CHAPTER-6

CROP MANAGEMENT IN PLANTATIONS

6.1. Introduction The most important management aspect in the

plantations is crop mariagement. The entire activities connected

with the crops such as production, export, productivity, human

resource aspects, financial aspects of plantations, marketing

management etc. entirely depend on the crop management.

Because of these great importance, a great care is necessary in

managing the crop. This chapter deals with total production of

each crop, productivity, various activities relating to crops such as

processing, cropping, new planting and replanting, fertilizer usage,

various diseases and its management, planting methods, water

management system etc. in plantations,

6.2. Rubber

6.2.1. Propagation

In South [ndia, seeds of Hevea normally ripes in

JulyISeptember and during these months they are collected and

seedlings are raised. All the earlier plantations in South and South

East Asia were raised fiom unselected seeds. The yield potential

of these trees being low, the production was very poor in these

plantations. Selection w x k on Heavea with a view to improved

the plantation material and the introduction of vegetative

propagation by budding led in course of time to the establishment

of numerous valuable clones. Seeds are picked up every day

during the seed fall season. Seeds can also collected by harvesting

h i t s at the yellow brown colour stage and breaking them.'

' Rubber and its cultivation, Rubber Board,(2000),pp3-14

6.2.2.Bud raft in^' It consists of replacing a strip of bark of the stock

with strip of bark, containing a dormant bud taken from the scion

pant and bandaging the same. Transparent polythene tapes are

commonly used for anadaging. The bandage should be firm

enough to prevent rain water from reacting the bud. The tissue of

the bud patch and the seedling become firmly united within three

or four weeks after grafi ing. Subsequently, when the seedling stem

is sawn off above the grafted portion, the grafted bud sprouts and

grows out to form the nzw shoot with the characters of the mother

plant. This gives rise tc a two-part tree. Depending on the colour

and age of buds two types of budding are recognized brown

budding and green budding.

Brown Budding

Grafting buds taken from bud wood of about one

year's growth on to stock lants of 10 months or more growth

carries it out. Vigourou;lyhealthy stock seedling having a girth of

about 7.5 cm at the base is ideal for budding. Bud wood is

collected from plants maintained in bud wood nurseries. Buds

found in the axils of fallen leaves are generally used. Normally 1-

2 meters of bud wood (:an be obtained from a bud wood shoot of

one year's growth. From one meter of bud wood about 20 buds

can be obtained. Budding can be done at any time if the bark of

the stock seedling and bud wood has good peeling quality.

Green Budding

Both the stock plant and bud wood used for green

budding are young. Vigorous seedlings of two to eight month's

age with a girth of about 2.5cm having brown bark up to a height

of about 15 cm. from the base are used as stocks. Green buds are

taken from bud shoots of 6- 8 weeks growth harvested from

specially raised source bushes. Generally green budded stumps are

raised in polythene bag in nurseries and transplanted to the main

field with the shoot anti root system undisturbed to get the best

results.

6.2.3. Tissue Culture:

Rubber clones can be propagated by tissue culture

also. Tissue culture propagation of plants relatively a new

development in science, which has rapidly evolved into one of the

major research tools in agriculture.

6.2.4. Land preparation3

In South India, JuneIJuly is the best season for

planting and so all preparation should be adopted before that

period.

a) Clearing

The clearing operation should begin sufficiently early

to avoid delay in planting. A light bum after felling and drying

may be done to ensure the destruction light brushwood and

branches of trees.

b). Lining

In flat 01. slightly undulating areas, square or

rectangular planting can be adopted. In the case of rectangular

planting, the lines should be taken east west to get the maximum

sunlight. Counter lining is done on undulating and hilly lands by

marking out the planting points in level lines across the slopes.

c. Terracing

In hilly areas the cutting of planting terrace is

advisable to aid soil conservation. It is expensive at initial stage

but latter these form the best protection against erosion. For these,

planting hillsides may sometimes be done on square platforms

about 120c. square along the contours. These platforms are joined

later to make complete terraces or with narrow hedge of about

60cms width to facilitate movement from trees to tree.

d. Drainage

Proper dra~nage is essential especially on low-lying.

