. Out of the 44 species of
reptiles found in the PTR, 18 are endemic to the Western Ghats.
3.9.5. Amphibians
A total of 27 species of amphibians have been reported from the Periyar, of which
10 are endemic to the Western Ghats. They are (Micrixalus fuscus), (Micrixalus nudis),
(Rana malabarica), (Rana beddomei), (Rana curtipes), (Rana brevipalmate),(Rana
temporalis), (Bufo micritympanumm), (Phileatus beddomei) and (Rhacophorus
malabaricus). The Malabar Gliding Frog, Common Indian Toad, Beddomes Frog,
Fungoid Frog and Bi coloured Frog are the most common frogs found in this area.
3.9.6. Fishes
As many as 38 species of fishes are reported and four of them are endemic to the
PTR. They are (Puntius micropogan paeriyarensis), (Crossochelus Periyarensis),
(Lepidopygopsis typus) and (Noemachelus menonii) Among the 38 species of fishes,
seven species are very common and 18 species are rarely distributed in the Reserve.
3.10. TOURIST ARRIVALS IN KERALA
As regards the year-wise tourist arrivals and growth from 2001 to 2010 presented
in Table 3.5, there has been a variation of percentage growth of domestic and foreign
tourist arrivals (FTAs). After showing a steady growth of domestic tourist arrivals
(DTAs) from 2001 to 2002 the DTAs significantly declined to 1.7 per cent in 2004 and –
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4.3 per cent in 2005 following the regular strikes, etc. However, the growth of DTAs
bounced back with 5.47 per cent in 2006, 5.92 per cent in 2007 and 14.28 per cent in
2008 respectively. There was a nosedive in DTAs in 2009 and recovered again in 8.61
per cent in 2010 and 9.15 per cent in 2011 respectively. Nonetheless, the year 2008 as
compared to other years witnessed an outstanding growth in the first decade of new
millennium.
Similarly, the growth of FTAs in Kerala between 2001 and 2011 is given in Table
3.5 and the table presents the year-wise growth of the FTAs. As indicated, there has been
a marginal increase in the FTAs from 2002 to 2010. The number of foreign tourists
reached 7.32 lakh in 2011 from 2.09 lakh and it is 3.45 times more in these 10-years
period. This phenomenal growth has been achieved owing to the concerted efforts of the
government in giving tourism as priority sector for which the State Government
sanctioned sufficient budgetary support to increase the FTAs in the State.
As such, Kerala Tourism has been singularly making aggressive multimedia
campaign in the overseas source markets to entice the visitors and the initiative has given
rich dividend to the State in terms of the FTAs and Foreign Exchange Earnings.
Furthermore, the State has emerged as a growing inbound market for the inbound air
charter tour operators for the last several years with a given reason of the three
international airports located at the vantage points ( Cochin, Calicut and Trivandrum) for
facilitating visitors to visit the places of interest. In addition to this, wellness is the
hallmark of Kerala Tourism and the State has capitalized the core tourism attraction for
which the sojourn of an average foreign tourist in Kerala as compared to other states is
longer. The State has already been recognized as a long-haul destination for its rich
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traditional ayurvedic treatment facilities. On the other hand, the growth of FTAs does not
seem to be impressive while comparing to our neighboring tiny island nations like Sri
Lanka and Maldives.
As regards the total tourist arrivals in Kerala, Table 3.5 shows the gradual
increase in the tourist arrivals during the entire period excepting the year 2005 during
which there was a fall of 0.39 per cent in the tourist arrivals. Similarly, the year 2008 is
reported to show a double-digit growth of 14.41 per cent that happens to be the highest in
the entire year.
The table further revealed an interesting finding that the highest growth of 14.28
per cent and 20.37 per cent is reported in case of DTAs in 2008 and in case of FTAs in
2007. It is heartening to highlight that as much as 79.03 per cent growth of DTAs was
reported by comparing the DTAs between 2001 and 2011. Further, the growth of DTAs is
not so impressive as compared to the growth of the FTAs during the whole period. The
FTAs is reported to be almost 2.5-times more from 2001 to 2011. However, the total
tourist arrivals comprising the domestic tourists and foreign tourists registered a growth
of 83.99 per cent in 2011 over the total tourist arrivals in 2001.
The interference from the analysis was drawn that Kerala has been a destination
showcasing world-class tourism products for domestic tourists with much interest in
nature and wellness tourism. However, the growth of FTAs is itself an indication of
Kerala’s nature-based and religious-related tourism attractions to woo more number of
foreign tourists. The length and breadth of Kerala, as such, is richly endowed with the
natural scenic beauty that comprises backwater, tea garden, spice garden, landscape,
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valleys, waterfalls, wildlife, etc. Apart from being a place for rich natural endowment, the
State has been a popular pilgrimage center for Ayappa Swamy Temple at Sabarimala and
the Guruvayur Temple in Thissur. Moreover, Kerala is the first State to institutionalize
the guidelines of responsible tourism for all the forms of tourism. Thus, it is suggested
that all the forms of nature-based tourism, including ecotourism and wildlife tourism
should be included under the purview of responsible tourism that leads to making the
ecotourism destination, including the PTR as a sustainable tourism destination in Kerala.
Table 3.5
DTAs & FTAs to Kerala from 2001 to 2011 (In Lakh)
Year DTAs %
Growth FTAs
% Growth
Total Tourist Arrivals
% Growth
2001 52.40 2.09 54.99 2002 55.68 6.3 2.32 11.3 58.00 9.07 2003 58.71 5.4 2.95 26.7 61.66 6.31 2004 59.72 1.7 3.45 17.3 63.17 2.44 2005 59.46 -4.3 3.46 6.27 62.92 -0.39 2006 62.71 5.47 4.28 23.7 66.99 5.99 2007 66.42 5.92 5.16 20.37 71.58 6.85 2008 75.91 14.28 5.99 16.11 81.90 14.41 2009 79.91 4.25 5.57 -6.96 85.48 4.37 2010 85.95 8.61 6.59 18.31 92.54 8.25 2011 93.81 9.15 7.32 11.18 101.13 9.28
Source: Flash Report of Tourism Statistics, Department o of Tourism, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, p.2.
The high footfalls and longer duration of stay of foreign & domestic tourist
arrivals at several ecotourism and wildlife tourism destinations in Kerala clearly indicate
the position of the State in the international tourism map. At the same time, the position
of Idukki district in the tourist map of Kerala is prominent for its nature scenic beauty,
wildlife attractions and primitive people & culture.
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The annual total tourist arrivals, including the FTAs and DTAs, as it is illustrated
in Table 3.6, to the Idukki district from 2001 to 2011 substantially signify the ecotourism
and wildlife tourism potentials of the PTR as it is one of the finest attractions of the
district. While looking at the FTAs between 2001 and 2006, it is found to be about 80.75
per cent growth as against a decline of -136.55 per cent between 2006 and 2011.
However, the growth of FTAs during the entire 11 years (from 2001 to 2011) is reported
to be 99.46 per cent. On the contrary, the growth of DTAs during the first half i.e. 2001-
2006 showed a growth of 46.01 per cent as against a marginal decline of -1.57 per cent in
the second half of the first decade of the new millennium (2006-2011). Nevertheless, the
total tourist arrivals to Idukki district indicate a significant growth of 53.16 per cent from
2001 to 2006 and a decline of -13.90 per cent from 2006 to 2011.
