Chapter I

Passive Voice

How to construct the passive

1. Check to see if the active sentence contains an object. John ate an apple. (S V O) Passive is possibleJohn ate yesterday. (S V) Passive is not possible. 2. Move the object to the front of the sentence. Put the original subject in

a "by" phrase . An apple (V) by John. 3. Put the verb in the form "be" +V3 An apple "be" eaten by John. 4. Put the "be" in the same tense as the original active sentence. An apple was/were eaten by John. ( past tense) 5. Make the first verb agree with the new subject. An apple was eaten by John. (Put other elements of the sentence in grammatical and logical order.)

• Active • John helps the man S V OPassiveThe man is helped by John S V O

• Active• The baby sleeps well S V

Passive : NONE

• Simple Present• Mary helps John (A)• John is helped by Mary (P) • Present Progressive• Mary is helping John (A)• John is being helped by Mary (P)• Present Perfect• Mary has helped John (A)• John has been helped by Mary (P)

• Simple Past• Mary helped John (A)• John was helped by Mary (P)• Past Perfect• Mary had helped John (A)• John had been helped by Mary (P)• Simple Future• Mary will help John (A)• John will be helped by Mary

Chapter IICompund Adjectives

Definition:

• Two or more words (such as part-time or high-speed) that act as a single idea to modify a noun (a part-time employee, a high-speed chase).

• As a general rule, the words in a compound adjective are hyphenated when they come before a noun (a well-known actor) but not when they come after (The actor is well known).

• Also, compound adjectives formed with an adverb ending in -ly (such as rapidly changing) are usually not hyphenated

We form compound adjectives by using: adjective + noun +ed , or adjective + verb + ing combination.

• More examples:• My mother has a kind heart. = My mother is

kind-hearted.• John has got blue eyes. = John is blue-eyed.• This centre forms athletes. = This centre is an

athlete-forming centre.

• There are some well-established permanent compound adjectives that have become solid over a longer period, especially in American usage: earsplitting, eyecatching, and downtown.

• However, in British usage, these, apart from downtown, are more likely written with a hyphen: ear-splitting, eye-catching.

• Other solid compound adjectives are for example:• Numbers that are spelled out and have the suffix -fold added:

"fifteenfold", "sixfold".

• Points of the compass: northwest, northwester, northwesterly, northwestwards, but not North-West Frontier. In British usage, the hyphenated and open versions are not uncommon: north-wester, north-westerly, north westerly, north-westwards.

Chapter III: Clauses Restrictive and Nonrestrictive

• 1. Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses Defined. Restrictive clauses limit the possible meaning of a preceding subject. Nonrestrictive clauses tell you something about a preceding subject, but they do not limit, or restrict, the meaning of that subject. Compare the following examples.

• • Correct Restrictive Use:

• The suspect in the lineup who has red hair committed the crime.•

Note how the subject "suspect" in this sentence is restricted in two ways: we know that this suspect is both in the lineup and has red hair. As a result, we know that the other suspects, who are not in the lineup, could not have committed the crime. Moreover, of those suspects in the lineup, we know that the one suspect in the lineup with red hair committed the crime. If there were more than one suspect in the lineup with red hair, the above usage would be incorrect because it implies a different meaning.

• Correct Nonrestrictive Use:

• The suspect in the lineup, who owns a red car, committed the crime.•

In this example, the restrictive clause "in the lineup" tells us that of all possible suspects in the world, the one who committed the crime is in the lineup. However, while the nonrestrictive clause "who owns a red car" tells us something about the suspect, it does not foreclose the possibility that there are several different suspects in the lineup with red cars. The car color may tell us something useful, but it does not restrict us to only one possibility.

• 2. When choosing between "that" and "which," use "that" to introduce a restrictive clause and "which" to introduce a nonrestrictive clause. Although some writers use "which" to introduce a restrictive clause, the traditional practice is to use "that" to introduce a restrictive clause and "which" to introduce a nonrestrictive clause. When writing a restrictive clause, do not place a comma before "that." When writing a nonrestrictive clause, do place a comma before "which."

• Correct Restrictive Use:

• The store honored the complaints that were less than 60 days old.•

Correct Nonrestrictive Use:

• The store honored the complaints, which were less than 60 days old.

•These sentences have different meanings as well as different punctuation. In the restrictive sentence, the store honored only those complaints less than 60 days old, but not those over 60 days old. In the nonrestrictive sentence, the store honored all the complaints, all of which were less than 60 days old.

• 3. Place proper punctuation around nonrestrictive clauses, but do not place punctuation around restrictive clauses. When a nonrestrictive clause appears in the middle of a sentence, place commas around it. When a nonrestrictive clause appears at the end of a sentence, place a comma before it and a period after it. Do not punctuate restrictive clauses.

• • Correct Punctuation of Nonrestrictive Clause:

• The 1964 Ford Mustang, which propelled Lee Iacocca to the top of the

automobile industry, is now considered a classic.•

Correct Punctuation of Nonrestrictive Clause:

• The credit card is in my wallet, which you can find in the kitchen drawer.

• Correct Punctuation of Restrictive Clause:

• The boat that sailed on October 25 is the one to which we referred in the contract.

•

Chapter 6: Describing function; Gerund and Infinitives

• Gerunds are defined as the -ing form of a verb. They have several functions.

1. Used as subjects and complementsSkiing is my favorite sport. Hiking can be very strenuous. Seeing is believing

2. Used as objects following prepositions and prepositional expressions

Thanks for tending my children. The job consists of typing, filing, and answering the phone. 3. Used as objects following certain verbs*. The children enjoyed watching the parade. Ms. Terrell avoided paying her taxes until it was too late.

• Gerunds can sometimes take objects of their own:

• Roland is afraid of making mistakes. • Sandy is considering leaving New York.

Verbs are commonly followed by gerunds

admitbegindiscusshatelovepracticeregretstopavoiddeny

advisecan't helpdislikehesitatementionpreferremembersuggestgolikepostpone

anticipatecompleteenjoyimaginemindquitresentthreatenrecommendstartunderstand

appreciateconsiderfinishintendmissrecallresisttolerate

attemptdelayforgetkeepneglectrecollectrisktry

• I stopped smoking (meaning “I no longer smoke”)• He stopped to light his pipe (meaning”He stopped

doing something else in order to light his pipe”)• **Notice that the verb phrase, can’t help (eaning “can’t

prevent” or can’t stop”) is used with gerund.• His jokes are so funny that I can’t help laughing at them• I couldn’t help overhearing your comment• ***The verb go is followed by the –ing form of many

“activity verbs”: go shopping, go dancing, go skiing, go bowling and others

Infinitives

Infinitives are defined as to + base form of the verb. They have several functions.

1. Used as subjects and subject complements. To know me is to love me. To live in Hawaii is my lifetime dream.

2. Used as objects following certain verbs*. I wanted to tell you how much I appreciated your gift. He hesitated to ask the embarrassing question.

3. Used as a shortened form of in order to. You must take this medicine (in order) to get well. I went to the bank to cash a check.

• Infinitives can sometimes take objects of their own.

• We hope to find the person who did this. • I was asked to make a dessert for the potluck

dinner.

Verbs commony followed by Infinitivesaffordbegdecideforgetintendmeanprepareseemthreaten

agreebegindemandgoknow howneedpretendstarttry

appearcaredeservehappenlearnneglectpromisestopvolunteer

arrangechoosedesirehatelikeofferrefusestrugglewait

askclaimexpecthesitateloveplanregretswearwant

attemptconsentfailhopemanagepreferremembertendwish

Chapter 7: Comparative and Superlative

The Comparative Form for Adjectives

One-syllable words two-syllable words    ending in y     two syllables or more    not

ending in y

add er drop the y and add ier use more / don't add er

big bigger noisy noisier dangerous more dangerous

old older busy busier expensive more expensive

nice nicer crazy crazier comfortable more comfortable

young younger lazy lazier humid more humid

fast faster funny funnier tired more tired

cheap cheaper dry drier acceptable more acceptable

• There are some exceptions: good, bad, far, and fun are adjectives that don't follow the rules when making the comparative form.

good - better Bad - worse Far - farther fun - more fun

• Never use two comparatives together on an adjective:

• more cheaper• more noisier• more older

The Superlative Form; (differences in 3 + things or 3 + people)

One-syllable words two syllable words    ending in y     two syllables or more          not

ending in y

add est drop the y and ad iest use most / don't add est

big biggest noisy noisiest dangerous most dangerous

old oldest busy busiest expensive most expensive

nicer nicest crazy craziest comfortable most comfortable

young youngest lazy laziest humid most humid

fast fastest funny funniest tired most tired

cheap cheapest dry driest acceptable most acceptable

• There are some exceptions: good, bad, far, and fun are adjectives that don't follow the rules when making the comparative form.

good - best bad - worst far - farthestfun - most fun

• Never use two superlatives together on an adjective:

• most cheapest• most noisiest• • It's often necessary to use "the" in front of the

superlative:

Comparative Adverbs

• Adverbs in the comparative form describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

• Adverbs usually end in "ly" • Making the comparative form for adverbs is not as easy

as making the comparative form for adjectives. Remember, most adverbs end in "ly," so most adverbs are two-syllable words; therefore, you will usually use "more" in front of the adverb to make the comparison.

• Many Americans ignore the rules for comparative adverbs, but you should still learn how to use them properly.

• so most adverbs are two-syllable words; therefore, you will usually use "more" in front of the adverb to make the comparison.

• Many Americans ignore the rules for comparative adverbs, but you should still learn how to use them properly.

• A subway train can get you through the city more quickly than a bus.

• ("more quickly" describes the verb "get." "Get" is a verb.)

• A laptop computer allows her to do her work more efficiently.

Superlative Adverbs

• Adverbs in the superlative form describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

• Adverbs usually end in "ly" • Making the superlative form for adverbs is

even more difficult than the comparative form. Many Americans avoid doing it, so you might not hear it used very often.

Example:

• He rides his bike most frequently in the morning.

• She is most likely to become a doctor after she finishes med school.

• Birds sing most beautifully in the morning.

Some adverbs don't use "ly" endings. For these words, just add "est."

• They play well together, but they play best when they're under pressure.

• They perform the worst on the field when they don't practice.

• John is the hardest working player on the team.

• Burt runs the fastest, so he's a wide receiver.

Chapter 8: Imperatives

An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone -- thitype of sentence can end either with a period or with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command is:

• Sit!• Read this book for tomorrow.• You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word

"please":• Wash the windows!• Please wash the windows. Normally, you should not use imperative sentences in academic

writing. When you do use an imperative sentence, it should usually contain only a mild command, and thus, end with a period:

• Consider the Incas.

Making and responding to a request

Making and responding to a request• It's important to be polite when you ask for something.• You can make a request by using:• can you ...? • could you ...? • will you ...? • would you mind ...?

Here are some examples of how to make a request..• Can you

Will you Could you possibly

• open the door for me, please?• would you mind • opening the door for me ?

Making Request:• Can you show me your photo album, please? • Will you lend me your book, please? • Could you possibly show me the way to the post office, please? • Would you help me with this exercise, please? • Would you mind lending me your pen, please?

Responding to request:• Sure here you are. • Okey. • No, I'm sorry I need it • I'm afraid I can't.

Things to remember about making a request:1. "Would you mind..." is followed by a gerund (verb+ing)

Example:"Would you mind lending me your book? "2. The response the following request: A: "Would you mind giving me your book? " is either"No, I don't mind."(which is a positive response to the

request. It means that I accept to lend you my book) or "Yes." (which is a negative response to the request. It

means that I don't want to lend you my book.)3. Could is more polite than can.

Chapter 10: Noun Phrase

• A noun phrase is a group of words that does the work of a noun.

• Study the following sentencesI want something.I want to go home.

• In sentence 1, the word something is a noun and is the object of the verb want. In sentence 2, the group of words to go home is the object of the verb want and hence it does the work of a noun. The group of words ‘to go home’ is therefore a noun phrase.

More examples of noun phrases are given below:• I enjoy playing tennis.

Did you enjoy reading this book?He hopes to win the first prize.He refused to answer the question.I promise to come again.I hate having to punish my servants.The wicked vizier loves getting people into trouble.Horses prefer living in dark stables.I should hate to do such a thing.He denied stealing the money

• ExerciseComplete the following sentences by supplying suitable noun phrases.

• 1. I want ————-2. I don’t expect ————-3. We all hope ————–4. ————- surprised me.5. Do you wish ————-?6. My father hates —————-7. ————– gives me no pleasure.