There may be, as system of natural waterways available in the

area which when cleared and disengaged would give adequate

drainage. If drains are tt3 be uniform depth should be maintained

throughout.

e. Planting distance

The planting density recommended is 420-445

plantsfhectares (170-18(llacre) in the case of budding or plants

proposed to be field budded and 445-520 plant pointslhectare in

the case of seedlings. At the initial stage of planting density is

high, vacancy filling during subsequent years may be carried out

very judiciously. Durint; the second year of planting, vacancies

occurring in large patches only may be filled up leaving out

isolated plant points. I'rom the 3rd year onwards no general

vacancy filling may be aitempted unless warranted by very special

circumstances.

6.2.5. Cover Crop

Cover crop are established and maintained in rubber

plantations for the purpose of conserving the soil, improving or

maintaining the soil the norning structure and fertility.

6.2.6. Tapping

Latex is obtained from the bark of the rubber tree by

tapping. Tapping is a process of controlled wounding during

which thin shavings of hark removed. The aim of tapping is to cut

open the latex vessels ir the case of trees tapped for the first time

or to remove the coagulilm which blocks the cut ends of the latex

vessels in the case of trel:s under regular tapping.4

6.2.7. Weed Control

It is an important cultural practice in rubber

plantation as the weeds compete with rubber for light, moisture

and plant nutrient particularly during its initial period of growth.

The weeds commonly found in the rubber plantation in South

India are chromalaena oliorate, Borraria sp, Lantana aculeatea etc.

Four to five of hands weeding are required the first two years. At

the end of the second year of planting the cover crops established

will smoothen the weeds in the interrows till they get shaded out.

6.3. Tea

6.3.1. Nature and Speciality of Tea pants5.

Tea bushes are planted 1 meter to 1.5 meters apart to

follow the natural contous of the landscape. Some times they are

growth on specially pn:pared terraces to help irrigation and to

lbid p26. Tea, Kerala Bhasha Institute, ~ 1 5 0 .

prevent erosion. Fifty years ago tea plants were raised from seeds

and they were known as seedlings.

Each plantation grew its own seed bearers in tea trees

that grew to a height of approximately 25 meters. New young

plants are raised form tile cuttings obtained from strong and rich

bush. They are carefully tendered special nursery beds until 12-1 5

months old and then planted in tea gardens.

6.3.2. Shade

Trees are often planted in between the tea plants to

protect them against intense heat and light. The trees also provide

microclimatic and soil improvements. Geometric spacing is used,

often in quite wide spacing. This again ensures uniform treatment

(shade) and ease in mechanized operations. Common shade trees

are Erythrina, Gliricidia and Silver oak.

6.3.3. Tea plucking

When the tea plant is allowed to grow wild and

unfettered it becomes lOcm height. To simply cultivation and

stimulate the productior~ of leaf buds, they are regularly pruned

and shade into flat-topped bushes of about one meter in height.

When the plant develops to a height of about half meter above the

ground, it is cut back-pnmed to within few inches of the ground to

set its on course to devc:lop into a flat-topped bush. Generally, a

tea bush is 1 to 1.5 metcrs in height. Regular 2 to 3 year pruning

cycles encourage the supply of shoot, the flush that is plucked

every week to ten days depending on where it is cultivated.

6.3.4. Method of Leaf Plucking.

The leaves %re mostly hand plucked. The tea plant is

plucked every 5-10 day depending on where it grows. The length

of time needed for the plucked shoot to redevelop a new shoot

ready for plucking varie:; according to the plucking system and the

climatic conditions. Intervals between seventy and ninety days are

common.

When the tea plant is plucked two leaves and bud are

cut. An experienced pl~cker can pluck upto 30kg leaves per day.

To make one kg.black tea, approximately 4 kg tealeaves are

needed. Once tea plant ~roduces about 70kg black tea a year. In a

warm climate the plant is plucked for the first time after four-year

and it will produce tea for at least 50 years.

6.3.5. Seed Collection and Selection

More preservation is necessary in tea plants that are

used for seed purpose. The leaves of this plant don't pluck and

cut. Seed can be collected during the month of September.

6.3.6. Planting Distance

Normally the tea plants must have 10x10 distance

or 15x15 cm distance. This is necessary for the growth of the

plant.