It is surprised to find the decline of total tourist arrivals from 2006 to 2011 and the
cause for the decline of tourist arrivals must be attributed to the boat mishap at the PTR
since it is a must-see place for the tourists when they usually enter to Idduki district.
Thus, the trend of tourist arrivals to the district should be taken seriously at the
government level and this decline may directly affect the growth of tourism business,
thereby displacing people from the tourism industry.
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Table 3.6
Tourist Arrivals to Idukki District (In Lakh)
Year FTAS DTAs Total Tourist Arrivals 2001 0.254 2.78 3.03 2002 0.247 3.67 3.92 2003 0.318 4.21 4.53 2004 0.460 4.82 5.28 2005 0.393 4.74 5.13 2006 1.32 5.15 6.47 2007 0.465 5.05 5.52 2008 0.510 5.31 5.83 2009 0.382 4.30 4.68 2010 0.483 4.64 5.12 2011 0.558 5.07 5.68
Source: Flash Report of Tourism Statistics, Department o of Tourism, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, p.2.
The PTR generally witnesses a large number of footfalls of day visitors and the
demand of day visitors is largely for boating activity in the reserve. Table 3.7 presents the
year-wise day visitors of both foreign and domestic tourists from 2005 to 2010. The
trend shows an increase in the arrivals of day visitors (foreign) from 37.48 thousands in
2005 to 39.34 thousands barring a decline of from 12.84 thousands between 2008 and
2009. The growth of the entire six years is reported to be a meager 4.72 per cent.
However, the year 2008 witnessed a highest number of day visitors (foreign) that is
recorded as 51.02 thousands or a rise in 26.53 per cent from the arrivals of day visitors in
2005.
At the same time, when the growth of day visitors (domestic) is taken into
consideration, it shows almost the same trend like day visitors (foreign) during the same
period. However, there has been a fluctuation in the total day visitor arrivals at the PTR.
There is an increase from 425.22 thousands in 2005 to 480.40 thousands in 2010,
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showing a growth of 11.48 per cent. Obviously, a highest number of day visitor arrivals
are reported in 2008.
The analysis of the day-visitor arrivals at the PTR provides sufficient evidence
that the Reserve has been a common interest place for all those visitors who appear to
visit for the sake of wildlife sighting and experiencing the boat journey in the protected
areas. As such, ecotourism destinations do not encourage the day visitors and the footfalls
of these visitors largely harm the natural beauty and its ecosystem. When the numbers of
day visitors keep increasing, though it is marginally, the PTR has already faced the
negative impacts that include trampling, noise, loiters, traffic, demonstration effects, etc
over the years. Thus, it is suggested that the Administration of the Reserve should take
note of this trend of day visitors seriously and make all possible steps to convert the day
visitors to tourists, where by tourists as well as local community members can get
largely benefited with their interactions.
Table 3.7
Day-Visitors from 2008-2010 in PTR (In Thousands)
Year FTAs DTAs Total
2005 37.48 38.77 425.22 2006 44.58 51.52 559.76 2007 46.47 50.55 551.99 2008 51.02 53.20 582.95 2009 38.18 42.94 467.59 2010 39.34 44.11 480.40
Source: Official Records, District Tourism Promotion Council, Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum
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3.11. REVENUE EARNINGS FROM TOURISM
Kerala is a glaring testimony of nature’s bountiful gift that has helped the State
earns the coveted title “God’s Own Country. Almost it is ingrained in the minds of those
visitors who wish to sojourn in the serene environments along with peace-loving and
hospitable people. The State has created a niche in the international tourism map for its
unique backwater and wellness tourism. Most of the tourism-rich states in India have
been pushed down in the ranks of foreign tourist arrivals and foreign exchange earnings
with the persistent growth of tourist arrivals to Kerala. No hesitation to say that tourism is
the mainstay of the economy of Kerala and it contributes significantly to the State Gross
Domestic Product (SGDP). The remarkable growth in tourist arrivals explains volume
about the wholehearted support of the entire population for tourism development as it is a
major employment generator. In this backdrop, Table 3.8 presents total foreign exchange
earnings from tourism from 2001 to 2011 in the State.
The data pertaining to the Forest Exchange Earnings (FEEs) in Kerala show a
4.73-times increase from 2001 to 2008. Almost the five-times more increase in the
tourism revenue from inbound tourist traffic during the above period clearly indicates the
amount of multiplied economic activities at the various stages of the economy. It is by far
one of the major contributors to the SGDP and Income as reported in the various
government survey reports. As illustrated in the table, the amount of FEEs got declined
by 6.96 per cent in 2009 due to the impact of global recession on the movement of
inbound tourist traffic to India. Subsequently after, there has been an increase in the FEEs
since 2010. The latest data shows that the State earned Rs. 4221.99 cores of FEEs in
2011.
128
The table also presents the continuous increase in the total revenue generated
from tourism directly and indirectly from 2001 to 2011. It is reported that the State could
generate Rs. 4500 crore directly and indirectly from the tourism activities across the
primary, secondary and support service sectors in 2001. The growth in increase in
revenue during the entire period ( from 2001 to 2011) is reported to be 3.23 times.
However, the total revenue generated directly and indirectly from all these tourism and
allied sectors was almost unchanged between 2008 and 2009.
While looking at the annualized percentage growth of total revenue from tourism,
there were frequent variations in the percentage increase in the total tourism revenue of
the State. Across all the years, the year 2010 witnessed a growth of 31.12 per cent from
tourism revenue directly and indirectly and 33.09 per cent the FEEs generated directly as
compared a complete slump in 2009 in terms of total FEEs and total tourism revenue.
Similarly, the year 2007 experienced a growth of 25.28 per cent in the revenue generated
from tourism. Surprisingly, the percentage increase in the growth of total revenue got
reduced to single digit i.e. 9.74 per cent in 2011 and the FEEs slashed down to 11.18 per
cent in the same year.
Furthermore, the share of FEEs from the total tourism revenue is 11.88 per cent in
2001, whereas the share has increased to 22.18 per cent in 2011. Nevertheless, the
percentage share of FEEs from total revenue generated directly and indirectly varies
between as low as 11.88 per cent in 2001 and as high as 23.35 per cent in 2008. The
percentage share of FEEs from the total revenue from tourism between 2005 and 2009
has a marginal variation.
129
Apart from the share of FEEs, the domestic tourism also makes remarkable
contribution to the generation of tourism revenue in the State. It is further explained that a
major amounts of revenue generated from tourism generally come from the varied
tourism activities at various levels of tourism industry indirectly. Hence, tourism industry
known for its trickle down effects through the passing of tourism expenditures at the
transfer of money in different hands is strongly supported and substantiated with the
secondary data given in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8
Revenue Generated from Tourism (Rs. in Crore)
Year FEEs) % Increase
Revenue Generated From Tourism
(Direct and Indirect
% Increase
% Share of FEEs from
Total Revenue from Tourism
2001 535.00 1.85 4500.00 9.58 11.88 2002 705.67 31.90 4931.00 20.42 14.31 2003 983.37 39.35 5938.00 12.83 16.56 2004 1266.77 28.82 6829.00 15.01 18.54 2005 1552.31 22.54 7738.00 13.31 20.06 2006 1988.50 28.09 9126.00 17.94 21.78 2007 2640.94 32.82 11,433.00 25.28 23.09 2008 3066.52 16.11 13,130.00 14.84 23.35 2009 2853.16 -6.96 13,231.00 0.77 21.56 2010 3797.37 33.09 17,348.00 31.12 21.88 2011 4221.99 11.18 19,037.00 9.74 22.18
Source: Flash Report of Tourism Statistics, Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, p.2.
