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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This research work entitled on ‘Planning for Eco-Friendly Cities: A Case

study of Gulbarga City’, in Karnataka, India. The thesis reveals the concept of eco-

friendly cities, various categories of eco-cities in the global scenario and how the

concept of eco-friendliness or sustainable development included in the urban planning

and design process. In the present thesis, an attempt has been made to examine as to

whether the city of Gulbarga is an eco-friendly city and, if it is so, then to assess the

city with some definite criteria which would help us to label it ‘eco-friendly’ in

conclusive terms. If on the other hand the city is not an eco-friendly one, analyze the

reasons why it is not so and characterize it such that we may examine the planning

means by which it may be made an eco-friendly. And that has exactly been done in

this thesis.

This chapter introduces the background and the conceptual framework, the

operational definitions and the problem of study, along with the aim and specific

objectives, research questions, hypotheses, research methodology, and scope and

limitations of the study. The discussion is therefore carried out into two major parts:

The first part speaks of the background, the problems, the objectives, the research

questions and the hypothesis; while the second part presents the research

methodology adopted in all necessary details. It particularly throws light on the

primary and secondary sources of data, including the sample, the sampling, the

questionnaire, the statistical techniques, the graphical and geographical information

systems for diagramming and mapping purpose and the library research.

1.1 The Background and Conceptual Framework

The Environmental concerns and considerations have assumed greater

importance in the urban planning processes recently. Cities, now home to more than

half of the world’s population, are at the forefront of our most pressing environmental

challenges, which require Governments, public and private organizations and

individuals to take a fresh perspective at how economic and social activities can best

be organized particularly for those living in crowded urban areas (Kemp, Rozer,

2008). There have been a growing number of studies on the eco-city concept.

Practices over the years have underscored the importance of further studying the

interaction between urbanization and sustainable development (Engwicht, David

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1992; Roseland 1997; Register, Richard 2002; Gaffron, Philine et al. 2005; 2008;

Ooi, Giok Ling 2005).

Cities are the engine of economic growth, but today more and more

countries have realized that it would be good to alter the traditional emphasis on the

pursuit of higher economic growth with scant regard for environmental protection and

social harmony. There is a demand for the collective actions as a few societies are

being left untouched by major environmental problems. In China and India, the sheer

magnitude of urbanization driven by massive demographic shifts is unprecedented

with greater implications for human well-being and the environment.

In the metropolises such as Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Bengaluru and

Chennai where population growth has outpaced the urban capacity to provide

sufficient infrastructure and services, the worst environmental problems are at the

doorstep. Owing to rapid industrialization and increased automobile, 2-, 3- and 4-

wheeler transport, many cities in developing countries are experiencing the world’s

worst urban air pollution that poses enormous threat to human health. The United

Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has estimated in 2008 that urban air

pollution causes one million premature deaths each year and costs 2 percent of the

GDP in developed countries and 5 percent in developing countries.

Historically speaking, the cities had exerted the greatest impact on

humanity and nature since 18th

In the mid-1970s and after the first oil crisis of 1973, Urban Ecology, a

U.S. Berkeley based non-profit organization was established to address the

importance of compact urban structure and other city planning approaches in saving

century due to intensive industrialization and

urbanization. How to plan and build our cities more sustainably, efficiently and

liveably without damaging the ecological surroundings had been a focus of scholars

and practitioners in the urban planning process for more than 100 years. As early as

1898, Sir Ebenezer Howard launched the “garden city” Movement, aiming at

promoting the concept of garden cities comprising planned and self-contained

communities surrounded by greenbelts as well as carefully balanced areas of

residences, industry, and agriculture. His famous book ‘Tomorrow: a Peaceful Path to

Real Reform’ was first published in 1898 and then re-printed in 1902 as ‘Garden

Cities of To-morrow.’ It was he and his work that have had profound influence on

ecological urban development all over the world and provided indispensable

groundwork for the evolution of the ‘eco-city’ concept.

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energy and resources. This organization was indeed the first to coin the term “eco-

city” to address the sustainability of city development. Richard Register (2002), the

founder of Urban Ecology has argued in his influential book ‘Ecocities: Building

Cities in Balance with Nature’ that people have been trying to build cities in balance

with nature all along but have continually been led away from success. He has

however advocated more density at closer proximity to minimize transportation,

energy use, sprawl development.

The first international conference organized by Urban Ecology was held in

Berkeley, California, in 1990. Five International Conferences on this topic were

organized in several countries up to 2006, viz. Australia, Senegal, Brazil, China and

India. Although Urban Ecology defines the eco-city concept as a goal to “rebuild

cities in balance with nature”, most environmentalists, architects and engineers agree

that there is no clear-cut and universal definition, principle, model or content for

this notion.

In the book ‘Eco-City Dimensions: Healthy Communities, Healthy

Planet’, Mark Roseland (1997) has listed 10 principles for planners and practitioners

to create ecological cities, defining the notion ‘as the most durable kind of settlement

that humans are capable of building and a city that provides an acceptable standard

of living without depleting the eco-systems on which it depends’ (Engwicht, David

1992;Roseland, M. 1997; Register, Richard 2002; Gaffron, Philine et al. 2005; 2008;

Ooi, Giok Ling 2005).

Today, the main task of working towards a sustainable urban planning is

addressed at the United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN HABITAT. In

association with the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), the

Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) has been established to improve the urban

environmental planning and management and it has been a sister programme to

Agenda 21 that aims to manage the global issues at a local level.

‘Eco-city’ was an innovative concept in the 1980s and the early 1990s.

After the “Earth Summit” Conference at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, it however

became practical, initiated through Agenda 21. Since 2000, the eco-city concept has

become truly global (Simon Joss, 2010). The eco-cities could be distinguished into

three types:

• The newly built city such as Mazdar in the United Arab Emirates (UAE),

Gwanggyo, Inchon and Song do in the South Korea, Dongton, Tangshan,

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Caofeidian, and Warizhuang in China are good examples of the first type

(Liang Fook and CHEN Gang, 2008).