6.3.7. Mulching

The entir? plantation or the plant bases are to be kept

under mulch. It is very essential to keep the plant base adequately

mulched during summer months to reduce the ill effects of

draught for reducing evaporation loss and maintain and to bring

down soil temperature

6.3.8. rash in^^ It consists of removing old fillers and dry leaves and

sheaths. This operation is carried out once in a year with the

commencement of the rqonsoon season. These materials can also

be used as mulch.

6.4. Cardamom

6.4.1. Propagation7

Cardamom can be propagated vegetatively and by

seedlings. For vegetative propagation, rhizomes with not less than

3 shoots are used. Plant:, propagated vegetatively come to bearing

on year earlier than seedlings propagations. But this method has

the disadvantages of spreading "Kattee" disease, which is of

Kerala origin. This disease is not transmitted through seeds. Hence

in areas where the disease is widespread it would be safer to use

seedlings for propagations.

6.4.2. Planting Management

Before going to the planting operation, field should be

made ready. For planting in new area, ground should be cleared or

if it is replanting area old plants should be removed. Shade

regulation, terracing and pits preparation should be done during

summer months.

6.4.2. I. Shade Regulation

Shade regulation is one of the important practices. It

should be attended during March-April in the nealy planting area

in the existing plantations in the months of May-June after the

receipt of summer showers. If the area is open due to tree fall,

panting of tree species like Chandana, Vaiabu, Naval tree etc.

should be taken up imniediately to protect the plants from dired

sunlight.

' Cardamom-Package of Practices, Spices Board (1992), p8

6.4.2.2. Field Preparation

Area having medium and steep slopes, soil

preparation will be different from that of gently slopes. In sloppy

area soil should be prott:cted from soil loss (erosion) due to rains

for which planting should be taken up terraces. Terraces should be

made across the slop at required distances depending upon the

spacing adopted. Almost 8-15cm depth of top sol should be

removed before making terraces and kept aside which can be used

for pit filing. Width of the terrace should be 1.5 to 1.8,pits of

90x90x45cm.can be prepared and before commencement of

monsoon, about 1/31d of the pit should be filed with top soil and

113 should be filed wit11 1:3mixture of organic manure and top

soil.

6.4.3. Planting

Planting material of high yielding variety, suitable

for the area may be selected for planting. These plantlets may be

planted in the already prcpared pits and plants should be protected

from wind by staking. Plant to plant distance can be 3x3cm or 2.4

m in high rainfall or irrigation conditions. Immediately after

planting, the plant base should be mulched well with available

dried leaves to protect scil erosion and conservation of moisture.

6.4.4. Weed Control

Weeds are potential competitors in the consumption of

water and nutrients which will depress the cardamom growth. At

the initial stage, if cardamom clump development is no enough

weed growth will be mtjre. Hand weeding at the plant base and

slash weeding in other areas area advisable.

Judicious irrigation during summer months ensures

increase in yield by at least 50%. Irrigation is required generally

from February to April but at times from January to May. Water

may be stored during rainy season wherever possible by

constructing check dam. Irrigation can be done through different

methods as such as pot irrigation, hose irrigation, sprinkler

irrigation and drip irrigation depending on the facilities available

in the plantations.

6.4.6. Trashing

It consists of removing old tillers and dry leaves and

sheaths. This operation is carried out once in a year, with the

commencement of monsoon season.

6.5. Analysis

6.5.1. Production and productivity

6.5.1.a Rubber

The production and productivity of rubber depend on

the climatic and geographical conditions. The table 6.1 shows the

details of production ant1 productivity of rubber estates in Kerala.

Table No.6.1Annual production of Rubber estates

Productivity (tonlhectare)

1.97 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.99

S1.No Area under cultivation

hectares U to 50 hectitres

50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250

Above 25C (Primary data)

Annual production (in

tones) 9.85-98.5 98.5-197 197-295.5 295.5-394 394-497.5

More than 497.5

From the teble it is seen that upto 50 hectares, the

annual production varie!, from 9.8 tones to 98.5 ton. In the case of

estates having the area between 50ha. -100ha. have production of

98.5 to 197 tone. If th': area lying between 100&150 ha, their

annual production is from 197 tonne-295.5 tone. In the case of

estates having the area between 150ha. &200ha, the production

varies from 295.5 tonc: to 394 tonne. Upto this 200 ha, the

production effieicincy is stagnant but if the area under cultivation

is increased to 250 hectares or more, the production capacity is

increased, here the production is 497.5tone or more, here the

productivity is also increased. In the case of former the

productivity is 1.97ha.but in the latter case, the productivity is

1.99 tonelha. From the analysis, it is clear that compared to

smaller estates, the production and productivity is higher in larger

plantations.