3.12. VISITOR AMENITIES AND FACILITIES
Accommodation is a primary touristic facility for the tourists visiting the PTR and
its neighborhood places of tourist interest for an excursion trip. As the PTR has earned
the name and fame for the wildlife tourism and ecotourism over the years, the
requirements for the accommodations would obviously be more.
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3.12.1 Registered Hotels in Kumily
Table 3.9 shows three different types of registered hotels in Kumily as it is the
gateway to the PTR. As it is locally classified, A Class category of hotel generally
charges Rs. 5000 roof tariff and above per day with fixed or 24 hours check-in and
check-out. Similarly, the room tariff for B Class varies between a minimum of Rs. 2000
and a maximum of Rs.5000 and the C Class hotels have the room tariff below Rs. 2000.
As per the official record of the hotels in 2011, all these nine A Class hotels in
Kumily, as reported in 2011, have 18 single as well as 330 double rooms with a
maximum capacity of 731 rooms. Whereas, all these 11 B Class hotels in Kumily
comprise all the 319 double rooms with a maximum capacity of 642 beds to
accommodate the guests. Similarly, there are 30 C Class hotels with having maximum
capacity of beds to accommodate 1563 guests. However, there are 50 numbers of hotels
with 18 single rooms and 1300 double rooms along with the maximum capacity of 2936
beds. All these hotels are located in the adjoining areas of the PTR and provide rooms,
foods, bar and other hospitality services to the sojourners. Thus, the present existing
capacity of hotels does not seem to have sufficient number rooms and beds to meet the
growing demands of the visitors.
While looking at the growth of the visitors to the PTR, one can clearly state the
need for more additional rooms. When there seems to be insufficient number of rooms
and the demand usually exceeds supply during the high peak period, obviously the hotels
with all probabilities may not look into the improvement of the various service
parameters determining the service quality that leads to satisfying the guests. Most
131
critical aspect has been observed during the field visit and pilot study that most of the
hotels do not have adopted the codes of conduct of Green Globe and Agenda 21 to be
eligible to serve the guests and contribute to the sustainable ecotourism in the PTR.
Hence, it is suggested that more rooms should be created to meet three major objectives
for which the Government of Kerala is concerned for saving the forest and wildlife
through community participation and visitor satisfaction at the PTR as an ecotourism site.
Table 3.9
Number of Registered Hotels in Kumily
Type of Hotels No of Hotels Single Room Double Room Maximum Capacity A Class 9 18 330 731 B Class 11 ** 319 642 C Class 30 ** 651 1563 Total 50 18 1300 2936
Source: Official Records, District Tourism Promotion Council, Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum
3.12.2. Alternative Accommodation
Kerala is pioneer in the introduction of the concept of home stay as an alternative
mode of accommodation in Kerala and the State has shown the ways for other states like
Maharashtra and Delhi to create as many home-stay accommodations as possible with the
wholehearted cooperation from the house owners. This concept has been deep rooted in
to the hospitality industry as the people of Kerala are extremely hospitable and oriented
towards serving the visitors.
As such, Kumily is known for having possessed a large number of home- stays
accommodations and this typical accommodation is very much appreciated by the foreign
tourists. Along with rooms, the guests find a kind of homely ambience along with
homemade food and exchange of culture at a very reasonable cost. With the creation of
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home stay, the tourism industry has managed to overcome the acute shortage of rooms
and the host-guest interaction as the part of community-based tourism has become
possible through this wonderful concept. So much innovations and experimentations have
been initiated at the government level to ensure the uniform standards for the home- stays
operators across the State.
As far as the availability of home stays in Kumily is concerned, Table 3.10
exhibits the data with regard to number of rooms and beds and category of home stays in
2011. The DTPC has classified the home stays into Diamond, Gold and Silver on the
basis of facilities and quality of accommodation. It is found that there are 90 home stays
in Kumily. Out of which, eight home stays come under the Diamond Category, 15 under
Gold and 67 in the Silver Category respectively. All these three categories have created a
total 314 rooms and 658 beds. The concept of home stay is slowly gaining visibility and
acceptability in Kumily. However, foreign tourists largely sojourn in the home stays as
per the field visit reports.
Table 3.10
Home Stays in Kumily
Category No of Home Stays No of Room No of Beds Diamond 8 32 58
Gold 15 59 112 Silver 67 223 488 Total 90 314 658
Source: Official Records, District Tourism Promotion Council, Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum.
133
3.12.3. Boating Facility
Table 3.11 shows the maximum seating capacity of motorized boats engaged for
ferrying the visitors to sight the wild animals and forest from the running boats. As
many as five boats are put into service in the Thekkady lake as it is the only entry point
for the visitors. The KTDC has owned three boats namely Gala Raja, Jalasundari and
Jalamohini and the Department has owned other two boats named as Vanajyotsana and
Periyar Annexture XVII shows the boat timings and the duration of trip in the buffer zone
spreading over the water bodies of the Periyar Lake.
While looking at the total capacity of the boats, it is found that Gala Raja can
accommodate as many as 62 number of visitors in the upper deck and 64 in the lower
deck. Similalry, Jalasundari as one of the double-decker boats can accommodate as
maximum as 36 visitors in the lower deck and there is no facility for the visitors to sit in
the upper deck. In addition, Jalamohini is a small boat with a capacity of carrying 20
visitors. Other two medium-sized boats namely Vana Jyotsna and Periyar have the total
capacity of 40 in the upper deck and 80 in the lower deck respectively. Thus, all the five
boats irrespective of seat capacities can take a maximum of 302 visitors breaking into 102
for upper deck and 200 for lower deck in one time. As per the arrangements of the Forest
Department and the KTDC, one boat can ferry the visitors a maximum five times in a
day. Finally, it comes to a total of 1510 visitors that all the five boats can take the
visitors to the core areas for wildlife sightseeing.
134
Table 3.11
Maximum Seating Capacity of the Boats
Sl. No. Name of the Boat Upper Deck Lower Deck Total 1 Gala raja(KTDC) 62 64 126 2 Jalasundari(KTDC) ….. 36 36 3 Jalamohini(KTDC) …. 20 20 4 Vanajyotsna(Forest) 20 40 60 5 Periyar (Forest) 20 40 60 Total 102 200 302
Source: Official Records, Department of Forest & Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Thekkady
3.12.4. Revenue Generation from KTDC Boat Services
Table 3.12 shows the generation of revenue from the three KTDC-owned and
operated boats from 2006-07 to 2011-12. The year-wise total revenue generated from the
KTDC boat services as against of total number of visitors taken the services of boat was
21.78 lakh during 2006-2007 tourism season. There was a steady decline in number of
visitors in taking the boat ride between 2006-07 and 2011-12, excepting 2008-09 during
which the PTR could witness 2.01 lakh visitors taken the services of boat and the KTDC
operated boats alone generated total revenue of Rs.30.54 lakh.
While looking at the revenue earned from the boat services of KTDC, there was a
gradual rise in the revenue from 2006-07 to 2008-09 and subsequently, it declined in the
number of visitors to availed the boat services and revenue earned from the KTDC-
owned boats from 2009-10 to 2010-11. After a decline in the number of visitors for the
boat ride and revenue earnings, the PTR has witnessed the number of visitors to avail the
boat services and revenue earnings between 2010-11 and 2011-12. Thus, there is a
direct positive relationship between the rise in tourist arrivals and the rise in revenue
receipts from selling the tickets for the wildlife sightseeing from the boats.