• The second type is of ‘in-fill’ projects that are townships designed within a

few kilometers from the main cities such as Clonburris near Dublin,

Trondcheim in Norway, Tianjin Binhai in China, Auroville and Jindal in India

(Ruby, Ilka, Andreas Ruby, 2008).

• The third type is of major retrofit initiatives within existing cities exemplified

by Curitiba of Brazil, Freiburg of Germany, Portland of the United States of

America (USA), and Vancouver of Canada (JaimeLerner,1996; Joss, 2011;

Hezri and Dovers, Keirstead and Leach, Miller, Munier, 2012;).

In general, eco-cities or eco-friendly cities are more environment-friendly,

compatible to their surroundings, climate, and topography (Gilliam, 2002). These

cities adopt innovative land use planning, and alternate modes of transport systems to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Brueckner, 2000; Glaeser and Kahn, 2004), waste

recycling strategy to minimize the resource consumption (Malini, 1996). The eco-

cities encourage effective citizens’ participation in plan formulation and policymaking

processes and adopt the appropriate construction methodologies and technologies

with innovative building materials to reduce the energy consumption. The

revitalization of the inner urban areas (Bourne, 1991), natural and built structures

emphasizes the eco-friendliness (Mills and Lubuele, 1997).

1.2 Operational Definitions

Eco-cities act to restore natural environment and to re-establish a human

connection with the nature. Generally, eco-cities are also called green cities or

sustainable cities.

• Wang et al. (2002) defined eco-city as “a sustainable city that establishes a

harmony between built and natural environments”. The eco-city development

process benefits the environmental, social and ecological systems.

• Yanitsky (1987) defined eco-city as “a perfect living space and an ideal

pattern for urban development”.

• Jaime Lerner (1996) has said that an “environment friendly city is the one that

minimizes waste and maximizes the economy. Eco-friendly cities limit the

environmental degradation impacts and enhance the potentials for quality

human life” (Adelaide City Council Report, 2005).

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• Timothy and Steffen (2006) describes Eco city “as it is designed with

consideration of minimum environmental impact so that the inhabitants of the

city, uses less amount of fresh natural sources and minimizes the amount of

waste production, pollution of air”. Sustainable development attempts to

minimize greenhouse gases, reduce global warming, preserve environmental

resources, and provide communities their needs and potentials. Sustainable

development includes planned walk-able communities, eco-friendly buildings,

renewable sources of energy, adaptive reuse of old buildings (Craven, 2013).

• Eco-city concept approach integrates all aspects of life, living in harmony

with nature and focuses on the resource conservation, recycling and reuse. The

Eco-city programme of India supports area-wide Environmental Improvement

through Comprehensive Urban Management (Central Pollution Control Board

and Environmental Training Network, 2006).

The specific objectives of the above said programme are:

o Identification of environmental problems / hotspots in the identified

towns / cities and priority based environmental improvement projects

through participatory approach.

o Designing and detailing the prioritized environmental improvement

projects meeting state-of-the-art designs and specifications.

o Creation of environmental landmarks that show visible environmental

improvement.

• Richard, Register (1987) defined the term "Eco-city" as an ecologically

healthy city where ecological and economic sustainability are interdependent

with each other in the urban context (World Bank 2010). He also describes the

Eco city as it minimizes the negative impact

• Anupama Kundoo (2010) says that eco-friendly is not defined as a clear

measurable standard. It is more a tendency. It is an effort to reduce the strain

on water and energy as compared to conventional building practices and also

considers the health and pollution impacts, focuses on reduction in waste

of development on the

environment, reduces the ecological footprint of development thereby

increasing the quality of life, achieving environmental sustainability through

reduced greenhouse gas emissions, utilization of renewable energy, and green

transportation, maintains high air and water quality standards and an above-

average ratio of green space per person.

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generation. There is a lot of scope to improve the performance of buildings,

particularly in densely populated cities. If buildings are constructed giving

attention to the direction of natural wind flow and the angle of sunlight, a lot

of energy can be saved. The power consumption can also be reduced if the

rooms are properly ventilated. Even the glass façades that are so popular at

present, can help to reduce power consumption provided reflective window

panels that considerably reduce the solar heat (kadri, S.J). Further Chitra

Viswanathan (2010) stresses if all architects adopt the concept of eco-friendly

building it is easier to fight against global warming, when the entire landscape

of the city and lifestyle of its residents undergo a change and cities need to be

planned properly.

More emphasis has to be laid on reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, for

GHGs add more temperature to the atmosphere of a city. Many researchers, planners,

and architects have expressed the need to take proper measures and action plans to

reduce GHGs. The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI)

and Cities for Climate Change Program (CCP, 2004) aim at addressing the climate

change by reducing GHGs, which could improve the quality of air. World Changing

Team (2010) views eco-cities as the “carbon neutral cities.” Alex Steffen (2008)

highlighted the need to reduce GHG emissions by developed countries to 80 percent

by 2050 by means of clean energy and other emission-reducing projects. ARUP

(1998) states that the eco-cities are intended to be self sufficient in energy, water and

food products with the aim of zero emissions of GHGs in transport systems, making

efficient use of energy sources and generating energy from renewable sources.

The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) defines

sustainable development as “a process where exploitation of resources, the direction

of investments, the orientation of technological development and institutional change

are made consistent with the future as well as present needs”. The concept of

sustainable development has been gaining greater importance recently in India. The

dream of achieving sustainable habitat could be possible only through a multi-

dimensional and inter-disciplinary approach in the designing of eco-friendly cities.

For the purpose of the study, the research scholar relies more on the

definitions of Wang and others (2002) and Lerner (1996) as the operational

definitions, primarily for their simplicity and direct reference to eco-city and eco-

friendliness.

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1.3 The Problem of Study

Gulbarga is one of the cities in Karnataka, with a high temperature of 450

Although, the district by the same name is rich in mineral resources, rich

cultural and heritage grandeur, the Government of Karnataka identifies it as one of the

backward districts. It is primarily because of its unfavorable climate, the district has

not developed. However, climate is inevitable, and the city can be designed

compatible by altering its (micro) climate with innovative planning and sensitive

urban design strategies (Simos, Yannas, 2002). Planning strategies need however to

be modified in the design and development of Gulbarga City to make it compatible

with nature, to overcome the scorching effects of the hot sun and to create a livable

environment so that the people can enjoy their place of living and working. It appears

that Gulbarga has a bleak future, for the city will face, as it is facing now high

population growth, environmental threats, changing patterns of built environment, air

pollution due to heavy traffic, and only increasingly unplanned urban growth, loss of

C in

the month of May; it is also called the ‘Sun City’. The city has had a glorious past and

an eminent place in architectural excellence during the reign of the Chalukyas and the

Mughals. The city could boast of expansive gardens and recreational water bodies.

But then the population was smaller. Today, it is an intermediate city with more than

half a million in the urban agglomeration. Albeit the Urban Development Authority

and the Town and Country Planning establishment, the city does not give a look of a

planned city. If anything, planning has been conspicuously absent that it is an over

grown, ill-kept big village: only we call it a city. There are some semblances of a city,

but no semblance whatsoever of proper planning and development.

It is also a city because it has all the problems of a city: social, environmental,

political and cultural. The proportion of the problems is also very high. The climate is

semi-dry, hot; and rainfall is very scanty. It is dry, sometimes parched. It is difficult

for living there, for half the year it is very hot and rest of the time it is hot. Livability

and sustainability beg for attention of the policy makers and planners. Even a casual

look at the urban scene throws up dilapidation, disrepair, improper planning and

visual blight. Only when a visitor looks at the historical buildings, there is some

respite and admiration for a bygone culture. The impression is that some measures

must be taken to change it for the better, to make it livable and comfortable, and

above all sustainable.

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greenery and water bodies. There is pressing need for better planning to make it an

eco-friendly one at least in the near future.

1.4 Research Questions

The research questions that are answered in the present study are rather

simple. Complexity of any kind could be wearisome in the sense that the answers we

seek from the residents of the city of Gulbarga are not technical; rather they are

perceptual as to the nature of the city: the basic question raised is whether it could be

called an eco-city and whether or not it is eco-friendly in the simplest of its meaning.

There is no particular idea on urban planning and development that the study seeks to

receive from the residents because most of them, if not all, are not qualified to speak

on urban planning questions. This is one of the major limitations of the study.

• How would the physical, environmental, land use and scale of the built

environment influence eco-friendliness?

• Which other aspects, besides eco-city, can be adopted to achieve eco-

friendliness in the city (awareness and literature).

• How would other aspects such as social and economic activity patterns, and

waste disposals influence the air and the water quality and how would

planning strategies resolve the urban sustainability issues and contribute

towards eco-friendliness?

This research attempts at answering these questions mostly through

observation and answers acquired through a questionnaire supplied to the residents

and their responses about the city, their lifestyle, comforts and its eco-friendliness.

1.5 Aim, Objectives and Focus of the Study

The present study aims at providing suggestions for quality environment by

innovative approaches, techniques, policy framing and technologies, implementation

of appropriate strategies in the city development planning to provide good quality of

life to its inhabitants. The study also aims at suggesting comfortable conditions and

thereby enhancing environmental comfort by incorporating land use solutions and

urban planning regulations suitable to the environment for the urban areas.

The specific objectives of the study are:

1) To examine the natural settings and assess its influence on the design,

layouts and built form, which make for and enhance eco-friendliness.

2) To examine and assess the existing and changing land use patterns and the

felt needs of the people influencing eco-friendliness.

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3) To assess critically areas of importance such as public realms, historical

precincts, and visible natural landscapes that require further

reshaping/landscaping for enhancing sustainability; and

4) To make considerable recommendations for better designs, layouts and

built forms and to inform policy frameworks to improve the quality of

urban life by incorporating eco-friendly aspects in the preparation of

development plans.

The planning for an eco-city is completely different from the conventional

approach (Stanley, 2008). The eco-city concept uses a set of key performance

indicators in planning and designing, as it covers environmental, economic, and social

aspects. Any city metabolism or its liveliness is influenced by its locational aspects,

demographic challenges, activity patterns, transportation, energy, land use, ecology

(topography, water and vegetation) and buildings, which are tangible. The other

intangible indicators are the ambient quality of air and water, waste disposal and

energy use (Battle and Carthy 2001). The urban planning process of eco-cities has to

integrate both the tangible and intangible indicators.

The key performance indicators identified in the study based on above

discussion are:

• The environmental parameters such as temperature, heat, rainfall and

humidity. The data on these variables obtained from meteorology department

(secondary source and not directly measured by the candidate) and then

compared with ASHRAE standards (American Society for Heating,

Refrigeration, and Air conditioning Engineers) defined for India, discussed in

detail in chapter No. IV.

• The ecological parameters such as land, vegetation, air and water. The

topography and vegetation analysis is based on city survey map, NRSC

images. The existing surface water quality, bore well water quality values are

obtained from test reports of Central Water Resource Board and compared

with standards prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board. The quality

of air like the Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), Respiratory Suspended

Particulate Matter (RSPM) Sulphur di oxide (SO2), Nitrous oxide (NOX)

values are referred to the CPCB records and compared with the standard

values prescribed by the CPCB (discussed in detail in chapter No. IV).

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• Physical parameters such as land uses and built forms. The data on land use

obtained from Gulbarga Urban Development Authority has been compared

with space planning standards as per the Town and Country Planning Act. The

visual survey was carried out for built forms. The Thermal comfort in different

buildings was analyzed with Humphrey’s equation. The temperature records in

buildings have been obtained by secondary survey reports of government

organization (discussed in detail in chapter No. IV).

• Socio-cultural parameters promoting good access to resources through

transport, well-designed public spaces and cultural and recreational spaces.

The visual and primary survey was carried out to analyze and secondary data

from land use maps, urban development authority reports were referred

(discussed in detail in chapter No. IV).

• Technological parameters such as construction techniques for eco-friendly

buildings, proper management of waste affecting the air and water quality.

Existing construction techniques have been discussed, eco-friendly techniques

have been proposed in Chapter No. 7.