6.5.1.b. Tea

The annual production and productivity of tea

plantations depend on the height of the cultivated area, climatic

conditions, plucking system in the estates etc. In Kerala, Idukki

district occupy the firs1 place in the cultivation. In Idukki, the

eastern parts such Murmur, Devikolam etc.produces more than

other part of the districts such as Eealappara, Kattappana e t ~ . ~

Upasi planting directory 21" edition,1992,pp2-5

The table 5.2 shows the details of production trend of

tea in Kerala. It contains the area under cultivation and annual

production.

Table No.6.2.Annual production and productivity of Tea estates

From the able it is observed that up to 50 hectares,

the annual production is 92.5tone and the productivity is 1.85

toneha. and upto 100 hcctares the production and productivity are

185 tone and 1.85 tonelhectares respectively. In the case of the

estates having the ares comes between 100 hectares and 150

hectares, the productio~i is 277.5 tones and productivity is the

same in the former case.

But the are3 between 150 hectares and 200 hectares,

in this case the productice and productivity are increased. Here the

production is 384 tone:; and productivity is 1.92 tonehectares.

There is a slight increase in productivity. This change is again

increased in the next category (estates having the area between

200 hectares and 250 hectare). Here the annual production and

productivity is 487.5tonr1e and 1.95 tonelhectare respectively.

From the analysis, it is observed that in large

plantation the productiot~ and productivity are higher compared to

smaller one this is because of the cultivation specialities in large

cultivation

5 200-250

(Primary data)

Annual production

(tone) 92.5

185

277.5

3 84

487.5

Productivity (Tonlha.)

1.85

1.85

1.85

1.92 -

1.95

plantations. In large plantations, the method and techniques of

cultivation are modem while in most of the smallholdings,

traditional approach is continued. So the productivity is also

changed.

6.5.1.c. Cardamom

The production and productivity of cardamom in

Kerala is mainly depend on the geographical conditions and

climate of the area. 11: the case of production, Idukki district

occupy the first place lollowed by Wayanad and ~a1~hat . I ' The

annual productivity of Cardamom/ hecatare in small estates is ,127

tonel hectare. While in large estates, it is increased to .14 to .17

tonelhectare.

The table 6.3 shows the annual production and

productivity of cardamom in Kerala.

the production becomes increased from 12.7 tone to 19.05 tone.

and productivity of Cardamom plantations

Between 150 hectares .ind 200 hectares, the production varies

Upto 50

50-100

150-200

200-250

"Ealem, C.Kannan, Kerala Bhasha Institute, p12

(Primary data)

From the table, it is seen that up to 50 hectares, the

annual production is 6.35 tone and upto 100 hectares, it is 12.7

tones. The estates having tea area between 100ha.-150 hectares,

Annual production

(tone) 6.35

12.7

19.05

34

47.5

Productivity (tonlhectare)

,127

,127

,127

.17

.17

from 19.05 tones to 34 tsnes. In the case of estates having the area

between 200 hectare 2nd 250 hectare, the annual production

increased from 34 tones to 47.5 tone.

In the case of estates having the area 200 hectares, the

productivity is .17 toneAiectares and all the estates having the area

below 200 hectares, the productivity is ,127 tonelhectares. It is

noticed that in large plantation, the productivity becomes high.

6.5.1.d. Comparison.

The productivity and production pattern of the three

plantations (rubber, tea and cardamom) are different. The Table

6.4 shows the annual prclduction and productivity of these crops.