135
It is found from the field the visit that there was a tragic death of 45 visitors,
including small children on September 30, 2009 in a boat mishap in the regular routes in
the tourism zone of the PTR. The unfortunate incidence raised the question of
preparedness of the authorities to such a magnitude of disaster. The loss of innocent life
in the capsized boats maligned the stainless image of the PTR which was known for its
safety, security and hospitality. The recent rise in the demand for boat ride and the
increase in the revenue from the KTDC operated boat services show the persistent efforts
of the Forest Department along with the KTDC in the improvement of safety measures
for the visitors, including life jackets, emergency boat and lifeguard. The study has
suggested that visitors should be sensitized about the safety measures with the help of
brochures or audio visual presentations in the nearby interpretation centers. Annexture
XII presents the per head by the KTDC and Forest Department-operated boat charges for
the visitors to sight the wild animals.
Table 3.12
Revenue Generation from the KTDC-Operated Boats (in Lakh)
Year No. of Visitors Availed the Services of Boat
Revenue Earned
2006-2007 1.99 21.78 2007-2008 1.90 23.09 2008-2009 2.01 30.54 2009-2010 1.78 19.33 2010-2011 1.28 20.90 2011-2012 1.38 24.37
Source: Official Records, Transit Lounge Office, KTDC, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum
3.13. COMMUNITY-BASED ECOTOURISM PROGRAMMES
The community-based ecotourism programmes (CBEPs) aim to equip the local
people with technical skills and knowledge to help the visitors learn and experience in the
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soft adventure activities through their active participations. This programme is unique in
meeting the two objectives. One is to diversify the ecotourism activities for the visitors to
prolong the stay that benefits the local community in earning livelihoods and the second
is to provide a wide range of choices to the visitors to spend in the various soft adventure
activities. Annexture VIII shows the road map of tourism zone along with the indentified
routes and places for undertaking ecotourism activities.
3.13.1 Visitor Participation in CBEPs
Table 3.13 shows the list of soft community-based and protection-oriented
ecotourism programmes and the number of visitors participated in each activity from
2004 to 2011. These programmes comprise Bamboo Rafting, Border Hiking, Bamboo
Groove, Jungle Camp, Windy Walk, Periyar Tiger Trail, Jungle Scout, Jungle Inn, Nature
Walk, Tribal Heritage Museum, Green Walk, Bullock Cart Discoveries, Range Scan and
Clouds walk. However, the nature walk, including trekking is one of the finest
programmes being enjoyed by the visitors.
While comparing the 15 types of the CBEPs presented in Table 3.13, it is clearly
evident from the secondary data pertaining to the year-wise total number of visitors
participated in the activities that the nature walk has attracted a maximum number of
visitors between 2004-05 and 2010-11. This particular activity attracted a total of 78,112
numbers of visitors from a total of 1,73,567 number of participants from all categories of
activities between 2004-05 and 2010-11. Furthermore, the participants, who joined in
the nature walk conducted by the PTR authority, constitute about 45 per cent of total
participants for all activities during the same period.
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Thus, it is proved from the analysis that the nature walk has become a principal
attraction that both the PTR has properly been showcasing and organizing for which
almost half of the participants enjoyed the joy of walking in the trails of jungle to sample
the species and their movements along with plants in the protected areas. Nevertheless,
there was a gradual increase of participants in the nature walk activity and it got declined
during 2007-08 and 2008-09 due to the heartbreaking death of innocent visitors in the
boat mishap. As reported in the table, there is an increase in the number of participants
for the nature walk during the next subsequent two tourist seasons (2009-10 and 2010-
11).
In order to find the year-wise percentage share of nature walk activities from the
total participants across the 15 different ecotourism activities, it is reported that the share
of nature as compared to the total participants accounted for 57.86 in 2004-05, 54.44 in
2005-06, 51.59 in 2006-07, 45.44 in 2007-08, 34.36 in 2008-09, 34.99 in 2009-10 and
47.13 in 2010-11 respectively. As it is clearly evident from the analysis that the
percentage share got gradually reduced till 2009-10 and got marginal increased in 2010-
11.
It may be interpreted from the results that participants across the age, gender and
income are delighted to take the nature walk with the help of certified and trained eco-
guide. Unlike bamboo rafting, the charge quoted by the PTA for undertaking nature walk
activity is comparatively low and is almost zero risk. Since this does not need for special
skills and fitness, many senior citizens and children are the target groups for the activity.
Further, it is designed to enable the visitors irrespective of income and budget for the
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activities in the PTR. The charge for nature walk is Rs.800 for four persons and Rs. 1200
for six persons. It is programmed in such a way that participants can leisurely walk,
observe and learn about the topography, ecosystem, animal habitations, etc. It is the
hallmark of the PTR’s ecotourism activities.
Green walk is one of the interesting and highly motivated activities that is a short
walk in the wilderness in the PTR areas. This particular walk is conducted to offer the
participants a kind of opportunity to admire, appreciate and enjoy the greenery of the
dense forest. Therefore, the soft adventure titled as “ Green Walk” is found to be the
second most important ecotourism activity on the basis of the total number of
participants. It is reported that as many as 25,898 participants took part in the green walk
in the PTR between 2007-08 and 2010-11 since the green walk was inducted into the
ecotourism programmes in 2007-08.
As far as bamboo rafting is concerned, the PTR authority has created this activity
for the visitors to take the enjoyment of rafting on a bundle of bamboos. This is typically
known as a traditional form of crossing the river and this form of soft adventure gives the
visitors to experience the bamboo rafting. It is reported that as many as 2360 visitors
participated in bamboo-rafting activity in the PTR during 2004-2005 and the number of
participants got increased to 3642 till 2006-07. Hence, it shows an increase of 35.2 per
cent from 2004-05 to 2006-07. However, the number of participants got declined by
47.83 percent i.e. 1900 during 2007-08. Subsequently, the number of participants for the
bamboo rafting witnessed marginal increase and decrease from 2008-09 to 2010-11. It is
ascertained from the fact that there was a decline in the total tourist arrivals due to the
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tragic boat incident in 2009 that obviously resulted in the low participations in the
bamboo-rafting activity.
Jungle scout is the third important soft adventure activity that offers unique
opportunity to the participants to stumble upon the nocturnal species during the jungle
tour in the night along with forest guard on the night patrolling duty. This activity has
received well appreciations from the participants since the probability of encountering the
species like porcupine, rabbit, and Malabar giant squirrel, etc is relatively high. There are
two objectives to conduct the jungle scout in the night escorted by the poacher-turned
eco-guide from the local tribal villages. The first is to generate direct income for the eco-
guide and the second is to stop poaching or hunting in the night. As revealed from the
interviews from the officials of the PTR that the night patrolling has been beefed up
through this activity and the traditional poachers have been transformed to be the
invaluable source of providing protections to the wildlife due to their much acquaintances
to the terrains and deep forests.
Jungle scout that has enticed 16,111 numbers of participants from 2004-05 to
2010-11, are figured as the fourth important activity in order of the number of
participants. There was a year-wise increase in the total number of participants for jungle
scout activity from 2004-05 to 2006-07 and it faced a marginal decline during 2007-08
due to the boat calamity. Surprisingly, there was a sudden increase in the number of
participants for this activity in 2008-09 and there has been a sharp fall in the number of
participants from 2010-11. Even it got down to 1157.