• Economic parameters such as activity patterns and land values. The

transportation data like the trips generated during peak hours have been

obtained by conducting primary survey. Industrial activities, types of

industries located in and around the city have been referred to secondary data

from DIC, Gulbarga.

• Psychological parameters such as the felt needs of the people in their city. The

felt needs of the people were obtained by conducting questionnaire survey of

315 respondents.

• Political parameters such as environmental management tools, policy

instruments, decision making, people empowerment and private-public

participation that effectively contributes to eco-friendliness. Existing policies,

laws, reports were reviewed and necessary policies, tools, participatory

programmes have been proposed.

All these have been sought to be included in a questionnaire for interview with

scaling used for a majority of 50 variables, which could then be used in a multivariate

statistical application.

However, a set of key but generic indicators (5 of socio-demographics,

awareness, source and knowledge, want, eco-friendliness, sustainability, likings and

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community contribution) along with 50 perceptual variables in regard to climate (3),

water (7), topography (3), green infrastructures (3), landscaping (12), quality of

environment and resources (6), waste management (2), land uses (5), transport

network (2) and built forms and buildings (7) have been added to a questionnaire for

interviews with the residents in order to capture their revealed perceptions on the

nature of Gulbarga city and its socio-cultural and ecological characteristics. This set

of variables has been used in simple, parametric and multivariate statistical analyses

to speak on the liveability, comfort and sustainability of the city under study.

1.6 Hypotheses

Several hypotheses about eco-friendliness may be tested. However, only a small

number of eco-friendliness indicators could be tested, for data are available only for

some indicators from dependable secondary sources. The hypotheses tested in the

study are the following:

• The significant variations in climatic elements like temperature, rainfall,

humidity will have an impact on design and built forms of Gulbarga city.

• The modifications in land use pattern and built forms lead to eco-friendliness.

• The activity pattern, transportation, lead to air pollution in the city centre and

main traffic junctions of the city.

• The proper designing of streets, squares, public plazas, landscaping may

contribute to enhance eco-friendliness.

Because the climatic comfort and environment-friendly practices such as the

cut down in GHGs are important elements in the eco-friendliness of a city, the

hypotheses established above become relevant to be tested in the study. The only

hypothesis that relates to human activities (vehicular traffic and industries also add to

the SPM and RSPM in the atmosphere) is the one under transport vehicles and air

pollution.

1.7 Gulbarga City as a Study Area

Gulbarga city was once at the height of glory, the relics of which can be seen

and appreciated even today. They speak of the beauty and grandeur of the past. More

importantly, the city was, historically culturally, and religiously, an ideal one; not

only then but also now. It is one of the distinguished cities in the State of Karnataka

and has very famous monuments. The area under Gulbarga Development Authority is

an important administrative area, which commands educational centers, trade centers

and potential industrial centers as well. Because of dry climate, low rainfall, and

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repeated droughts, the city has not developed and failed to keep up with the glory of

the past.

1.8 Need for the Study

Intensive city growth everywhere, particularly in the developing world, in the

20th century has led to the fast growing population, intense pressure on inadequate

infrastructure, high density of buildings, heavy traffic, land, air, water and noise

pollution and fast spreading heat islands – all of which do not provide for a quality

environment (Divya and Alka 2009). It is thus necessary to incorporate certain

planning strategies to improve the environment of a city. Kofi Annan (2006), the

former UN Secretary-General, has stated that the cities grow due to migration or

natural increase of population and their inhabitants make access to well-planned,

clean, healthy, and safe environments in which their children pursue their dreams.

Though urban planning and design concept varies from place to place, culture to

culture, the idea of sustainable development has to be a part of every such concept no

matter where the concept is being used. Eco-friendly cities are the need of the hour,

here and now.

1.9 Research Methodology

The methodology adapted in this research includes the following. Figure

1.1 indicates the analytical framework for the study. The schematic arrangement is

self-explanatory and it accommodates the entire thesis and the materials in chapters 1

to 7. The primary surveys and the data collected for the study and the different

analytical methods used in the study for making descriptions and inferences possible

have also been shown. The entire research methodology has been discussed under the

following five sections.

1.9.1 Primary Sources of Data

Two primary surveys have been undertaken in the context of the present study.

The one that is of great value for the study is the questionnaire survey conducted with

the residents of the city of Gulbarga, as they have been living there as natives and

immigrants for a considerable period of time. This gives us enough knowledge and

perceptions as to the nature and extent of eco-friendliness of the city. The other is

that of the traffic survey conducted for understanding the numbers of different modes

of transport (vehicles: 2-, 3-, and 4-wheelers, including light and heavy vehicles that

pass through the city at its most congested road junctions).

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The Sample and Sampling: 315 residents have been selected at random, from

all parts of the city, particularly, the central core, the extension areas, the suburbs and

the old Gulbarga city area. The care has been taken to see that the samples are picked

from all Planning District / prominent neighbor-hoods of the city such that the data so

collected would be representative of different kinds of people (economic classes, caste

communities, rich and poor, educated and not so educated, the young, the middle-

aged and the old) from all occupations. In the case of professionals among the sample,

the selection is by purposive random whereas in the case of service personnel,

students and other workers/employees, it has largely been random once, such areas

where they are found in some density has been identified.

The sample is a small sample, for a city of half a million or more. It could be

considered miniscule, that is, 315 out of half a million individuals; but when

considered in the context of a special focus research on Gulbarga city with a focus

on eco-city or eco-friendliness of the city, then the study cannot be made with

common people but preferably with the people who would have some idea of the

theme. However, this does not mean that we could do away with other people, even

those with no schooling, for example, and hence other people have been included in

the sample, with some deliberation and design. The sample has younger people as

well as older, from 14 years to 89 years, with 35-70 years accounting approximately

for 48 percent. There are both rich and the poor, from 12,000 a year to 1,200 thousand

a year. The final sample is, in a sense, an appropriate sample although the number is

decidedly small.

Therefore, to compensate for a small sample, the scholar has entered into personal,

professional and participatory discussions and appraisals with a considerable number

of people, but mostly from those with the Gulbarga Development Authority and the

Gulbarga Municipal Corporation who are particularly concerned with urban planning

and development and essential services. Although not explicitly attributed to, some of

the recommendations made in the last chapter for improving the situation in Gulbarga

city towards making it eco-friendly have been gathered from such discussions and

appraisals. Appraisals mean that the people, the scholar met with for discussions, have

not only recommended certain means of making Gulbarga an eco-city but also

appraised the means as to their practical worth.

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The Questionnaire: Keeping in view the objectives of the study, the

questionnaire was custom-designed in consultation with the guide and the field

experts. Several rounds of discussions have been gone through by the scholar with the

experts before the questionnaire was finalized for pilot test. A pilot test has also been

done, with 25 respondents, in a Gulbarga neighborhood to see how well the

questionnaire is received and how well it could be answered. Upon analyzing the pilot

surevy, certain modifications have been made in the content of the questionnaire. The

final questionnaire is given in Appendix 1.1, and the content of the questionnaire is

given below in a list.

Socio-Demographics: Eight of the questions and Section A are on socio-

demographics of the respondents, which consist of nativity, years of living in the city,

neighbor-hood living in, age, gender, occupation, annual income of family and

educational attainment of the respondent.

Awareness, Knowledge of Suggestions for Eco-Friendly Gulbarga City:

Nine of the questions under this category relate particularly to the awareness and

knowledge of the respondents about eco-friendliness, the sources of knowledge,

where and when heard about, and the respondents’ ideas about the city, its lifestyle,

what is needed to make the city eco-friendly, awareness about issues of sustainability

and suggestions for them.

For 11 of the 17 questions in the two sections above, the questionnaire has

offered ‘options’ for answers so that the respondents could be within the realm of

‘correct or appropriate answers’.

The next four sections consist of 50 items which have been scaled by the

respondents using a Likert-type scaling of 10 points each (4,3,2,1). Although the

questionnaire follows a uniform 10-point scaling, the terms of the four scales (for

example, highly comfortable, comfortable, somewhat comfortable, and not

comfortable or high, moderate, low, and little or nothing for climatic items of

temperature, humidity and rainfall). The terms of the scaling is not the same for every

group and they depend on the variable item being scaled.

As the list below indicates, there are 13 items under the physical aspects or

land ecology theme, with three sub-themes, namely, climate (3), water (7) and

topography (3).

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Content of the Custom-Designed Questionnaire (Resident-Respondents Interview)

1. Socio-Demographic Details of Respondents • Nativity • Length (years) of living in the city • Neighbour-hood in the city • Age • Gender • Occupation • Annual income of family • Educational attainment

2. Awareness, Knowledge of, Suggestions for eco-friendly Gulbarga City • Heard about eco-friendliness? • Where and when? • Is current lifestyle in Gulbarga eco-friendly? • How does the respondent want Gulbarga to develop? • What could be done to make Gulbarga more eco-friendly? • Awareness about issues associated with sustainability initiatives • Suggestions for improving city sustainability • Natural features of Gulbarga city most liked • Suggestions for community contribution towards a sustainable city

3. Physical Aspects / Land Ecology Climate Temperature Humidity Rainfall Water Bodies Distribution of water bodies Quality of surface water in different areas of city Quality of surface water in respondent’s locality Distance to water bodies from respondent’s place of living Waste disposals into lake Human activities influence water quality Layouts and buildings near lake are more comfortable due to cool and

gentle breeze Topography Topography is ideal to create water bodies Storm water management is good in both rainy and dry seasons Rainwater harvesting

4. Green Infrastructures of Gulbarga city Green Areas Public green areas Extent of green areas in the city Green areas show up aesthetics Landscaping Landscaping in residential areas Landscaping aesthetics in private areas Landscaping reduces glare and heat Landscaping gives (visual) privacy in residential areas

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Gulbarga Cityscape Current plantations (land cover, wooded area) are suitable for the city There is scope for terrace gardens in the city State of terrace gardens in the city Terrace gardens are aesthetic also Terrace gardens reduce heat in buildings and residences Nature of streetscapes Landscape elements of traffic islands Modifications are needed in present landscape patterns and green areas

5. Environmental and Resources Quality in Gulbarga City Air Quality, Waste management and Traffic Quality of air in the city centre Quality of air in streets and traffic islands in the city centre Quality of air in extension areas (within city limits) Quality of air in streets and traffic islands in extension areas Solid waste management by the City Corporation Biomedical waste management by the City Corporation Waste disposal methods influence air quality and eco-friendliness Vehicular traffic influences air quality and eco-friendliness

6. Urban Land Uses, Amenities and Aesthetics Land Uses, Amenities, Infrastructures Current land uses in the city Distance to amenities in extension areas Distance to amenities from the city centre Open spaces adequacy around buildings in the city centre Open spaces adequacy around buildings in the extension areas Road network in the city Major road network suitable for wind directions Built Forms, Buildings and Comforts Vernacular buildings are comfortable RCC buildings are comfortable RCC buildings with passive solar installations give more comforts Appreciable efforts by UDA for comforts in construction designs Climate responsive buildings are large in number in the city Visual Aesthetics Visual interests of streets and facades in the city centre Visual interests of streets and facades in the extension areas

Source: Questionnaire. See Appendix 1.1.

The theme of green infrastructures of Gulbarga city consists of 15 variable

items under green areas (3), landscaping (4), and Gulbarga cityscape (8). The

environmental and resources quality of Gulbarga city on the other hand has eight

variable items under air quality (5), waste management (2) and traffic (1). The last

theme of urban land uses, amenities and aesthetics has 14 variable items under land

uses, amenities and infrastructures (7), built forms, buildings and comforts (5), and

visual aesthetics (2).

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The questionnaire in the sense of the coverage of themes and subthemes of

study is very comprehensive and the data collected using the questionnaire from 315

select resident-respondents has been found to be very reliable and good for statistical

treatment and interpretations. While the data from the first two socio-demographic

and awareness and knowledge of eco-friendliness theme sections have been analyzed

using simple one-way frequency and percentage analysis, the data from the rest of the

sections with the 50 scaled items under 4 major themes have been subjected to a

factor analysis using principal component method, to extract factor dimensions to

interpret the revealed perceptions of the residents of Gulbarga about the city and its

eco-friendliness and sustainability related aspects. The results of these analyses are

discussed in Chapters 5 and 6 of the thesis.

Traffic Survey: In the absence of a traffic survey for the city of Gulbarga, the

scholar has launched a small survey of traffic at the two main junctions, namely,

Janatha Bazaar Circle and Gulbarga Development Authority Circle through which

most incoming as well as outgoing traffic pass through. For the sake of the study, only

the traffic volume over a period of 12 hours has been done for seven consecutive days

of a week, from Monday to Sunday and from 8.0 am to 8.0 pm. Mode split in terms of

different types of vehicles has been observed in percentage composition of traffic

volumes in both the circles. The survey has been conducted using the guidelines of

traffic surveys available with the National Highways Department Authority, New

Delhi.

1.9.2 Secondary Sources of Data

A review of existing and accessible literature has been done to clarify thoughts

and ideas on eco-cities and environmental friendly cities. It is also done to assemble

ideas and collaborations for this research and thesis. The literature review has to a

certain extent helped in setting up the present study as well as its methodology. The

felt needs of the people are assessed however as part of a larger primary survey, by

employing a custom-designed and pilot-tested questionnaire. Interviews with the

select residents of the study are accomplished primarily from the knowledge gained

on questionnaire construction and interview methods. The study thus followed

primarily a free-associational interview approach, wherein the scholar and the

residents meet with and interact freely, while the scholar solicits and elicits necessary

information. The research also has a visual survey, which includes observation of

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built forms, materials used for construction, locational aspects of open spaces,

greeneries and water bodies.

Secondary sources of data include the following: Climatic data from the

Department of Meteorology; air and water quality data from the Central and State

Pollution Control Boards. Data on heritage sites and other development programmes

have been collected from the Gulbarga Development Authority; and data on vehicles,

and actions initiated against air pollution have been collected from the Regional

Transport Office, Gulbarga. The other sources of secondary data used in the study are

demographic data from the Census Reports available in different libraries, data as

well as reports from the Tourism Department. Participatory programme discussions

and activities carried out by the NGOs and SHGs have been used in reviewing the

situation in Gulbarga city.

Documentation of the morphology of the existing settlement pattern as a

response to local climate has been made prior to the writing up of the thesis after

several visits to different localities in the city and through discussion and appraisals

with the local population.

1.9.3 Statistical Techniques

Descriptive Statistics: A statistical test allows us to ‘test’ how the sample

data comes from a parent population with a particular characteristic. Mean and

standard deviation tell us the basic features of a distribution. t-test is a test of

hypotheses about means. The t statistic is distributed differently depending on the size

of the sample, like a family of normal curves. The degrees of freedom (D.F. = sample

size – 1) represents with which of these curves we are relating our t-value. There are

different tables of p-values for different degrees of freedom. There are different kinds

of t-tests (formula is slightly different for these different kinds):

• Single-sample: tests whether a sample mean is significantly different from 0;

• Independent-samples: test the relationship between two independent

populations; and

• Paired-samples: test the relationship between two linked populations, for

example means obtained in two conditions by a single group of participants.

Like t-tests, F-tests deal with differences between or among sample means, but

with any number of means.

ANOVA calculates F values by comparing the variability between two

conditions with the variability within each condition. For example, we give a drug

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that we believe will improve memory to a group of people and give a placebo to

another group. We then take dependent measures of their memory performance, for

example, mean number of words recalled from memorized lists. An ANOVA

compares the variability that we observe between the two conditions to the variability

observed within each condition. Variability is measured as the sum of the difference

of each score from the mean. Thus, when the variability that we predict (between the

two groups) is much greater than the variability we do not predict (within each

group), then we will conclude that our treatments produce different results. ANOVA

calculates an F value, which has a distribution related to the sample size and number

of conditions (degrees of freedom). The formula compares the variance between and

within conditions or ‘factors’ as discussed above. If the F statistic is significant, this

tells us that the means of the factors differ significantly. Frequency and Percentage Analysis: The analysis of data often begins with

what is called a "frequency and percentage analysis." For the purpose of description

of sample and respondent related characteristics, a frequency and percentage analysis

has been done for all variables extracted from the questionnaire and put into the

dataset. First, a simple frequency of each of the fields with column percentages has

been made and then two-way tables using certain select pairs of variables have been

carried out, in order to measure variations. The analyst begins to explore the data, by

measuring the central tendency of the data, and more importantly, the dispersion of

the data around this central tendency.

Frequency analysis is particularly useful for describing discrete categories of

data having multiple choices or yes/no, response formats. This analysis involves

constructing a frequency distribution. The frequency distribution is a record of the

number of scores that fall within each response category. The frequency distribution,

then, has two elements: (1) the categories of response, and (2) the frequency with

which respondents are identified with each category.

The only technical requirement of the frequency analysis is that the categories

of response be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. This means that the same

observation cannot be counted as belonging to more than one response category. The

frequency analysis must be exhaustive in the sense that all respondents must fit into a

category. The tables so generated are numerous, only select tables are therefore

included in the text while others are interpreted to show the variations therein.

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Factor Analysis: Factor analysis is a statistical technique designed to analyze

the interrelationships within a set of variables by reducing the complex data to an

easily interpretable form (Davis, 2002). In multivariate analysis, the bi-variate

techniques are extended so that more than two variables can be considered, the ‘m’

variable becoming the ‘m’ axes of the test space. Procedures of multivariate analysis

are often concerned with the problem of reducing the original test space to the

minimum number of dimensions needed to describe the relevant information

contained in the original observations. Multivariate procedures differ in the types of

original information they preserve. Some understanding of matrix algebra is essential

in using and understanding the multivariate analysis.

A popular multivariate procedure in social science analysis is the Common

Factor Analysis, for which variants are available and are in use in social sciences as

well as in geography. It is a particular psychometric model that has been in wide use

in social sciences. This helps in the study of the logical implications of systematic

inter-correlations within the sets of tests. However, the social sciences follow just one

of the many approaches to the reduction of dimensionality in correlated systems of

measurements and the rotation (varimax, a short form for maximizing variance, for

example) of a reduced number of axes to more meaningful positions.

The Factor Analysis (FA) is also a classification procedure. It may be usefully

applied to multivariate situations in classifying the ‘N’ individuals, based on ‘m’

variables. One particular feature of the FA is that ‘p’ underlying factors in the

multivariate sample space model is always less than the ‘m’ variables: p < m. The

underlying factor dimensions are drawn from the use of inter-correlations system by

generating ‘p’ number of scores each for the ‘N’ individuals. The scores may however

be drawn from the varimax rotation, which stands for maximizing variance. If we can

measure ‘m’ variables with respect to areal units, the scores may be assigned to these

areal units for constructing one or more maps showing real areal differences (or

regional variations) in respect of ‘p’ reduced dimensions.

The purpose of factor analysis is to interpret the structure within the variance-

covariance matrices of the multivariate data collection made on the different

indicators related to eco-city related aspects including ecofriendliness and

sustainability of the city of Gulbarga, in Karnataka, India. The basic mathematical

operations in factor analysis may be stated as follows:

Zj = aj1 P + aj2 P2 + …….+ ajm Pm where

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Zj = Xj X mean /Oj or standardized variable

Pi =(I = 1,2,…m) are the principal components and

aj = (j= 1,2,…n) are the co-efficients or factor loadings of (I = 1,2,…m) jth

variable relating to the ith component.

In other words, each factor is expressed as a linear combination of variables as

P1 = aj Xj where aj

Since the variables used in any given application are not immediately

comparable, it is necessary to standardize each individual item of the data, before

computing the variance-covariance matrix. The covariance matrix of standardized

variables is nothing more than the correlation matrix, which in this analysis is referred

to as the inter-correlation (similarity) matrix. Standardization does not have a

tremendous influence on the structure of the variance-covariance matrix and

consequently on the results of the FA. In social sciences, we have no alternatives but

to standardize our data, because the raw matrices of variances and covariance’s would

–weight.

Thus, in factor analysis, a data matrix containing measurements on ‘m’

variables for each of ‘N’ observations is analyzed. The technique uses extraction of

the eigenvalues and eigenvectors from the matrices of correlations or covariance. The

basic mathematical operations in factor analysis are done with many embellishments

on the procedures.

FA is a deep and complex methodology. It is one of the most widely used

multivariate procedures. The model is based on several unique assumptions. For one,

the precise number of factor is assumed prior to the analysis. The factors extracted,

or rather the number of factors, are validated by the variance each of them to explain

the total. There is a progressive decline in the value of variances with the increasing

number of factor dimensions. The first or the main factor dimension has the highest of

the total variance explained and the bipolar the next highest and so on, resulting in

progressively declining variance.

The analysis begins with the standardization of data. In this procedure, the

data is first converted to standardized, or unitless form by subtracting it from each

observation the mean of the data set and dividing it afterwards by the standard

deviation. The new or the transformed variables will then have a mean of 0.0 and a

variance of 1.0, which is useful in comparing the distribution of one variable with that

of another when the two variables are expressed in different units of measurement. It

provides, in a manner of speaking, a way of comparing disparate variables.

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contain hodge-podge of measurement units that logical interpretation would be

difficult. Hence, there is a good reason to standardize.

The FA employs principal components like the eigenvectors of a variance-

covariance matrix, as the starting point for analysis. It belongs to the category of

techniques in which utility is judged by performance and not by theoretical

considerations. It relies on a set of assumptions about the nature of the parent

population from which the samples are drawn. These assumptions provide the

rationale for the operations, which are performed and the manner in which the results

are interpreted.

For the purpose of computation in FA, the relationship within a set of ‘m’

variables is regarded as reflecting the correlation of each of the variables with ‘p’

mutually un-correlated underlying factors. The usual assumption is that p < m.

Variance of the ‘m’ variable is therefore derived from variance in the ‘p’ factors, but

in addition a contribution is made by unique sources which independently affect the

‘m’ original variables. The FA refers to the ‘p’ underlying factors as common factors

and summarizes the independent contribution as a unique factor.

The FA requires that ‘p’, the number of factors, are known prior to analysis.

This implies that the investigator has some insight into the probable nature of the

factors and can predict a suitable number of factors to be extracted.

The eigenvalue operation in factor analysis is performed on a standardized

variance-covariance or correlation matrix. Hence, the FA used here is said to be R-

mode factor analysis. This assumes not only that all variables are weighed equally,

but also allows us to convert the principal component vectors into factors. In larger

matrices such as ours, the eigenvalues usually are uniform for standardized data than

for raw data. And to perform the FA, it is necessary that we convert our unit, or

normalize eigenvalue. The result is a factor, a vector, which is weighed proportionally

to the amount of total variance it represents.

The elements in the factors are referred to as factor loadings. The eigenvalues

represent the proportion of the total variance accounted for by the eigenvectors. The

factor loadings on the other hand are the correlation values between the old and the

new, transformed variables.

If we arrange the factor loadings in a matrix form, we have then a factor

matrix. If we square the elements in the factor matrix and sum within each variable,

the totals are the amount of variance of each variable retained in the factors. These

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sums are referred to as the communalities and are symbolically represented as hj2. The

communalities are equal to the original variances.

A specific rule that most factor analysts suggest in the extraction of factor is

that of retaining all factors, which have eigenvalues greater than one. That is, retain

all factors, which contain greater variance than the original standardized variables.

However, of course, in most instances, only a few of the factors will contain most of

the variances in the dataset and hence this recommendation is useful. If factor theory

is applicable to any given dataset, a few factors should account for a very high

percentage of the variance and the communalities of the variables found under each

factor dimension is high.

The FA is said to be reducing the dimensionality of a problem to a manageable

size. However, the meaning of the factors may be difficult to deduce. This problem

can be overcome by resorting to maximization of the variance of the loadings on the

factors. This, in other words, is maximizing the range of the loadings. This is done in

the analysis here by a rotation procedure called Kaiser’s varimax rotation. The

rotation of the factor axes is performed, iteratively. The analysis also results in factor

scores, which represent estimates of the contribution of various factors to each

original observation (residents). In fact, factors themselves are estimated from these

same data. Thus, the computation of factor scores is somewhat a circular process and

the results are not unique. Factor analysis explains in a sense the interrelationships in

a large number of variables by the presence of a few factors (Kaiser, 1958; Harman,

1960; Lawrence and Upchurch, 1982).

The factor extraction is done with a minimum acceptable eigenvalue of >1.0

(Kaiser, 1958; Harman, 1960). The factor-loading matrix is rotated to an orthogonal

simple structure, according to varimax rotation. It results in maximization of variance

of factor loadings of the variables. This procedure renders a new rotated factor matrix

in which each factor is described in terms of only those variables and affords greater

ease for interpretation. Factor loading is a measure of the degree of closeness between

the variables and the factor. The largest loading, either positive or negative, suggests

the meaning of the dimension. Positive loading indicates that the contribution of the

variables increases with the increasing loadings in a dimension; and negative loading

indicates a decrease (Lawrence and Upchurch, 1982).

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1.9.4 Graphics, Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

In best illustrating analytical and other statistical results, the scholar has used

graphical capabilities of Microsoft EXCEL (most of the diagrams and charts in

Chapters 4, 5 and 6), and SPSS package. Remote sensing data have been referred to in

the analysis of the land use and land cover patterns of Gulbarga City. The data have

been processed using ERDAS Imagine software. The classified images have then

been exported into shape files for analysis on ArcView. Geographical Information

Systems (GIS) tools have been used for mapping the results of the study. ArcGIS

v.9.2 is the software used in all mapping.

1.9.5 Library Research

The scholar has depended for idea and perspectives entirely on library

research, substituted and refined in discussions with her research advisor and experts

in the field of her research as well as in other areas, particularly in statistics and social

science analysis. Library research was carried out at the libraries of University of

Mysore, Karnatak University, Dharwar, School of Architecture and Planning,

Manipal Deemed University, Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology,

CEPT University, Ahmedabad.

1.10 Scope and Limitations of the study

The research study has a high scope in urban planning and eco-city contexts. It

is because, with changing times, lifestyles and ambitions for human comforts, there is

a need for creating an eco-friendly urban environment. It is also necessary for facing

the contemporary problem of urbanization and environmental threats to the people

and socio-cultural landscapes. A major issue here is quality environment with thermal

comfort, clean water, clean ambient air, water quality, visual appeal to meet standards

of liveability and sustainability. This means that there is a scope for improving

greenery, appropriate built forms, land uses, social harmony, and economic

sustainability. Every city needs to qualify as an eco-friendly one. The present research

is a contribution towards making Gulbarga city an eco-city with improved urban

environmental structure that lead to comfort of the residents. The recommendations

further made from the study would help the planners in understanding the ground

realities and provide strengths to urban planning practices.

As for limitations, the study is limited to Gulbarga city, which has not been

growing according to a plan, but it has grown primarily in response to the needs of the

people. The scope has been limited therefore to looking at whether or not Gulbarga is

26

eco-friendly and if it is not what can be done about it. Since eco-planning aspects are

not considered in the preparation of master plan for Gulbarga, no study has been

done earlier on this aspect; the study has been taken for the first time. As a single-

scholar study, it is limited also in terms time, cost and efforts at making a large,

expansive study.

1.11 Organization of the Thesis

The present thesis is a blend of seven commissioned chapters.

The first chapter, Introduction, provides a background to the research study.

The chapter deals with the statement of the problem, the objectives, research

methodology, area of study, and scope and limitations of the study.

The second chapter, A Review of Literature, provides information on the

background of the research topic and for an understanding of the concept of eco-city

and eco-friendliness aspects. The review also helps with the understanding of the

historical perspectives on the topic and their relevance for planning and identifying

techniques and appropriate methodologies in constructing a framework for analysis.

The third chapter, A Profile of Physical and Human Resources of Gulbarga

City discusses and illustrates the physical, climatic and demographic features of

Gulbarga city.

The fourth chapter is on the Eco-Friendly Elements and Built Forms in

Gulbarga City and it is an interpretation of different eco-friendly elements and their

impacts on the eco-friendliness of the city.

The fifth chapter, Urban Growth and its Impacts on Eco-Friendliness of

Gulbarga City, is a detailed analysis of land uses, tests of equality of proportions of

some land uses, which may be collectively termed as ‘open spaces’, residential and

commercial land values and activities towards sustainable land uses in Gulbarga city.

The sixth chapter, Revealed Perceptions of Eco-Friendliness of Gulbarga

City, first summarizes the questionnaire survey respondents’ views as the revealed

perceptions of the people of the city; further it also deals with the results and

inferences of a common factor analysis which is extraction of an 8-factor matrix to

discuss the urban texture and fabric of Gulbarga as the factor dimensions revealing

how eco-friendly it is in the minds of the people who live and work in its myriad

structures. Their functions and behaviors and finally about what the people suggest as

to how eco-friendliness can be achieved in the city in a successful manner.

27

The seventh chapter, entitled Conclusions and Recommendations is both a

summary of the research findings and conclusions. A long list of recommendations

for making the cities eco-friendly in the end is made. The recommendations are of

two major kinds, namely, spatial (locational) which are illustrated by maps and

descriptions while the technical recommendations are illustrated with drawings. The

technical recommendations are principally the ones appraised by the field experts as

well as residents interviewed for the study.

1.12 Conclusion

This chapter examines the conceptual background of the study, tracing the

evolution of ideas of eco-cities and then the eco-cities themselves. It has also provided

the operational definitions of the terms and their meanings, including the definitions

accepted for the present study. Further the discussion considers the problem of study

at two fold levels, its aims and objectives, research questions and hypotheses with a

brief description of Gulbarga city, and the research methodology employed. The

methodology has been elaborated with detailed discussions on primary and secondary

sources of data, the sample and sampling, the statistical techniques used in the study

and their rationale, graphics, remote sensing and GIS as tools of analysis, illustration

and mapping and finally library research. The scope and limitations and the

organization of the thesis have also been discussed and outlined.