Table No.6.4 Production and productivity of Rubber, Tea and Cardamom

(Primary data)

From the tab,e it is observed that the production and

productivity is more in lubber plantations than others. In all these

three plantations, the prc~ductivity is gradually increased according

to the area under cultivar-ion. If the area is large, the productivity is

also high. Upto the area 200ha, the productivity of rubber is same

(1.97tonha) and the productivity of tea is also same upto that area

200 ha.(l.92ton/ha.),but in the case of Cardamom, the productivity

is same only upto the area 150 ha.and after that, it is increased. 4

Area under cultivation (hectares)

Annual Production (in tones) Pmductivity (tonelhsctare)

6.5.2. Nurseries in Plantations

6.5.2. a.Rubber

As far as possible level land should be selected for

raising nursery. In slopping areas buds should be made along the

contours. Proximity tcl perennial water source will facilitate

watering. The water table should be at least 60 cm below to allow

good taproot development. To avoid shading, an unplanted area of

20 cm or more from the nearby stand of rubber or natural

vegetation may be allowed. Well-drained fertile soil is desirable

for raising nurseries.

The first step in preparation of the nursery is digging the

soil to a depth of 75 can and removing all slumps in stones. Beds

should be prepared wit? 60 to 120 cm width and of convenient

length with pathways laid in between to facilitate manuring,

watering, weeding etc."

Nurseries are laid for raising seedling budded pants

and bud wood. The planting distances vary according to the type

of planting material to be raised in the nursery. Common spacing

adopted for raising seedlings stumps are 23x23cm, 30x30 and

34x20cm. Those for budded stumps are 30 x 30 or staggered pairs

f rows 60cm apart and 23cm between plants. For stumped budding

the common spacing i; 6Ox60cm and for bud wood nurseries

60x90 or 60x120 cm.

Nursery management aims at the most rapid

production of standard healthy planting materials. More intensive

care can be exercised in nursery than in field. Regular weeding

should be carried out.

I / Rubber and its Cultivation, Rubber Board,(2000),pp3- 14.

In all pl,mtations, both large and small plantations

have its own nursery. 111 large estates there is a vast and wide area

of rubber nursery but in smallholdings. they provided small area

for nursery. The table 6 5 shows the details of the nursery.

Table 6.5. Nurseries in Rubber plantations

estates nurse nursery Large 1 1 % 1 50(100%)

Total No I Sl.No 1 Type of

I I I I

From the table, it is seen that 99% of the large estate

have its own nursery. In the case of small estates, 95% have its

own nursery; only certain old estates have at present no nursery.

A Chi-Square test is conducted with Ho= there is no

difference in the nursely system in both large and small rubber

estates. Since the calculated value is less than the table value, the

null hypothesis is acceded and it is concluded that there is no

difference in the nurse0 system in large and small rubber estates.

6.5.2.b. Tea.

In tea esta.es, the seeds can be raised in bed and

polybag nursery. The seeds can be raised directly from the estates

(primary nursery) and from the primary nursery; beds can be

transplanted in the secondary nursery at a distance of lOx10cm.

115xl5cm.The same process in the rubber nursery are also adopted

in tea estates. Both in large estates and small estates, the nursery

facilities are found. The nurseries are the bases of the plantations.

The table 6.6 shows percentages of nurseries in large and small

plantations.

Own

2 1 -

Small 1 47(95%) / 3(5%) 1 50(100%)

4 100

(primary data)(C.V=l.04;T.V-~3.84;Degrees of freedom=l;Significance level=5%)

Table No.6.6.Nurseries in Tea plantations

estates nurse nurse I+ Large 1 16(92; 1 4(8%7 1 50(100%)

I SI.No 1 Type of

(primary data)(C.V=l9.82; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=l; Significance level=5%)

It is observc:d from the table that 92% of the large

estates have their ow11 nursery. While in the case of small

plantations, only 52% h,we their own nursery. This is because the

land areas for nursery are more in large plantations. A Chi-square

test is conducted with Ho= there is no difference in the nursery

system in large and small tea estates. Since the calculated value is

greater than the table vrdue, the null hypothesis rejected and it is

concluded that nursery system in large and small estates are

different.

6.5.2. c. Cardamom

Ripe Capsules of the desired cultivation are

collected ftom yielding plants during September-October. The

seeds are extracted by g2ntly pressing the capsules. The extracted

seeds are washed din cold water four times to remove the

mucilaginour coating on them. The washed seeds are drained and

mixed with ash and allo~ned to dry in shade after 2 or 3 days. The

seeds a should be sown in the nursery within a fortnight.''

In Kerala and Tamilnadu, 18 months old seedlings

are used for planting. The seeds are sown in primary nursery from

Own No Total

where the young seedlings are transplanted to a secondary nursery

and maintained for one year before planting to the main field.

Primary Nursery in Cardamom Plantations

Select nursc:ry site on gentle sloppy and preferably

near to a perennial water source. Clean the area from all existing

vegetation stumps, root:,, stones etc. In the cleared area beds can

be prepared with one-rneter width, 20 cm height and required

length, generally six meter. Jungle top soil can be spread to a

thickness of 2 to 3 cm.on the beds.

Fully ripenzd bold capsules from high yielding and

disease free clumps of known source can be collected form second

and third harvests for seed extraction. Seeds after extraction

should be washed using water to remove the mucilage, it is then

mixed with wood ash and dried in shade.

Sowing c;m be done in rows at a distance of 10 cm.

Seed rate s 30 to 50 cm.per 6x1 cm size bed. After sowing cover

the seeds with a thin layer of fine soil. Then cover the bed with

mulch material, either with pothagrtass or paddy straw.

Germination commence:; 20 to 25 days after sowing and continues

for further 30 to 40 days. 13

Secondary Nursery in Cardamom

There are two methods of raising seedlings in

secondary nursery:- Bed and Polybag

1) Bed nursery

Prepare beds as in primary nursery. A layer of cattle

manure and wood ash may be spread on the bed and mixed with

soil. Seedlings 5 to 6-lei6 stage from the primary nursery beds can

I 3 Cardomom-Package and Practices, Spices Board (1992), pp3-15

be transplanted tin the secondary nursery at a distance of 20 to 25

cm.(9x9).

2) Polybag nursery

Black bags of 20x20 cm size and thickness of 100

gauge or polythene bag:$ 3 to 4 equal strength holds at the bottom

can be used for this pu~pose. Fill the bag with potting mixture in

the ration of 3: 1: 1 of' jungle top soil, cow dung and sand.

Adequate space in between the bags may be provided for better

tillerting. 14

In Cardamom plantations, most of the estates-both

large and small have its own nursery. It strengthens the production

and productivity of the estates. The details of the nursery system

in cardamom plantations. are shown in table No.6.7.

Table No.6.7.Nurseries in Cardamom Plantations SI.No I Type of I Own I No nursery I Total 1

I I

3 1 Total 1 8 8 12 100 I LL I J

(Primary Data)(C.V=9.387; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=l; Significance level=5%)

From the table, it is observed that in large

cardamom estates, 96% have its own nursery and in small estates

80% have its own nursc:ry. A Chi-square test is conducted with

Ho=there is no difference in the nursery system in both large and

small cardamom estates. Since the calculated value is greater than

the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded

that the nursery syster in large and small cardamom estates are

different.

6.5.2. d. Comparison

Compared to other plantations, most of the rubber

estates have its own nursery followed by cardamom and tea. Table

6.8 shows the details of the nursery system in plantations.

From the table it is observed that, compared to tea

Table No.6.8.Nursery System in Plantations

plantations system

28 100

and cardamoms, a good system of nursery exist in rubber

plantations (96%) followed by cardamom (88%) and tea

(72%).This is because the rubber estates have more facilities for

nursery. A Chi-square test is conducted with Ho= there is no

3

4

difference in the nurserq system followed by different plantations

(Primary Data)(C.V=23.472,T.V=5.991;Degrees of freedom=Z;Significancee

level=5%).

12

44

Since the calculated value is greater than the table value, the null

100

300

Cardamom

Total

hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the nursery system

followed by different plantations are different.

6.5.3. Replanting Duration (Life of the plant)

' 88

256

The replanting duration of rubber plants depends

upon the geographical conditions, fertilizer usage, tapping

methods etc. The study reveals that in large plantations the

replanting duration is 1E, years to 24 years, but in the case of small

plantation it is 15 years to 20 years. Table 6.9 shows the details of

replanting duration of rubber.

1 I (Primq Data)

Table No.6.9.Life span of Rubber Plantations

6.5.3.b. