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Report of the Minor Research Project

Sponsored by UGC

A Study on the Impact of Project Tiger at Periyar Tiger reserve Thekkady on the Life and Culture of the Mannan Tribal People of Thekkady

Bino P Jose

Assistant Professor

Dept of History

St Dominic’s College Kanjirapally

MG University Kottayam

2013 – 15

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CONTENTS

1. Introduction

1.1. Research Problem

1.2. Significance of the Study

1.3. Delimiting the Study

1.4. Methodology

1.5. Survey of Literature

2. Mannan Cultural Changes over Decades

2.1. Major Tribal Commuinities of Idukki District

2.2. Idukki District; Land and People

2.2.1. Forest Cover

2.2.2. The Tribal People of Idukki District

2.2.2.1. Muduvans

2.2.2.2. Hill Pulayas

2.2.2.3. Mannans

2.2.2.4. Uralis

2.2.2.5. Malai Arayans

2.2.2.6. Ulladas

2.3. Mannans and Their Settlements

2.3.1. Geography

2.3.2. History

2.3.3. The Mannan People

2.3.4. Poopulation

2.3.5. Education

2.3.6. Settlements

2.3.7. Social Life

2.3.8. Language

3. The Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR) and Its Impact

3.1. Reserve in Brief

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3.2. Wild Life Sanctuaries

3.3. Protected Areas, Eco tourism and the Local People

3.4. Eco Development Comittees

3.5. The Concept of Participatory Forest Protection

3.5.1. Goal

3.5.2. Objectives

3.5.3. Involving Local People in Conservation

3.6. Positive Impacts

3.6.1. Employment and Means of Livelihood

3.6.2. Sharing Benefits

3.6.3. Reducing Negative Dependency

3.6.4. Reduction of Poverty

3.6.5. Settled Life

3.6.6. Tackling the Issue of Exploitation by Intermediaries

3.6.7. Improved Self Esteem

3.6.8. Benefits of Environment Protection

3.7. Forest Rights and Relations Transformed

3.8. Some Apprehensions

3.8.1. Loss of Freedom

3.8.2. Life Around aDam

3.8.3. Loss of Inheritance

3.8.4. Accessing Genetic Resources

3.8.5. Intellectual Property Rights Malpractices

3.8.6. Environmental Impacts

4. Conclusions

References

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Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Periyar Tiger Reserve Thekkady, is very significant on several respects

including its ecological political and social aspects. The place has a

unique position in the tourism map of the state. It is notable for its rich

bio diversity. What is overlooked often is the social diversity of the

place that includes the presence of a cosmopolitan population including

the visitors from all continents. Side by side to this floating population

reside the centuries old inhabitants, a few groups of Scheduled tribes –

Adivasis – among whom the Mannan Tribe is notable on several

grounds. They have been there for centuries and the customs are unique

to them. However, the developmental as well as tourism projects in the

area have influenced their life in a very complex manner.

Perhaps the life of the members of the Mannan Tribe in the geographical

reach of the Periyar National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary present before

the social science students a unique case of perfect and frequent

interaction with the cosmopolitan society by a tribal community while

maintaining their cultural originality on the other hand. This is an

example of a tribal community experiencing total shift in the subsistence

pattern meanwhile maintaining many of the cultural traits. This has been

achieved by the imaginative policies of the Project Tiger on the one hand

and the strength of the social organization of the Mannans.

The construction of the dam and then the declaration of the Tiger

Reserve affected the life of the tribe in many ways including the sharp

shift in the subsistence pattern. Hunting gathering and shifting

cultivation gave way to the very modern means of life. There are many

tourist guides. Life of seclusion and isolation slowly gave way to close

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interaction with the state, the main stream local society and the floating

population of international and national tourists. This minor research

project sponsored by the University Grants Commission tries to analyse

the impact of project tiger at Periyar Tiger Reserve Thekkady on the life

and culture of the Mannan Tribal People of Thekkady.

The base details of Periyar Tiger Reserve are the following:

Location : 76º 55’ and 77º 25’ East Longitude and 9º 18’

and 9º41’ North Latitude.

Area : 777 sq. km.

Year of formation : Declared a Sanctuary during 1950

Declared as Reserve : 1978

Climate : Temperature varies from 15ºC to 31ºC

Topography : Altitude ranging from 900 to 2000m

Highest peak : Kottamala (2016m)

Rainfall : Average annual rainfall is 1700mm.

Rivers : Mullayar, Periyar, Amba and Azhuta

Forest Types : Tropical evergreen forests, tropical semi-

evergreen forests, moist deciduous

forests, grasslands and eucalyptus plantations.

Bio diversity : 62 species of mammals, 315 sp. of birds, 45

species of reptiles, 16 species of amphibians and

38 species of fishes

Thekkadi is located in the cardamom hills and Pandalam hills of the

southern Western Ghats. The hills are on the borderland between Kerala

and Tamil Nadu, in Kerala. Thekkadi is 4 kms from Kumaly, a place

located 110 kms east of Kottayam, on Kollam – Theni National

Highway. Periyar Tiger Reserve is located amidst agricultural villages

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on the eastern border of the state of Kerala. There are plantations of

crops like tea and cardamom. In 1895, a dam was constructed across the

river Periyar to provide irrigation for parts of Tamil Nadu. Around the

new reservoir, the Periyar Lake, lay the forest area that was declared as

reserve forest in 1899. Then it was named Periyar Lake Reserve.

“Project Tiger implemented a range of programmes including

consolidation of boundaries, relocation of human dwelling from the

interior to minimize distributances to wildlife, fencing or digging

trenches in vulnerable areas to prevent cattle from straying into the

sanctuary, habitat improvements, prevention of wildfire, maintenance of

swamps and waterholes, encouraging the growth of folder species and

elimination of commercial exploitation of forest products.”

1.1. Research Problem

The study is on the Mannan tribe and the shifts and changes they

experience in various walks of life in the context of the coming into

existence of the Periyar Tiger Reserve. It tries to analyse the impact of

project tiger at Periyar Tiger Reserve Thekkady on the life and culture of

the Mannan Tribal People of Thekkady.

Low rate of literacy, addiction to liquor, loss of land to the rich and

becoming labourers, and exposure to the external world on the one hand

and tribal identity being the base of making a living and thus the

necessity to keep it up on the other put the Mannans in a paradoxical

situation. The study intends to develop a deeper understanding of this

paradoxical situation too.

1.2. Significance of the Study

Both the Mannan Tribe and the Periyar Tiger Reserve are significant in

several respects. The Mannans are the only tribe in Kerala that still has

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got a king. The tribe has many of the age-old customs and traditions still

upheld. More importantly, they provide a unique example of mingling

with the main stream society without being forced to abandon their

cultural originality. They are now a people living in and in close contact

with the main stream post modern society and international community

but maintaining their cultural traits intact.

The Periyar Tiger Reserve spreads over three districts of Kerala and is

very significant for its bio diversity. The heart of the Reserve is close to

the Kerala – Tamilnadu border and thus it is a place of trade and cultural

interaction. It is one of the pioneering reserve forests in case of

developing and implementing imaginative participatory methods of

forest protection under which the rights of the people of the forests – the

original forest dwellers of Adivasis – were recognized. The rights of the

original as well as the needs for protecting the forest were combined and

the Adivasis were brought into cooperation in the forest protection

initiatives. Eco Development Committees were formed and part of the

responsibility for forest protection was handed to them. The initiative

proved fruitful in several respects including the protection of the forest

and the forest rights of the Adivasis simultaneously, a task that was

thought to be very difficult to achieve for its contradiction of the

interests within.

• The study intends to include the evaluation of the influence of exposure

to the external world of Mannans of Thekkadi.

• The study tries to examine the effect of government controls on

Mannans regarding the access to the resources of forests.

• To evaluate the impact of participatory approach in environmental

conservation initiated and implemented at Project Tiger.

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1.3. Delimiting the Study

The tribal communities of Kumily, number around a total of 2000. They

live the traditional way of life and culture to a great extend and they are

generally in harmony with Nature. The ethnic communities that live here

are the Mannans, the Paliyas, the Uralis, the Malai Arayas and the

Malampandarams. They are settled in different parts of Kumily

Panchayath. Their main habitats are on the outskirts of the Periyar Tiger

Reserve. The study is limited to the Mannan tribe alone. In order to get a

comparative understanding of the impact of Project Tiger on the life of

the Mannan tribe, the life and culture of the Mannans of Thekkadi are

juxtaposed with those of the Mannans of Koozhimala, erstwhile

Kovilmala.

The Mannans of Kumily used to engage in the traditional occupations of

fishing and shifting cultivation in order to make a living. With the

advent of tourism in the area in and around the Thekkadi dam and

Project Tiger, alternative jobs became available to them and many

accepted those opportunities. The innovation of Eco Development

Committees offered new possibilities for them and many embraced

them. They actively take part in the tourism-related programmes and

serve as guides for tourists or as forest guards to prevent poaching and

other illegal activities.

Deep in the remote forests in Periyar Tiger Reserve, there are tribesmen

who make dolmens in honour of the dead. But access to such deep

jungles is highly restricted and thus this study does not cover those

people. The study includes the dwellers in and around Thekkadi and

those in Kozhimala.

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1.4. Methodology

The study used the methods of survey of literature, administering

questionnaire and collection of data, direct field visits and interview of

various stakeholders. The first step was a detailed survey of the existing

literature on the Mannan tribe in different parts of Idukki district. The

Census data regarding the Manans in Idukki district were consulted for

details.

Questions were developed to be administered in the survey to be

conducted among the subjects and they were asked to the concerned

during field works and data was pooled. This was done mainly in

Kozhimala Mannan settlement and then in the Mannan settlement in

Thekkadi.

Interviews were conducted. DFO Idukki Shri K Saji was interviewed

and he gave a general picture of the forest dwellers and the various

issues pertaining their protection and control and also regarding their

rights to the forests. Shri Jayachandran, Assistant Wildlife Warden,

Vellara, Painavu, Idukki was very helpful by giving information on the

challenges in the field of forest conservation that arise along with the

necessity to safeguard the interests of the forest dwellers.

Dr Gigi Joseph, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, Nirmala

College, Muvattupuzha and former Educator ant Project Tiger at

Thekkadi granted two interviews which were greatly useful for getting

proper direction to this study. VOSARD is an NGO with its head

quarters near Thekkadi. Officials of VOSARD, especially Shri Jose

Vadakkan, were consulted and their expertise in the affairs of the Tribals

in the vicinity proved to be of much assistance to the conduct of this

study.

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Chapter II

MANNAN CULTURAL CHANGES OVER DECADES

The chapter gives a short account of the history of the Mannan Tribe as

long as it can be traced into the past. Then it is also attempted to have a

close look at the cultural changes that the Tribe underwent in the recent

past of aa few centuries, especially ever since the introduction of the

Periyar tiger Reserve and the various programmes associated with it.

2.1. Major Tribal Communities of Idukki District

Hill Pulayas, Mannans and the Muthuvans are the three major tribal

communities of the district Idukki. There are historians who believe that

Kuzhumur, the capital of the Pandyan kigdom of Sangam age is the

present Kumily from 800 AD to 1102 AD. Vadakkumkur and

Thekkumkur came into existence by about 1100 AD by splitting

Vempolinad into two.

During the early colonial era, the Dutch East India Company developed

an interest in the spices that were abundant in the hills of the present

Idukki district.

Thekkumkur Rajas were trade partners of the Dutch East India Company

in the early period. The items of trade were spices like pepper, cinnamon

and cardamom. The Kulasekhara king Manavikrama reached

Vadakkumkur as a refugee from the Pandyan kingdom. He purchased

vast stretches of land from the Thekkumkur Raja. This land was in the

present Poonjar region. Wih the acquisition of sufficient land and

support from the Thekkumkur and Vadakkumkur kings, the Kulasekhara

king Manavikrama was able to obtain the powers of a king. The dynasty

came to be known as the Poonjar dynasty.

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The High ranges of the present Kerala from Peerumade to Devikulam

remained under the control of the Poonjar Raja for several centuries.

When Marthanda Varma annexed Thekkumkur and Vadakkumkur in

1750, The Poonjar family became a part of Travancore. Ever since this

coquest and annexation, the large stretches of the land of the present

Idukki district became parts of the Travancore State.

2.2. Idukki District; Land and People

Idukki is a hilly District of Kerala. The district shares borders with

Ernakulam and Coimbatore Districts on the north, Theni on the east,

Kottayam on the west and Pathanamthitta on the south. Te present

Idukki district was a part of the koottayam district at the time of the

formation of Kerala in 1956 and it became a separate district in the year

1972 on 26th January. The land is mainly High Ranges.

“Idukki has many unique topographical and geographical characteristics.

Idukki is the largest District of Kerala with an area of 5105.22 sq.km.

About 97 percent of the total area of the District is covered by rugged

mountains and forests. There is only a strip of Middle land (3%) in the

western part of the district. Low land area is totally absent in the district.

More than 50% of the area of the district is covered by forest.”1

Land Pattern

Altitude (Above Mean Sea

Level) Land Pattern Percentage of Land Area

20m - 100m Midland 4.5

100m - 300m Mid - upland 7.5

300m - 600m Upland 12.1

1 http://idukki.nic.in/geography.htm

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600m - 1200m Western Ghat High Range 48.3

1200m - Above Top Western Ghat High Range 24.5

There are 14 peaks in the district which exceed a height of 2000 meters

above Mean Sea Level. They are Anamala, Eravimala, Tattumala,

Chenthavara, Kumarickal, Karimkulam, Devimala, Perumal, Ghudoor,

Kabhula, Devikulam, Anchanad, Sabarimala and Karimala. Anamudi

(Anamala) the highest peak south of Himalayas is in the Kuttampuzha

Panchayat of Adimali Block and in the K.D.H Village of Devikulam

taluk. The estimated height of the peak is 2817 meters. Periyar wild life

sanctuary in this district is one of the famous wild life sanctuaries in

India.

2.2.1. Forest Cover

There are tropical, evergreen, semi evergreen and moist deciduous

forests in the district of Idukki. They cover more than 50% of the

district.

2.2.2. The Tribal People of Idukki

As per the 2011 Ceensus of India, “the major Tribes in the district of

Idukki are Malai Arayan, Muthuvan/Mudugar/ Muduvan, Mannan,

Uraly and Malayarayar. In 2011 Census, there were 16,542 Malai

Arayan, consisting of 8,302 males and 8,240 females. 98.3 per cent of

the Malai Arayan population lived in the rural areas of the district. The

population of Muthuvan/ Mudugar/ Muduvan was 12,205 consisting of

6,198 males and 6,007 females. Of this, 99.95 per cent lived in the rural

areas. The population of Mannan, Uraly and Malayarayar was 8,464,

6,515 and 681 respectively. 99.9 per cent of Mannan, 99.8 per cent of

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Uraly and 98.3 per cent of Malayarayar lived in the rural areas of the

district.

2.2.2.1. Muthuvans

The history of the origin of Muduvan tribe is obscure. What we have for

present is the myth prevalent among the Muthuvans only. According to

the myth, they originally belonged to Madurai in Tamilnadu. When

Kannagi, set the town Madurai on fire, they migrated to the present

settled areas. While they migrated, they carried the image of goddess

Meenakshi on their back (some say tht it was Kannagi whom they

carried on back). They got tangled in the forest on the way and became

forest dwellers, they maintain. They were subject to relocation in the last

century when dams and developmental projects were implemented in the

district, especially in the forest regions.

2.2.2.2. Hill Pulayas

They are settled mainly in the Devikulam Taluk. They are an

endogamous people who have close ties with a few other Pulaya

segments too. The term ‘Malappulaya’ is probably a combination of the

words ‘Mala’ which means hill nad ‘pulaya, a derivative from the term

pollution.

2.2.2.3. Mannan

The term Mannan means king in Malayalam and Tamil languages. They

are a hill tribe of Kerala. They are believed to be the descendants of

those who accompanied the kings of Madurai to Neriyamangalam.

Originally they were gatherers and shifting cultivators. They live in hilly

terrains covered by forests. They speak two tongues, Malayalam to

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communicate with the local people and a dialect of Tamil to convey

ideas among themselves. They can use Malayalam script as well.

2.2.2.4. Uraly

The Uralies are forest dwellers. They live in deep forests only. They are

sometimes described as nomadic agriculturists. Now they also take to

settled cultivation and agricultural wage labour. They have formed an

association called Uraly Mahasabha, which works for their welfare and

upliftment. They profess Hinduism and worship Hindu deities Ayyappan

and Bhagavati.

2.2.2.5. Malai Arayan

The term Malai Arayan is a combination of the Malayalam words ‘Mala’

meaning hill and ‘Arayan’, a derivation of the term ‘arachan’ which

means king. The term thus means the lords of the hills. Scholars like

Thurston describe the Malai Arayan as a class of hill tribes who are

civilized. Earlier the Malai Arayans were dependent on shifting

cultivation, hunting and food gathering. Now they have become settled

agriculturists and agricultural labourers. Some are also involved in

business, or have taken up salaried jobs in the govt. and private sectors.

The Malai Arayan started embracing Christianity in 1851, in response to

the evangelical activities of Rev. Henry Becker of the Church Mission

Society.

2.2.2.6. Ulladan

Ulladans are reluctant to come into contact with the main stream society

and thus they used to run away from people at sight. This is said to be

the reason behind the name of the tribe ‘Ulladan’, a combination of the

Malayalam words ‘Ull’ meaning ‘into’ and ‘odan’ meaning ‘to run’. The

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traditional occupations of the Ulladan are foraging, trapping of birds and

animals, collection of honey and medicinal plants, wood cutting, basket

making and mat weaving. Recently they left foraging and have taken to

animal husbandry, salaried government jobs, jobs in private sector and

wage labour.

2.3. Mannans and their Settlements

2.3.1.Geography

The settlements of the Mannan tribe are found in the following areas:

No. Settled Area

1 Udumpanchola Taluk

2 Devikulam Taluk

3 Thekkadi and Kozhimala in Peermed Taluk

4 Madurai district of Tamil Nadu

Many of the Mannan settlements are found within the forests and they

settlements are generally located along the hills and streams in the area.

The Mannans depend heavily upon the forests for their livelihood.

Earlier, the settlements were located in remote jungles. They had no

contact with the main stream society. They were isolated from the main

stream both socially and geographically. The scenario is but now under

change in a quick pace.

The Mannans are hill tribe members and their domiciles are located at

around 1,000 meters above sea level.

The southwest monsoon commences in their area by the end of May,

with maximum rainfall in June and July. The northeast monsoon

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commences in September. Average yearly rainfall is about 250

centimetres.

2.3.2. History

As it is pointed out already, the Mannans are believed to be the

descendants of those who accompanied the kings of Madurai to

Neriyamangalam. The origin of the term Mannan has been explained

variously. Singh (1994:753) states that ‘Mannan’ means ‘king’ in the

Tamil language. According to Luiz sited by Singh (1994:753), ‘Mannan’

originates from ‘mannu’ (which means ‘earth’ in Malayalam) and

‘manushian’ (which means ‘man’ in Malayalam): ‘sons of the soil’.

According to the perception of the Mannan peoples, the term ‘mannan’

means ‘the leaders of the hill’.

It was the quest for food that led them to migrate to the Cardamom Hills

in the high ranges of Kerala. In Menon (1996:254), Iyer reports that

based on one story popular among them, “They were formerly the

dependants of the kings of Madurai. They entered the Cardamom Hills

through Cumbum Mettu and settled there.”2 At the time of arrival and

then for centuries, they were gatherers and shifting cultivators. They live

in hill tracts under forest cover. The languages they speak are

Malayalam and a dialect of Tamil. They use Malayalam script for

writing.

2.3.3. The Mannan People

The Mannan peoples have distinguished physical features and cultural

background. The Mannan people are generally short. They have short

noses, thick lips and black eyes.

2 Census 2011

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2.3.4. Population

According to the Census Bureau of India, the population of Mannan in

Kerala has increased from 1,172 people in 1901 to 7,085 in 1991 (see

table 4). The 1991 census also reports that in 1991 there were 204

Mannan living in Tamil Nadu.

In 2011, there were 55815 tribal people in Idukki district. 5.04% of the

total population of the district were tribal people. The percentage of

Idukkis tribals to the total communitie of the district was 11.51%.3

2.3.5. Education

Literacy and education are generally low as far as tha members of the

Mannan Tribe are concerned. Boys have an advantage over girls in case

of education. Some of the Mannan boys study up to tenth class, whereas

many girls only study up to fourth class. The main reasons for the

discontinuation of the study are the lack of secondary schools in their

locality and due to economic problems. The children of interior

settlements can make use of tribal hostels in their area, but many do not

do so. There have been some graduates among them from the 1990s

onwards. The literacy rate of Mannan is 35% according to the 1991

census (41% among men and 30% among women). In 2011, “the

literacy rate of Mannan is 59 percent, standing below the State level ST

literacy rate”.4

The community is educationally backward which is evident from their

literacy and educational attainments shown above. “Male literacy among

Manna’s is 68.28 percent which is higher than that of the State level

3 The International Journal Of Business & Management (ISSN 2321 –8916) www.theijbm.com,

page 132 Vol 3 Issue 9 September, 2015 4 The International Journal Of Business & Management (ISSN 2321 –8916) www.theijbm.com,

page 133 Vol 3 Issue 9 September, 2015

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average ST literacy. But, the female literacy level is much below the

State average which is only 50.21 percent, signifying wide gender

disparity existing within them. This indeed, resulted in overall reduction

of literacy level to fall below the State average as literacy rate among

them is 59 percent. The educational attainments of literates belonging to

Mannan community shows that majority of them have either primary or

below primary level of education. Almost 90 percent of the literates have

attained education up to middle level only, indicating their poor

attainment at metric or secondary level.”5

2.3.6. Settlements

There are 46 settlements of Mannan in Idukki district. The Mannan live

in small groups of families called kudi (village). Level space at high

elevation is preferred as the sites for their hamlets. The size of the

village depends on the availability of the food supply. They were once

nomadic agriculturalists. Some settlements consist of 50 to 60 huts in a

cluster; others only 10 to 15.

Their houses are constructed close to each other in an orderly line. Only

a few are scattered here and there. The houses are thatched with grass.

Bamboo poles support the roof and the walls are made of mud and

stones. They get the necessary raw material from the forest. There are

only two rooms per house, in general. Ventilation is found to be poor in

the absence of windows.

2.3.7. Social life

According to some scholars, there are two divisions among the

Mannans, namely Arava and Paniya. Each of these two divisions 5 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/71861/13/13_chapter%202.pdf

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comprises several exogamous clans. Community endogamy and moiety

exogamy are the rules of marriage. The symbol of married women is the

marriage pendant (thali). Usually divorce is not permitted. Remarriage

of widows and widowers is allowed rarely.

The Mannan women participate in social, ritual and religious activities

along with men. In this community childbirth takes place in a hut made

for the purpose and nine day pollution period follows. The marriage

rituals and the nuptial ceremonies are performed at the bridegroom's

residence. The marriage feast is also hosted by the bridegroom's family.

The Mannan women also contribute to the family income. Their

traditional occupations are hunting and gathering, trapping of birds and

animals and shifting cultivation. At present their occupations are

agricultural labour, settled cultivation, animal husbandry and net

weaving.

The Mannans have their own traditional council, of ministers. The Raja

Mannan is their ruler, he has the right to nominate members to the

traditional council of ministers.

Traditionally, Mannans occupations were shifting cultivation, trapping,

hunting and gathering. Education and contact with the main stream

society have brought changes and at present, they take to agricultural

labour, settled cultivation, animal husbandry and weaving mats. They

are expert fishers. They also collect different forest products such as

saffron, dammer, honey, wax and wild cardamoms. Now Mannans are

ready to work for daily wages for outsiders. At least a few of them have

been successful in earning jobs in the government sector. There are a

few forest guards, tribal development offices and other government

employees among the Mannans.

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The staple foods of the Mannans are ragi, rice, roots and tubers. Pulses

like gram, tur, peas and beans are also part of their diet. They consume

alcohol, but avoid cow’s milk. The Mannans eat buffalo meat, but not

beef.

Mannan women participate in social, ritual and religious activities along

with the men. They also contribute to the family income. Although inter-

caste marriage now occurs, the couples are restricted to living inside

their settlement.

The Mannans have modified their animistic practices towards those of

orthodox Hinduism. The Mannan mother goddess ‘Kanchiyar Mutthi’ is

their most important deity. She is now believed to be the younger sister

of the popular Hindu goddess Madura Meenakshi. Pongal,

Makaravilakku and Kanjiveppu are the major festivals for the Mannan.

The Raja Mannan is their ruler. He is assisted by a traditional council of

ministers. Each settlement has a kani, or kanikaran (headman). The

Integrated Tribal Development Programme (ITDP) and ‘Akhila Kerala

Mannan Samudaya Sangam’ (an association of Mannan headed by Raja

Mannan) are involved in various development programmes in the

community.

2.3.8. Language

There are different opinions about the nature of the Mannan language.

There are scholars who think that the language of Mannans is Tamil.

Some other scholars think that they speak a dialect of Tamil, but

converse with others in Malayalam and use the Malayalam script. It has

also been said that the people of Mannan speak a dialect of Tamil and

Malayalam with a very peculiar accent and that, when they converse, it

is difficult to understand.Despite these reports, Mannan have their own

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speech variety, known as ‘Inavan petch’. Outsiders refer to it as

‘Mannan Pasha’. Although Malayalam and Tamil may have influenced

the language, it is different enough that it is difficult for outsiders to

understand. The linguistic classification of their variety is with Southern

Dravidian.

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Chapter III

THE PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE (PTR) AND ITS

IMPACT

The chapter attempts to analyze the Impact of the PTR on the life and

culture of the Mannans. It also tries to see to what extend did the PTR

altered the subsistence pattern of the tribal population as well as the local

population that had been living in and around the Protected Area (PA).

The positive and negative impacts and the apprehensions that are held by

different stakeholders as of now are sought to be incorporated. The long

term and short term implications of the Eco Development Committees

which were introduced with a view to realize participatory forest

protection both on these sections of population and on the environment

of the PA are also analyzed.

3.1. Reserve In Brief

1895 : Contruction of Mullaperiyar Dam.

1899 : Formation of Periyar lake Reserve.

1933 : S.C.H Robinson made the first game warden.

1934 : Formation of Nellikkampathy Game Sanctuary.

1950 : Consolidation as Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary.

1978 : Declaration as PeriyarTiger Reserve.

1982 : Preliminary notification of the core area as National Park.

1991 : Brought under project Elephant.

1996 : India Eco –Development Project launched.

23

2001 : Reorganized as two divisions, Periyar East and Periyar

West.

2004 : Formation of Periyar Foundation.

2007 : Adding of 148km from Goodrical range of Ranni Division.

3.2. Wild Life Sanctuaries

Periyar Wildlife Sanctury, is one of the most renowned national parks in

the country. It is located in the Western Ghat ranges. Total area of the

sanctuary is 925 sqkm. as The Periyar National Park was declared in the

year 1982.

The park is built up around an artificial 100 years old lake at Thekkady.

The sanctuary is best known for its wild elephants, tigers and rich

biodiversity.

DETAILS OF SETTLEMENTS WITHIN THE PAs6

Sl.

No.

Name of Wildlife

Division/NPs

No. of

Settlements

within PA

No of

Families

Remarks

1 Periyar Tiger

Reserve (Periyar

East & Periyar

West Division)

4 818 The

settlements

are within the

buffer

3.3. Protected Area, Eco Tourism and the Local People

The various governments of the land and the courts of law have shown

interest in forest protection during the past few decades. As a result,

6

http://circle.forest.kerala.gov.in/wckottayam/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id

=91&Itemid=27

24

now, the law permits total protection of the PAs and it gives permission

to shoot the poachers at sight. The protection drive has the sanction of

the public opinion which is dominated by the ideas and interests of the

middle class. The rights, needs and losses of the people living in the

reserves for centuries even before the declaration of those forests as Pas

need to be analyzed again, especially in the context of the issues faced

by the tribal population

The court intervenes, inflict bans and repeal bans7. There are arguments

in favour of and dead against the so called eco tourism and related

issues. There are conservationists who argue that eco tourism benefits

both the environment and the population around the PA. This is because,

they believe that eco tourism generates funds sufficient for tiger

protection on the one hand and on the other hand it provides

employment opportunities for the tribals and other local people. There

are others who take the position that the very term “eco-tourism” itself is

a misnomer. The reality under the situation is that of exploitation of

nature and tigers on the one hand and of the tribal population on the

other.8

7 http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/supreme-court-bans-tourism-

in-core-areas-of-tiger-reserves/article3678263.ece

To protect tigers, the Supreme Court on Tuesday banned all tourism activities in the core

areas of the tiger reserve forests.

A Bench of Justices Swatanter Kumar and Ibrahim Kalifullah passed the order on a petition

filed by conservationist Ajay Dubey that sought a directive to the States to notify the buffer

and peripheral areas of the tiger reserves, under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, to prevent

tourism in the core areas. The ban was lifted in October.

8 Ranade Prabha Shastri, Ecotourism Perspectives and Experience. The Icfai University Press,

Hyderabad (2008) PP 67-110.

Romila Chawla, Ecotourism and Development. Sonali Publications, Delhi (2003) PP 19-34.

Santhosh Thampi, “Ecotourism in Kerala, India: Lessons from the Eco Development Project in

Periyar Tiger Reserve”. ECOCLUB.com E-Paper Series, Nr. 13, June 2005, PP 2-10.

25

It was the British colonial empire which founded the Forest Department

in India. It had its beginning in 1864, as the Imperial Forest Service. The

first officer was a German. The stated purpose of the department was

‘orderly exploitation’ of India’s forest wealth, mainly timber.9 The state

took over all the forests in the country. Independence did not bring any

considerable change in the forest policy, at least initially. The forest

dwellers, even though they have been living in the forests for several

centuries, became outlaws overnight in the eyes of the state at a single

stroke of the law.

Tiger conservation programmes in India had their beginning in the

1970s. India’s then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi constituted the first

taskforce of specialists to create a blueprint for tiger conservation. The

report came out in 1972 mentioned about the issue of the local peoples

including tribals but gave all significance to tiger conservation.

A second task force named ‘public support for wildlife conservation’

was formed in 1983. The size of the Pas increased steadily for over a

decade from 1970s. By around 1990, such forest areas amounted to

almost 4% of India’s land area. The number of tigers also increased.

Tiger numbers rose significantly. On the other hand arose the issues

faced by the forest-dwellers as many of them were forcibly evicted from

tiger reserves.10

The understanding underwent drastic changes when it was learnt in

20005 that some of the most famous tiger sanctuaries in India were then

without any tiger! Another powerful task force was formed to look into

the matter and they , by travelling across the length and breadth of India,

9 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/15704/11/11_chapter%205.pdf 10 http://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/cannot-evict-tribals-from-tiger-reserves-without-their-

consent-ncst-59488

26

indentified that the major reason behind the failure of the tiger

protection initiatives was that they were all considering the people of the

locality as potential poachers and that they developed only animosity

towards the tiger protection initiatives. They recommended participatory

initiatives in the field of forest protection. “The protection of the tiger is

inseparable from the protection of the forests it roams in. But the

protection of these forests is itself inseparable from the fortunes of

people who, in India, inhabit forest areas.”11

The taskforce came to the conclusion that the earlier forest dwellers did

not benefit from the PAs in any way. They also took into account the

harassment that the local people had to experience at the hands of the

officials. They felt easier with the poachers than with the forest

department.

The taskforce recommended for a participatory approach. Thus the

Wildlife Protection Act 2006 was passed. The Act imagined

compensation for the people are evicted from PAs. It also recommended

the participation and cooperation of the people living in the buffer zones

of the PAs for the conservation activities. The Indian Forest Rights Act

was passed simultaneously. It recognized the rights of the age old forest

dwelling communities on the resources of the forests. Finally, the

approach of the government to forest conservation evolved into one of

conservation through participation and cooperation.

In response to the criticism that the people of the PAs do not receive a

due share of the revenues generated by the tourism development in the

11 The Frontline, Volume 22 - Issue 18, Aug 27 - Sep 09, 2005, from the publishers of THE

HINDU

27

area, the NTCA guidelines asked for 30% of tourism revenue to be

shared with local communities.12

The tourism industry that is dominated by private initiatives, was

interested in making sort term profit without any concern for the long

term environmental issues caused by it. They did not have to contribute

to environmental protection while the local tribal people had to bear the

cost.

The issue of tiger preservation has become a central issue, but the issue

of the habitat loss of the forest dwellers. Even the fact that the tiger

protection endeavour itself is a means of sustainable development for the

perennial life of the mankind is forgotten.

3.4. Eco Development Committees

The Eco Development Committees came into existence in India as a part of

the Participatory Forest Conservation strategy envisaged by the World Bank

in the ‘India Eco - development Project’.13 The project was introduced by the

World Bank as:

Name of Project : India - Eco development Project

Project ID : P036062

Country : India

Region : South Asia

Area : Western Ghats especially Periyar Tiger Reserve.

Agency : Forest Ministry, Kerala

Total Project Cost: US $ 67.00 million

Approval Date : 5 September 1996.

12 Live Mint, 06 April 2018, E-Paper

13 World Bank, India Eco-development Project (Credit 2916 IN), May - 2000, Washington,

2000, p.1.

28

Beneficiaries : Regions of Bio - diversity and Ecological importance and

the People within and nearby.

Project Aims at : Tribes

After such an introduction to the project, the World Bank report continues -

“India is the hot spot of bio - diversity which contains the total 60-70 percent

of the bio - diversities in earth. It is one of the 12 Mega - bio - diversity

countries of the world. These treasures of India have great economic value.

These diverse bio-diversities are not exploited in a commercial or industrial

basis. Nowadays these bio-diversities are on the verge of destruction and loss.

The activities of the local people and tribes in the forest for their daily life are

the main threat to the existence of these bio - diversities. The Kerala

government’s activities for the protection of forest and the bio - diversities

were not effective and it leads to several conflicts with the tribal people. The

joint forest management enacted by the Kerala government since 1970’s with

the help of World Bank also proved a failure. On the basis of these conditions,

the World Bank is directing the new India Eco - Development Project. The

Bank will give effective direction at times. The volunteer associations (NGOs)

listed out by the World Bank should get a major hand in the implementation

of the project.”14

Periyar Tiger Reserve introduced participatory forest protection

initiatives through the Eco Development Committees. The concept

revolutionized the forest protection scenario in the region. Eco

Development Committees were designed to implement the government

policy of forest protection with the cooperation of the local people. They

are designed to promote the protection and development of PTR. These

committees were expected to work by sharing responsibility and by

acting as a social fencing for protecting forests areas. EDC’s are

14Ibid, p.3.

29

developed for providing financial benefits to those who depend on forest

for their livelihood. An EDC consists of a chairman, a secretary and

members. Department staff function as Secretaries.

On the other hand, EDCs and the associated developments brought about

many important changes in the life of the local people, especially the

tribal people.

3.5. The Concept of Participatory Forest Protection

The concept of Protected Areas that are completely devoid of local

people is a norm in the developed countries. However, this is almost

impossible in the Indian context because of the high population pressure

and the human presence in every Protected Area. The population present

in the protected area heavily depended on the forest resources for their

livelihood. The fact is that the forest dwellers naturally have got their

own rights on the forest and its resources.

As a remedy to the issues pertaining the problems of the loss of forest

rights to the forest dwellers while declaring forest to be Protected Areas,

a participatory management strategy of protected areas was developed.

This was done by forming Eco Development Committees (EDCs) of the

local people who made a living mainly depending on the forest resources

and then transferring the responsibility to protect the forest to such

committees. The process would also ensure the members of the EDCs of

a reasonable livelihood. This is done by channelizing the resources

generated through the development of tourism.

The concept was a good example of paradigm shift in the administration

of Pas. Now control was replaced with partnership and denial of forest

30

rights was replaced with sharing in reasonable terms. Eco Development

Committees (EDCs) emerged around many PAs.

“Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR) in Kerala is one among the seven PAs in

India selected for the implementation of IEP. In accordance with the

tripartite agreement signed between the external donor agencies (World

Bank & IDA), Government of India (GOI) and Government of Kerala

(GOK), Eco-Development Committees were constituted.”15

3.5.1. Goal

The goal of the project is conservation of bio-diversity through people's

participation.

3.5.2. Objectives

1. To improve capacity of PA management to conserve bio-diversity and

increase opportunity for local participation in PA management.

2. To reduce negative impact of local people on biodiversity, reduce

negative impact of PA on local people, and increase collaboration of

local people in conservation efforts.

3. To develop more effective and extensive support for community

development activities.”16

3.5.3. Involving Local People in Conservation

Around 25000 people living around the reserve used to exert

considerable pressure on the forest resources for their sustenance. Thus

the Eco Development Committees were suggested and implemented.

They actually envisaged material, immediate and direct benefits for the

15 http://www.periyartigerreserve.org/indian.php 16 http://www.periyartigerreserve.org/indian.php

31

local people when they involve in the forest conservation activities. This

side by side achieve the motivation of the local people to cooperate with

the forest conservation endeavours and a just situation in which the

rights of the original forest dwellers are not violated as a part of forest

conservation. At the implementation level, the Eco Development

Committees help the local people utilize the emerging opportunities of

tourism for making a living.

In Periyar, presently there are 102 EDCs. Following is a list of the

EDCs of PTR as given by the website of the Wild Life Department.17

Sl.

No.

Name of VSS/ULO/EDC

1 2

I Periyar East Division, Thekkady

1 Mannakkudy I

2 Mannakkudy II

3 Mannakkudy III

4 Paliyakkudy

5 Vanchivayal

6 Cyclone Colony

7 Thekkady EDC

8 Mattupetty I

9 Mattupetty II

10 Periyar Colony

11 Vallakkadavu I

12 Vallakkadavu II

13 Vallakkadavu III

14 Gandhi Nagar

15 Kurisumala I

16 Kurisumala II

17 Vallakkadavu IV

18 Vallakkadavu V

19 Spring Valley

20 Mullayar

17

ttp://circle.forest.kerala.gov.in/wckottayam/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=

92&Itemid=2

32

21 Chotuupara

22 Kollampattada I

23 Kollampattada II

24 Kollampattada III

25 Kollampattada IV

26 Ex-Vayana Bark Collectors EDC

27 Pets EDC Thekkady

28 Tribal Trackers Guide EDC

29 Vidiyal Vanapathukappu Sangam

30 Tribal Heritage EDC

31 Vallakkadavu Pets EDC

32 Graziers EDC

33 Fire Wood & Taching Grass EDC

34 Staff EDC Thekkady

35 Kollampattada Womans EDC

II Periyar West Division, Peermade

1 Attathodu I

2 Attathodu II

3 Attathodu III

4 Angelvalley I

5 Angelvalley II

6 Angelvalley III

7 Kisumam I

8 Kisuman II

9 Azhuthamuni

10 Arattukayam I

11 Arattukayam II

12 Ezhumon I

13 Ezhumon II

14 Kattikayam

15 Kandamkayam

16 Kuzhimavu I

17 Kuzhimavu II

18 Koruthodu

19 Moozhikkal

20 Anakkal

21 Thadithodu

22 Nampapara

23 Modakayam I

24 Modakayam II

25 Kalaketty I

26 Kalaketty II

33

27 Mookenpetty I

28 Mookenpetty II

29 Sathram

30 Celon Mount

31 Cheriyanavattam (Karimala)

32 Vallithodu

33 Puthussery

34 Vellaramchetta

35 Kallidamkunnu

36 Azhuthakkadavu

37 PETS (Watchers EDC)

III Wildlife Division, Idukki

1 Memary (Idukki)

Protection, Participatory

Fire Management

2 Kathitheppan (Idukki)

3 Kollathikkavu (Idukki)

4 Kumarikulam (Idukki)

5 Kothapara (Idukki)

6 Kuvelettam (Idukki)

7 Urulanthanni I (TBS)

8 Urulanthanni II (TBS)

9 Thattekkad (TBS)

IV Wildlife Division, Munnar

1 Parappayarkudi (ENP)

Protection, Participatory

Fire Management,

Management of

ecotourism activities,

Visitor Management

2 Nooradikudi (ENP)

3 Parakudy (ENP)

4 Lakkomkudy (ENP)

5 Drivers (ENP)

6 Vendors (ENP)

7 Watchers(ENP)

8 Champakkadu (Chinnar)

9 Palapetty (Chinnar)

10 Ollavayal (Chinnar)

11 Mangappara (Chinnar)

12 Thayannakudy (Chinnar)

13 Vellakkalkudi (Chinnar)

14 Puthukudi (Chinnar)

15 Olikkudy (Chinnar)

16 Iruttalakkudy (Chinnar)

17 Alampetty (Chinnar)

18 Eachampetty (Chinnar)

19 Champakkadu Tribal Trackers

(Chinnar)

34

20 Alampetty Tribal Trackers (Chinnar)

21 Eachampetty Tribal Trackers

(Chinnar)

There are different categories of EDCs. Some are village EDCs. They

include Tribal settlements, hamlets etc. This category of EDCs is

organized with a view to provide for the socio-economic upliftment of

the people involved. There are user groups as well. Graziers, fuel wood

and thatching grass collectors and pilgrimage based EDCs come under

this category. These EDCs under the second category are organized with

a view to reduce negative impact of their demands of livelihood on the

environment of the PA. There is a third category of professional group

EDCs like Ex-Cinnamon Bark Collectors EDC, Tribal Trackers cum

Guides EDC, Watchers Welfare EDC etc. who come under the

professional category. The objective of organizing professional DCs is to

ensure long-term friendly interaction of the group with the PA.

3.6. Positive Impact of the Project on the People

Project Tiger has brought several changes in the life and culture of the

people of the region, especially the tribal people. The Mannan tribes life

has been transformed considerably under the influence of the changes

that have been effected by the project. The major benefits enjoyed by the

local tribes may be summarized as follows.

• An increase in the employment opportunities

• Benefits Protected Area shred better

• The local people’s dependency on PA resources reduced

• Poverty alleviation

• Removal of agencies of exploitation

• Empowering the local communities

35

• Enhanced social standing

• Improved dissemination of PA values and EDC programme.

• Improved relations between park and villagers

3.6.1. Employment and Means of Livelihood

The EDCs generally try to solve the issue of the economic hardships and

livelihood issues that arise for the local population when their forest

rights are curtailed or limited when Pas come into existence. Thus the

emphasis is given on providing employment opportunities and means of

livelihood for such people. The issues are too hard for the tribal people

as they are the most dependent on the forests for their daily life. For the

same reason, when EDCs provide employment opportunities and means

of livelihood, it is they who are the most benefitted. Opportunities of

employment to the members of the EDCS in various PA management

activities improvement, fire protection, tourism etc increased

3.6.2. Sharing the Benefits

A Protected Area is generally where human activities are not supposed

to take place. Thus the local people are naturally kept away. However,

there are some provisions in the Wild life protection Act (1972)18. As far

18 THE WILD LIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972

1[18A. Protection to sanctuaries.—

(1) When the State Government declares its intention under sub-section (1) of section 18 to

constitute any area, not comprised within any reserve forest or territorial waters under that sub-

section, as a sanctuary, the provisions of sections 27 to 33A (both inclusive) shall come into

effect forthwith.

(2) Till such time as the rights of affected persons are finally settled under sections 19 to 24

(both inclusive), the State Government shall make alternative arrangements required for making

available fuel, fodder and other forest produce to the persons affected, in terms of their rights as

per the Government records.]

36

as the human interventions are helpful in achieving restoration of the

habitat of the forest, such interventions may be permitted. The following

are some of such activities permitted under the EDCs.

1. Trekking in the tourism zone without affecting protection

2. Guiding services offered by tribal people to trekkers

3. Allowing the them to collect fodder and thatching grass

4. Allowing the tribal people to fish in limited areas

5. Sabarimala pilgrim facilities

3.6.3. Reducing Negative Dependency

Attempt is made to reduce the local community’s dependency on the

resources of the Protected Area. The local communities have

significantly reduced their dependency on the forests after the

implementation of the project. They depend on the new employment

opportunities developed as a result of the development of tourism in and

around the PA.

3.6.4. Reduction of Poverty

The overall economic status of the people of the region has been

considerably improved by the introduction of the EDCs and the job

opportunities thus created. The local people, especially the tribal people

have a dependable and continuous job opportunity ensured by the EDCs.

3.6.5. Settled Life

As far as the tribal population of the PA of PTR is concerned, they

experience a shift in the way of life itself. They shift from shifting

cultivation and hunting gathering which made them dependents of the

forest produce to the economic activities of settled agriculture as well as

jobs like that of tourist guide. This includes the beginning of a set of

37

changes that brings the tribal people close to the main stream society on

the one hand and at he same time help them preserve their original

culture and traditions.

3.6.6. Tackling the Issue of Exploitation by Intermediaries

Exploitation by intermediaries one of the gravest issues faced by the

tribal people anywhere in the country ever since the end of their

seclusion from the main stream of the society. The simple mind set of

the tribal people easily fall prey to the cunning intermediaries like

money lenders. The tribal people needed the intermediaries because they

lacked the acquaintance with the complexities of the modern

transactions. When believed and depended, the moneylenders and other

intermediaries but often used to exploit them. This problem was settled

by the Project Tiger.

Another agent of exploitation was the contractors. Those who take

contract from the Devaswom Board or competent authorities the right to

provide required services to the pilgrims to Sabarimala Ayyappa temple

used to exploit the vendors in the forest routes. A good many of such

people whe were so exploited were tribal people. When the EDCs of

local people got the rights directly, the exploitation of the contractors

stopped.

3.6.7. Improvement in Self Esteem

The EDCs organized bodies of modern characteristics. They are official

bodies initiated and recognized by the Government. Thus they have their

own deputation too. Their partnership with the government departments

and continuous work with them have added to the self esteem of the

EDCs. The economic freedom and self sufficiency achieved through

38

EDCs and the useful collaborations also add to the self esteem of the

people associated with the EDCs.

3.6.8. Benefits for Environment Protection

While the EDCs brought many advantages to the Tribal people as well

as the other local people, the same benefitted the environment protection

endeavours of the forest department as well. The masses generally

accepted the awareness that the department tried to spread through the

EDCs. The Forest Department terms it “social fencing”.

3.7. Forest Rights and Relations Transformed

Participatory Forest Protection Policy transformed the government –

Tribal relationships in the context of the forest rights, permissions and

restrictions. Prior to the introduction of the participatory forest

protection policy, governmental intervention was experienced by the

tribals as restriction control and denial of rights only. They felt that what

they had been enjoying for ages without any restriction was then being

denied without any compensation. The tribals could not even understand

why their rights were limited. This sometimes led to clashes of interests

and tension.

When the EDCs were introduced, the picture changed totally. Now

environment protection became a common mission of the department as

well as the common tribesmen. The programme was built upon mutual

trust and respect. Project Tiger developed a number of imaginative

programmes that facilitated the cooperation and combined efforts of the

local people and the officials for the common cause of forest protection.

This also proved to be instrumental in developing mutual trust.

39

3.8. Some Apprehensions

3.8.1. Loss of Freedom

The tribal life is free and autonomous to a great extend. They were

practically free of any governmental or other types of controls. The

forest was their abode and only their customs ruled their movements.

Even though there were uncertainties and hardships, they were all part of

the autonomy they enjoyed. All this was lost with the introduction of the

EDCs and participatory Forest Protection. This is because, when the

tribal people – voluntarily, persuaded or pressured to – become a part of

the PA protection force, they are agreeing to forgo their own claims on

the forest resources. Then they are subject to certain codes of conduct

and certain controls other than that which were insisted by their own

customs. Now they become subject to the government authority. In other

words, they submit their autonomy for ‘better’ livelihood.

3.8.1. Life around a Dam

The Tribal life in the present PTR region was forest-centred. Ever since

the PTR was inaugurated and the tribals became a part of the

participatory forest protection endeavour, their life was re-oriented

around the Thekkadi Lake and the dam that holds the lake. The dam is

already under the threat of a break. Historically speaking, the hunting

gathering and shifting cultivation subsistence pattern is the most

enduring subsistence pattern. Compared to this, the subsistence pattern

that revolves around a man-made dam and the thus resultant artificial

lake is bound to be very short lived. The tribals lost the first and have

opted for the latter when they became a part of the participatory forest

protection initiative.

40

3.8.3. Loss of Inheritance

The tribal people had been inheriting forest without any legal procedure

for several centuries. Now the participatory forest protection has left

them devoid of this inheritance. Because their inheritance of the forest

was taking place though extra-legal methods, they could not ameliorate

it with the modern legal system. With the introduction of the PA and

their willing participation in it, the people also lost their moral/ logical

inheritance of the forest rights.

3.8.4. Accessing the Genetic Resources

“Throughout history biological species and varieties and the

technologies and knowledge related to them have been exchanged

between societies and individuals resulting in all - round enrichment of

humanity. But in a present day world order, with an unequal world of

economy and power, a global genetic agreement has every chance of

misuse. This was quiet clear in the last couple of centuries. It had been

seen that the countries of the North like Britain, themselves poor in

biological diversity, literally looting the resources of the biological rich

nations of the South like India.”19

Event the tribal knowledge was sought to be capitalized on and as part of

the agenda, they began to use international funding agencies. “The profit

motive neo - colonial powers like USA gradually realized that the tribal

people are the knowledge centers of bio - diversity and knowledge of

medicinal values of different plants. They designed a new strategy to

exploit the traditional knowledge of the tribes and then drive them out

from the thick forests of the Western Ghats of Kerala that are the

19 Jojy Thomas, The Muthuvans and their Issues, 2016, p.152

41

treasure houses of bio - diversity. Thus, the neo - colonial interventions

began to affect the tribal life directly.”20

3.8.5. IPR Malpractices

The Tribes are endowed with a good amount of knowledge about the

medicinal plants. Their traditional knowledge and systems of knowledge

include ideas regarding the management of natural calamities and several

other things. This knowledge is precious I the current scenario of international

global market. “…neo - colonial powers were well aware of the great value of

traditional knowledge of the tribes especially in the field of ethno-medicine

and the knowledge of medicinal plants.”21

Perhaps the example of a plant ‘CatharanthusRoseus’ (locally known as

‘SavamNari’), will explain the depth of this sort of exploitation. It is used

among various tribes in Kerala for the treatment of cancer and some other

diseases. It is now widely used by the multinational companies in US for the

preparation of medicines. The scientists calculated the commercial value of

this plant as more than 700 million dollars, but the tribes did not get even a

single rupee for their knowledge. The Tropical Botanical Garden Institute

admits that each medicinal plant of the tribes has the value of millions of

dollars. The multinational companies looted many such traditional knowledge

and intellectual properties of the tribes and established Patent on them. The

companies do not even recognize the contribution of the tribal people in

identifying the palnt and in discovering its medicinal value. There is no proper

mechanism developed to control such exploitations.

3.8.6. Environmental Impact

From the point of view of the forest protection endeavour, the

participatory initiative causes pollution of the forest too. This is because

the economic aspect of the EDCs becomes viable – and that is the only

20 Ibid, p.154 21 Ibid, p.156

42

situation in which the EDCs and the participatory forest protection are

attractive to the locals and the tribals –only when tourism in the region is

considerably high. This is a difficult situation in which the government

declare Pas so that human intervention in certain areas may be restricted

and the in same area, the government itself has to promote tourism, a

form of human intervention, even though it is regulated and limited.

Tourism is an economically beneficial activity but its environmental

impact is not always positive, especially in the long run.

Similarly, the EDCs that are involved in activities related to Sabarimala

pilgrimage also are not free of environmental haphazard. On the one

hand, strictly from an environmental point of view, no large scale

assemblage of people for a short period of time is desirable. This

pilgrimage but includes the gathering of millions of people in a limited

space for a short duration of time and thus it could result in a number of

environmental issues.

The pilgrimage also can cause certain other environmental issues. The

EDCs are allowed to raise temporary shops and shelters or resting places

inside the forest. These are necessary facilities and such are needed to

take care of the essential needs of the millions of pilgrims. At the same

time, such facilities cannot be raised without inflicting some damages to

the forest. The ground level vegetation in the places where the facilities

are arranged, and the roads/ pathways are identified all will be affected

or lost. Sometimes, trees, bushes and grass are lost for the purpose of

construction material for the construction of such facilities.

When huge number of people beyond any proper mechanism for control

and management assemble for the purpose of pilgrimage many issues

arise. These include deposit of waste above all. Plastic waste, other o-

43

degradable waste and excessive amounts of human waste are deposited

in the forest and they all cause environmental issues. These

environmental issues are significantly undeserving to the tribal people.

This is because the natural and original life style of the tribal people

does not include environmental issues to any high level.

44

Chapter IV

CONCLUSION

Besides its well known environmental significance, the Periyar Tiger

Reserve Thekkady, is very significant for its social variety. When the

most cosmopolitan population visit this heaven of natural variety

richness and beauty, they are guided by the nature’s own children, the

tribal population and this is facilitated by the government, the Forest

Department. The tribe of Mannans still keep their customs intact.

The Mannan Tribe in the PTR region and in the Kozhimala region

presents a unique case of perfect and frequent interaction with the

cosmopolitan society by a tribal community while maintaining their

cultural originality well. The subsistence pattern has changed

considerably but the cultural traits remain more or less intact. A major

reason is that the material gains associated with the EDCs are due to the

tribal people o the basis of their tribal identity. This has prompted them

to keep the identity up. In addition to this, the tribals are inclined to keep

up their traditions about which they are proud.

The PA declaration almost completely ended the seclusion and isolation

of these people for ever. They are now acquainted with the modern ways

of life. At the same time, the EDCs have provided them with secure

means of life.

Analyzing the impact of Project Tiger on the life and culture of the

Mannan Tribe, we would conclude that many of the short term issues of

the tribal population have been settled by the Project. In the initial phase,

the Locals in general and the tribals in particular found themselves

devoid of many of the rights they had been enjoying for several

45

centuries. But the introduction of the participatory approach in forest

protection and the EDCs that facilitated this, the situation changed a lot.

The economic benefits of the tourism that develop around the PTR are

now, to a certain extent, shared with the local people, especially the

tribals. That has settled the livelihood needs of the tribals sufficiently.

The limited and controlled use of forest resources that does not affect the

stability of the environment is allowed to the tribals. They are also

allowed opportunity to utilize the economic benefits of the Sabarimala

pilgrimage by serving as vendors of the necessities needed by the

pilgrims.

This three-fold scheme of benefit sharing has secured the tribals with the

resources essentially needed for making a living. The economic

condition of the Mannans living in the Thekkady vicinity is thus much

better than that of the Mannans of Kozhimala.

On the other hand, when we consider the long term issues pertaining the

tribal life, the situation in the PTR region canot be called so bright. What

the tribals got when they were made to shed their forest rights that they

were enjoying for several centuries were not very lasting. Moreover,

they lost their autonomy to a large extent. Now there is an intermediary,

the state through the Forest Department.

In the present scenario of globalisation more attention is required for the

rights and needs of the tribal people. As they are not so sophisticated and

because they don’t find it easy to understand the nuances of the

Intellectual Property Right and other complicated affairs of the

international relations in trade and interactions of other sorts, they easily

fall preys to exploitations of new varieties. The tribal knowledge and

knowledge system are in danger or at least under threat. There shall be

46

state initiated and monitored mechanisms to safeguard and promote the

tribal knowledge and interests.

While the Mannans of Kozhimala do not have the EDC sort of state

supported income generation possibilities developed, the Thekkadi

Mannans do have it and for the time being they enjoy it as a reliable

source of income and livelihood. The Kozhimala Rajamannans do have

the King of Mannans settled in one of their Kudis and amidst all

difficulties they do uphold as many of their culture and customs as

possible. Separation from nature to a certain extent and loss of forest

rights and autonomy to a great extend are the hard losses of the tribals

that took place with the declaration of PTR.

47

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