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The gradual decline and variations in the number of participants for jungle scout
seem to have occurred following the reasons other than the boat mishap, such as high
altitude walking in the night and targeted age group of participants, more importantly
tourists within the age group between 22 and 40.
Tribal heritage museum is a must-see place in the PTR and this museum exhibits
the various arts, artifacts and other household objects for the visitors to be familiar with
the rich tribal heritage. As many as 8160 number of visitors visited the museum as per the
departmental record. It is the fifth place in order of the number of visitors. The museum
not only houses a large collection of objects belonging to the primitive tribes of the
Periyar region, but also symbolizes a true testimony to preserve for the tribal culture and
heritage. It has its own significance when the community-based ecotourism is largely
given thrust in the PTR.
Besides all these five notable ecotourism programmes, the remaining others do
not seem to have become so effective in alluring the visitors to take part in the activities.
Even though some of these activities have all potentials to be as attractive as the leading
five ecotourism activities, but the PTR ought to bring the benefits of participations to the
knowledge of visitors. For example, Periyar tiger trail and bullock cart discoveries are the
two important CBEPs to entice the visitors to learn, appreciate, admire and enjoy the
activities aiming for saving the tiger and the age-old mode of transport for novelty
feeling.
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Table 3.13
Year-Wise Participants in CBEPs
CBEP
Year-Wise No. of Participants ( In Thousands)
TTotal
2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11
Bamboo Rafting 2.36 2.51 3.64 1.90 2.28 2.03 2.10 16.82
Border Hiking 0.517 0.885 1.11 1.04 0.939 0.833 0.974 6.30
Bamboo Groove 0.351 0.653 1.30 1.12 1.29 1.51 0.516 6.73
Jungle Camp 0 0.032 0.480 0.415 0.125 0.180 0.140 1.37
Windy Walk 0 0 0 0.026 0.018 0.012 0 0.056
Tiger Trail 0.230 0.291 0.329 0.330 0.402 0.341 0.235 2.15
Jungle Scout 1.75 2.52 2.98 2.48 2.70 2.54 1.16 16.11
Jungle Inn 0.032 0.053 0.076 0.029 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.295
Nature Walk 8.92 10.33 12.76 11.60 9.58 11.10 13.84 78.11
Tribal Museum 1.04 1.25 1.43 1.12 1.41 1.20 0.696 8.16
Green Walk 0 0 0 3.97 5.69 8.91 7.32 25,898
Bullock Cart Discoveries
0.212 0.452 0.633 0.634 0.450 0.538 0.538 3.46
Range Scan 0 0 0 0 0.314 0.446 0.142 0.902
Clouds Walk 0 0 0 0.844 2.64 2.04 1660 7.19 Total 15.41 18.97 24.74 25.50 27.87 32 29.00 174.000
Source: Official Records, Periyar Foundation, Department of Forest & Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Thekkady
3.13.2. Year-Wise Revenue from CBEPs
Table 3.14 presents the year-wise revenue from CBEPs between 2004-05 and
2010-11. All forms of ecotourism are designed to seek supports from the local
community members to implement the policy and programmes for the mutual benefits of
all the stakeholders. The fundamental benefit that the ecotourism projects aiming to bring
for the local community members are the socio-economic development through the
income and employment generation. This particular objective that the Forest Department
of Kerala has been critical about from the very beginning of implementation of
ecotourism projects in the PTR has been achieved with the committed efforts of the
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Department to get the project implemented through the EDC as a community-oriented
approach.
The Department of Forest, the PTR East Division has incurred the total revenue of
Rs.690.27 lakh from all these 15 ecotourism programmes from 2004-05 to 2010-11. This
amount of revenue generation itself explains about the trickle down effects in the local
economy of Thekkady that remains to be a backward district in Kerala. While taking the
total revenue generated from the individual ecotourism programmes, bamboo rafting
programme has contributed an amount of Rs. 174.24 lakh to the PTR from 2004-05 to
2010-11. This accounts for one fourth (25.24 %) of the total revenue generated during
the whole period. However, the bamboo rafting is third largest programmes in terms of
attracting the number of participants during the same period.
It may be further interpreted that this activity could generate one fourth of
revenue due to the relatively high participation fees and value-for-money for the
participants. In addition, this programme includes both the trekking as well as rafting for
which participants seem to have regarded the activity as worth participating and
spending. Moreover, bamboo rafting is a soft adventure activity, which has all potentials
to contribute more revenue to the socio-economic mission of the PTR to alleviate
poverty, hunger and malnourishment.
The second highest revenue to the tune of Rs. 108.51 lakh has been generated
from the nature walk activity from 2004-05 to 2010-11. This forms 15.67 per cent of the
total revenue (690.27 lakh) generated from all the 15 activities.
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Apart from being one of the major contributors of tourism revenue to the
exchequer of the PTR East Division, the nature walk has become the first major
ecotourism programme in respect of handling the number of participants shown in Table
3.13. Thus, there is large scope for nature walk to generate more revenue for the EDC in
the future since it is generally amenable to all the age and income segments of the
visitors. In this regard, the authority should conduct more nature walk activity that is non-
consumptive and direct form of ecotourism. As reported in the field visit and pilot study,
there was overwhelming response and interest for taking part in the nature walk not
because of less strenuous, zero risk and low participation fee, but because of appreciating,
learning and enjoying the nature’s beauty, serenity and sanctity.
As regards the tiger trail as a potential ecotourism programme, the revenue
generated from this particular programme has turned to be Rs. 83.54 lakh accounting for
12.10 per cent from the total revenue earned during the same period. Having looked into
the number of participants, the tiger trail has not become a major attractive ecotourism
prorgamme being promoted by the PTR since its beginning. Whereas, the volume of
revenue has made the tiger trail as a third most important revenue contributor in the PTR.
One of the reasons for the tiger trail to contribute a little more than one tenth of the total
revenue may be attributed to the higher participation fees and it is a niche attraction for
hard-core eco-tourists or wildlife tourists having much interest and care for wild animals.
It was reported from the interviews and interactions with participants during the field
visits that most of the participants wish to contribute for the development of the
community.
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Close to the amount of revenue generated from tiger trail is found to be jungle
scout with an amount of Rs. 82.12 lakh between 2004-05 and 2010-11. The share of
revenue earned through the jungle scout activity is 11.89 per cent. As it is a programme
being conducted in the night and escorted by the trained eco-guides, the fee for
participating is relatively high and hard-core or dedicated type of eco-tourists with much
interest and curiosity to experience the dense forest and high altitude areas. Hence, there
is a scope for increasing revenue from this activity as it forms to be one of the major
activities on the basis of the number of participants. More importantly, it is essential to
increase the amount of revenue from this activity to stop illegal poaching in the reserve
areas and to encourage the poachers to work for the jungle scout for earning dignified and
steady income. As revealed, the authorities of PTR have converted the traditional
poachers into eco-guides or nature guides and the participants are enlightened with the
traditional knowledge and experience of eco-guides. Thus, jungle scout has sufficient
prospects for attracting more participants in the future.
Other ecotourism programmes, which also share significant amount of revenue
with the total revenue generated from the whole activities, comprise bamboo grove with
9.38 per cent or Rs. 64.81 lakh, Range scan with 5.32 per cent or 36. 75 lakh and green
walk with 4.38 per cent or 30.25 laks respectively.
On the other hand, it is reported from the table that there was a gradual increase in
the year-wise revenue generated from all 15 activities between 2004-05 and 2006-07. The
amount of inflow of revenue through all the ecotourism programmes was down about
23.74 per cent i.e. 92.31 lakh in 2007-08 as compared to 114.23 lakh in 2006-07. The
one-fourth downfall of revenue was reported in 2007-08 due to the mid-water boat
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mishap. Subsequently after, there was a rise in the amount of revenue consecutively for
two years and a decline again in 2010-11.
It is inferred from the analysis of the year-wise revenue generated from the
various activities that many so called CBEPs do not seem to yield desired results,
excepting a half dozen ecotourism prorgammes. Thus, this is an important finding from
the analysis of the data that the continuous variation in the year-wise revenue and revenue
generated from the individual ecotourism activity is a concern to be investigated further
by the authorities. The amount of revenue generated from the ecotourism activities does
not seem to bring about visible changes in the PTR areas and the community members do
not seem to be benefited much from the revenue. These are the possible reasons such as
lack of focused eco-tourists or nature lovers, increasing number of day-visitors and lack
of coordinated efforts for which the volume of revenue has not been increased over the
years.
Table 3.14
Revenue Generated from CBEPs
Name of the CBEPs Year-Wise Revenue ( In Lakh)
2004-05 2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
Total
Bamboo Rafting 23.60 25.07 36.42 19.00 22.83 20.34 26.98 174.24 Border Hiking 3.88 6.64 10.46 8.26 7.04 6.24 8.48 51 Bamboo Groove 3.51 6.52 12.94 11.20 12.86 11.33 6.45 64.81 Jungle Camp 0 0.16 2.40 2.07 0.62 0.90 0.70 6.85 Windy Walk 0 0 0 0.19 0.13 0.09 0 0.41 Tiger Trail 9.48 11.33 12.53 12.26 15.06 12.67 10.21 83.54 Jungle Scout 8.74 12.59 14.86 12.40 13.47 12.69 7.38 82.13 Jungle Inn 0.64 1.07 1.53 0.59 0.68 0.70 0.72 5.93 Nature Walk 13.44 13.66 16.92 15.38 12.71 14.70 21.70 108.51 Tribal Museum 1.04 1.25 1.43 0.56 0.70 0.60 0.35 5.93 Green Walk 0 0 0 3.97 5.69 8.91 11.68 30.25 Bullock Cart Discoveries
0.16 3.39 4.74 4.75 3.37 4.03 4.61 25.05
Range Scan 0 0 0 0 2.35 33.34 1.06 36.75 Clouds Walk 0 0 0 1.68 5.28 4.08 3.83 14.87
Total 64.49 81.68 114.23 92.31 102.79 130.62 104.15 690.27 Source: Official Records, Periyar Foundation, Department of Forest & Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Thekkady
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3.14. MANPOWER IN PTR
The custodian of the PTR is the Department of Forest, Government of Kerala and
the Department has been vested with authority to safeguard the flora and fauna and
regulate the livelihood related activities such as agriculture, collection of forest products,
tourism, etc. More importantly, ecotourism has been preferred for providing alternative
occupations to the local tribes. The efforts through the formation of the EDC have
resulted in the creation of dignified income for both men and women from the local
community. They were otherwise engaged in the traditional agriculture activities or in the
direct collection of barks, honey, seeds, fruits, medicinal plants, etc. Those tribes are also
fond of trapping live birds, hens, rabbits, porcupine etc and catching fish.
3.14.1 Staff Strength in Periyar East Division
Table 3.15 contains the total number of official staff, including officers of the
Department of Forest working for PTR. As many as 193 staff members along with
officers are posted in the various positions to discharge the duties like guarding forest,
wildlife and other natural resources, the conduct of tiger and elephant census, creation of
awareness programme among the local people and school children, regulation of
ecotourism activities, management of the EDC, operation and maintenance of forest
lodges, jungle roads, parking areas, boats, conduct of research, participation in the
workshop, coordination with other stakeholders, estimation of budget outlays,
computation of tourist arrivals and revenue receipts from tourism.
As seen in the table that the Department has posted 125 forest guards for the PTR
and these guards account for 64.76 per cent of the total staff positions. Similarly, there
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are 25 foresters representing 12.95 per cent of the total sanctioned staff strength of the
PTR. Hence, the distribution of staff across the positions indicates that the forest guards
have outnumbered all the positions.
Table 3.15
Staff Strength in Periyar East Division, Thekkady
Sl No. Official Positions Sanctioned Staff Strength
1 Deputy Director (Project Tiger) 1 2 Asst Field Director 1 3 Deputy Director (WE) 1 4 AFVO 1 5 Senior Superintendent 1 6 Junior Superintendent 1 7 Head Accountant 2 8 Range Officer 6 9 Deputy Ranger 3 10 Forester 25 11 Forest Guard 105 12 UD Clerk and LD Clerk 12 13 UD Typist 1 14 LD Typist 1 15 Confidential Assistant 1 16 Statistical Asst Grade I 1 17 Driver 4 18 Peon 8 19 Watcher Cum Cook 2 20 Boat Driver 6 21 Boat Watcher 2 22 Boat Cleaner 2 23 Boat Lascar 1 24 Trekker Cum Gardner 1 25 Mahout 1 26 PTS 3 27 Total 193
Source: Official Records, the Deputy Director Office, Department of Forest & Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Thekkady
3.14.2. Staff Strengths in Periyar Foundation
Table 3.16 shows the distribution of staff members at the various official
positions in the Periyar Foundation. This foundation has been established with a noble
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cause for saving the tiger as a biggest predator in the natural ecosystem in the PTR. As
tiger is the key species and its presence is essentially important for the ecosystem to
function, the foundation has so far done commendable works for increasing the tiger
census that has resulted in the rise in other faunal species in the ecosystem. For instance,
the age-old poachers have been appointed as the eco-guides, escorts, porters and other
service staff in the ecotourism programmes. The most visible initiative of staff members
of the foundation is focused on the research on the tiger and predators in the forest of
Periyar. As many as 11 staff members are working for the foundation to execute policy
and programmes for the conservation of tiger.
Table 3.16
Distribution of Staff in Periyar Foundation
Sl. No. Official Positions No. of Staff 1 Member Secretary 1 2 Conservation Biologist and Ecologist 2 3 Assistant Nature Education Officer 1 4 Accountant 1 5 Information Assistant 1 6 Computer Operator 1 7 Data Entry Operator 2 8 Clerical Assistant 1 9 Peon- Cum-Sweeper 1 Total 11
Source: Official Records, Periyar Foundation, Department of Forest & Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Thekkady
3.15. ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF PERIYAR FOUNDATION
The Periyar Foundation is a Government-owned public trust with the legality of
the Government organization and flexibility of a good NGO. The main aim of the
foundation is to facilitate and support the biodiversity conservation initiatives through
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eco-development and people’s participation in the PTR. It also supports similar initiatives
in adjoining landscapes formed as per G.O (MS) No. 36/2004/F&WLD, dated 27-7-2004.
3.15.1 Activities of Periyar Foundation
The conservation Biology Wing of the Foundation carries out long-term as well as
short-term research and monitoring programmes in the surrounding areas of the PTR and
its adjoining landscapes. This includes monitoring of tigers, co-predators and health
monitoring of prey species and their habitats. Even studies are related to monitoring of
population of Elephants, Gaur and other animals along with contentious and complex
issues linked to human-wildlife conflict, impacts of eco-development initiatives on the
ecosystem, baseline studies, impact of Sabarimala pilgrimage and community-based
ecotourism.
The Foundation seeks the external direct funding from the Department of Tourism
and Directorate of Ecotourism of Government of Kerala along with the US Fish and
Wildlife Service to undertake studies related to sustainable ecosystem in the PTR. Many
studies have revealed the path-breaking research findings to address the negative impacts
due to the ecotourism, agriculture, timber trade, dam, etc. Preparation of management
plans for other protected areas, participatory micro planning and rapid biodiversity
assessment are some of the consultancy works are largely taken up as a non-profit
making activity.
Training workshops and seminars are conducted at local, regional, national and
international levels. Training programmes include the capacity building for field staff in
wildlife techniques and biodiversity assessment, law, habitat and fire management,
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Global Positioning System (GPS), eco-development, crime investigation, use of GPS,
camera traps, India Tiger Monitoring Programme, Elephant Census, training in
management of wild elephants, collection of metrological data such as rainfall,
temperature, humidity etc. Seminars and workshops are conducted for the vetinary
doctors in collaboration with Indian Vetinary Association (IVA). National level
workshop for senior forest officers in ecotourism planning in protected areas in
collaboration with the WII, Dehradun is regularly conducted.
Nature education and trainings are conducted for a variety of campaigns for
creating nature awareness, sensitization, dissemination, outreach, awareness, campaigns,
celebrations, exposure visit for the EDC members, students, members of the nature
clubs and other stakeholders, including Panchayat (local administration) and tour
operators, home-stays owners, hoteliers, the local administration and Anganwadis.
The Foundation provides camp equipment to the field staff and watchers from the
local community engaged for protection in the interior forest areas. The professionals of
the Foundation support the park management in analyzing the data on wildlife
monitoring, weather projects/programmes pertaining to effective management and
documentation of park values.
The Foundation supports eco-development activities by funding various micro
plan activities and helps the EDCs in reviewing and implementing various micro plan
activities and in conducting various studies on ecological and socio economic impacts.
Local people are empowered through continuous training, capacity building and scientific
temperament of research. The foundation helps in the formation of new EDCs and
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innovative alternate income generation activities. It acts as a nodal agency for marketing
and branding the producers of EDCs, including exporting the indigenous products. Other
activities include the adoption of the health center and tribal schools for providing dust
bins and technical support for waste management.
3. 15.2. Structure and Composition of EDC’s
The relationship between the park authorities and local people is harmonized
through the IEDP, established in the PTR on December 29, 1996 till June 2004. The
major objective of the IEDP was to improve capacity of protected area management, to
conserve biodiversity and to minimize negative impacts of people. The major
components of IEDP include the management of protected areas, village eco-
development, nature education and training research and monitoring. At the end of the
project period, about 72 EDCs were formed encompassing almost 40,000 people from the
forest fringe areas. As a result, negative dependency of these people on forest was almost
reduced and poaching and wildlife crime rate was reported to be at its lowest. Further,
sandal smuggling and forest fires were controlled through participatory management of
these EDCs beyond the project period. Annexture XIV presents the names of various
EDCs in a table in the Periyar East Division.
3.15.2. 1. Structure of the EDC
As per the bylaws of the EDC, all the SC and ST families along with all women
are to be included apart from the other representations of other members. Each family is
represented by two members and one of the members must be a female. The Range
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Officer is deemed to be the Assistant Eco-development Officer and the forester is the Ex-
office Secretary. However, one of the best forest guards in the area is the Assistant Ex-
officio Secretary. The General Body of the EDC elects an Executive Committee
consisting of seven members and one person is the chairperson of the committee. Among
the remaining six members, three shall be female and three from the SC and ST category
(only if the SC and ST representation is there in the General Body).
The forester is the member secretary. The Ex-office secretary does not have any
voting power and the bank account of EDC is jointly operated by Chairman Ex-office
Secretary and one nominated female member of the Executive Committee. The micro
plans are prepared by the committee and submitted in the meeting of Eco-Development
Implementation Committee (EDIC) for approval. All the 72 EDC’s functioning have
passed through 5th years of micro plan implementation. The target population is about
58,000 in selected villages with in 2 km radius of which 25 per cent belongs to the SC
and 4 per cent to the ST. Every family of the village EDC is eligible for an amount of Rs
12,500 as project investment and the villages have to contribute 25 per cent in the form of
Kind, Cash or Labour. A part of this money thus invested is collected back to the
Community Development Fund (CDF).
3.16.3. Village Eco-Development
The objectives of the village eco-development activity are to reduce negative
interaction of local people on the biodiversity of PTR and increase collaboration of local
people in its conservation. Three micro planning support teams were constituted,
including the trained forest staff, ecologist, sociologist and non-government individuals
153
(NGI’s) for preparing micro plans for village investments. The process of micro planning
completed by September 2000 and 72 micro plans covering 5,540 families irrespective of
the EDC’s were prepared and it is now in the stage of implementation.
The central to this programme is the participatory planning. It is a dynamic
ongoing process that runs concurrent to implementation due to the combination of factors
more than three fourths of the available project time used to constitute the EDC’s and to
review the working of EDC’s. Two case studies from the PTR on eco-development
initiative were published in the World Bank document with a title namely “Supporting
the Web of Life” during 2001.
3.16.3.1. Eco-Development Committee Formation
For the formation of EDC, an Eco-development Zone has been created in a
distance of 2 km from the boundary of the protected areas. Annexure V shows the Eco-
development Zone and Core Areas within which several CBEPs are conducted for the
visitors in association with the local community members. Tribal settlement, SC colonies
and other marginal and backward fringe area communities were given the maximum
priority. However, the committee was constituted as per the government order in a
phased manner.
3.16.4. Micro Planning
Micro planning was initiated through the Protected Area Mutual Interaction
Assessment (PAMIA) methods. The areas selected for EDC formation passes through the
three micro planning support teams consisting of trained forest staff and NGO’s with the
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support of sociologists. The feasibility analysis is done by the Ecologist and Sociologist
during Micro Planning. The teams conduct the PAMIA and organize a series of
discussions with the EDC members. Micro plans were prepared jointly by the EDCs and
Micro planning Support Teams (MIST) and were subsequently approved by the Eco-
Development Implementation Committee (EDIC). Annexure VI shows the seven
identified India Eco-Development Project Reserves across India.
3.16.5. Types of Eco-Development (EDCs)
The process of Micro planning was completed by September 2000 and 72 Micro
plans covering 5440 families have been prepared. As the Micro plan progressed, the
dependency level varies from one EDC to another. People tend to identify themselves in
strong social and ethnic groups. As a result, a novel approach evolved for the formation
of the EDC based on occupational groups rather than settlement alone due to peculiar
geographical settlement pattern in the area and social structure. There are four categories
of the EDC: neighborhood, pilgrimage management, professional group and user group.
Neighborhood: These are EDCs at the village level comprising of all the
families in a particular geographical or administrative area. The micro plans for these
committees mainly aim at improving the economic conditions of those families and
providing financial, technical and marketing support to improve their resources mainly
agriculture. They include Manakudy, Sathram, Ceylon Colony and Angel Valley EDCs.
Pilgrimage Management: Even though it is a part of the User Group of EDCs
known as SAPP (Swami Ayyappa Poonkavanam Punarudhanam), but their activities are
limited to the pilgrimage season. These members operate along the traditional pilgrimage
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routes to Sabarimala Shrine and provide basic amenities to pilgrims in an eco-friendly
way.
Professional Group: This committee works for the long-term positive
interactions and supports in various management activities in the protected areas. The
membership is permanent based on the levels of interaction and knowledge about the
protected areas in the past. For instance, the Ex Vayana Bark Collectors EVBC EDC,
Periyar Tiger Samrakshana Samiti, PETS EDC, TTEDC Tribal Trekkers EDC, and Tribal
Trekkers Heritage EDC,TTHEDC, Vidiyal EDC and Ex Thelli Collectors EDC
User Group: Reduction of negative impacts on the resources of protected areas is
given utmost priority in this category. Groups of individuals that depend on a particular
resource of the park include graziers, fuel wood and thatching grass collectors as the
EDC members. The members need not necessarily belong to one settlement. It is the use
of a particular resource that being them one fold.
The PTR has evolved a self-managed ecotourism site to raise the revenue for
conservation of forest and wildlife. One of the key objectives is to earn from the visitors
as a part of sustainable tourism practices. Nothing is free in the world and there would be
charge for the user of facilities. Similarly, there is no free lunch for those who wish to
enjoy the nature in the protected areas. Over and above, the philosophy for conservation,
more important thing is to make the visitors feel responsible for and affectionately
attached with the flora and fauna.
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It is a kind of contribution that the visitors share for the fulfillment of mutual
benefits. Visitors with much interest in learning, experiencing, admiring and enjoying the
rich biodiversity along with the culture are largely conscious of their roles and behaviours
at the ecotourism destinations. The user fees being collected by the authority of PTR is
well accepted and appreciated across the categories of visitors and the service providers.
It is a proven case as far as the productive utilization of revenue generated from the entry
fees, camera and video fees, parking fees and the sale of tickets for using boats for
sighting the wildlife and enjoying the nature, etc for keeping upkeep of the public areas in
the reserve. Those amounts of revenue are directly spent for the welfare of local
community and are utilized for the payment of remunerations to the forest guards, eco-
guides and boat man, and etc. journey in the PTR. As a model Reserve in promoting
responsible ecotourism tourism, managing the facilities and amenities from the tourism
revenue is essentially important step of the PTR.
3. 17. Major Sources of Generating Revenue
As it is shown in Table 3.17, the authorities have generated revenue mostly from
the entry and user fees. As much as Rs. 1387.14 lakh or Rs. 13.87 crore have been raised
from both domestic and foreign visitors in the Reserve from 2006-07 to 2010-11. Apart
from a fall in the total revenue in 2009-10, there has been an increase in the inflow of
revenue through entry and user fees during the period. However, the total revenue during
2010-11 was collected to the tune of Rs. 336.73 lakh. It is further reported that the entry
fees collected from the foreign check post accounts for the maximum as compared to
other sources of generating revenue.
157
While looking at the individual component of revenue generation, the check post
for foreign and domestic tourists account for 55.42 per cent (768. 76 lakh) , revenue
from boat service 12.74 per cent ( 176.86 lakh) from the total revenue collected over the
five year period. A total of 219.29 lakh or 15.80 per cent of the total revenue was
collected through the component of entry fees of tourist vehicles. Thus, it is found from
the data that forest check post has remained to become the first important source of
revenue, followed by the domestic check post, vehicle entry fees and tickets for taking
boat ride in order of second, third and fourth highest contributors to the total revenue
generated during the five years. Annexture XIII (a), (b) and (c) shows the visitor fees,
vehicle entry fees and still and video camera respectively as the sources of revenue for
the PTR.
158
Table 3. 17
Major Sources of Generating Revenue from Entry Fees of Visitors in PTR (In Lakh)
Source: Official Records, Thekkady Range Office, Department of Forest & Wildlife, Government of Kerala, Thekkady
Year
Bo
at
Ind
ians
Fo
reign
KT
DC
Vid
eo
Still
Cam
era
R/H
Ro
yalty
Pen
alty
Ind
ian C
heck
Po
st
Stu
den
t In
dian
Fo
reign C
heck
Po
st
Stu
den
ts F
oreign
Veh
icle
12
yrs C
hild
ren
To
tal
2006-07 17.23 30 3.66 1.58 14.95 16.50 0.736 0.173 0.645 62.35 2.25 90.21 0.0381 40.09 1.89 255.81
2007-08 22.41 -- 4.07 1.31 14.22 17.20 -- 0 0.045 64.33 2.16 103.62 0.0577 42.40 2.06 273.91
2008-09 34.18 --- 3.16 1.48 13.35 18.04 --- --- 1.25 72.94 1.97 95.34 0.0666 48.25 0.0079 290.03
2009-10 34.56 -- 2.25 0.833 6.57 10.21 --- --- 61.99 0.932 70.76 0.0574 40.53 1.96 230.66
2010-11 68.48 --- 2.37 1.74 48.02 15.43 --- --- 2.10 70.55 1.14 76.67 0.0443 48.02 2.17 336.73
Total 176.86 30 15.51 6.943 97.11 77.38 0.736 0.173 4.04 332.16 8.45 436.6 0.264 219.29 8.08 1387.14
159
Conclusion
The PTR has a long history in taking care of the conservation measures for the
protection of wildlife and preservation of forest resources. With the passage of time, the
construction of irrigation dam, sporadic shifting cultivation and animal poaching by
tribes and hunting by the royal family members and collection of forest products like
timber, barks, leafs and honey, etc have largely disturbed the functioning of ecosystem
and altered the natural landscape of the Reserve. Embracing ecotourism as an alternative
form for conservation of wildlife, forest, primitive people and culture and other natural
resources has produced perceptible improvement since the paradigm was introduced. The
PTR has not only wooed the tourists for inculcating love and care for nature, wildlife and
primitive people, but also generated substantial amount of revenue from the various
activities of ecotourism with marginal variations. This has resulted in the creation of
employments for the local community members, thus increasing the income and
purchasing power.
The Forest Authorities have so far become proactive in regulating the tourism
activities and innovative in introducing the activities with strict adherence to the
ecotourism guidelines and the International Ecotourism Society (TIES). The participants
or the tourists are largely enlightened with the relationships in the ecosystem and their
interdependences. As a result, the EDCs have set the examples for other ecotourism
projects to emulate the social and economic empowerment programmes. The Periyar
Foundation is committed for the education, training, research and empowerment, etc in
160
the PTR and it is proved to be a catalyst for the EDCs to get benefited largely from the
ecotourism activities.
The analysis of the secondary data pertaining to the microscopic view of the
ecotourism in the PTR has widen the scope for drawing the inferences with regard to the
visitor satisfaction and community empowerment through the practices of sustainable
ecotourism. Many of the unanswered questions related to the facilities, amenities, safety,
hospitality and activities, etc do not seem to have been clarified with the interpretations
for which the primary data presented in Chapter IV have comprehensively been analyzed
and interpreted. However, the elaborate, intensive and comprehensive analysis and
discussions with reference to the ecotourism in the PTR have certainly revealed that the
PTR is not a symbolic ecotourism destination rather it has become a model ecotourism
site for others to emulate the practices over the years. It is truly a site to be reckoned with
as identified for fostering symbiotic relationships between local people, visitors, service
providers, NGOs, government, wildlife and plants, etc.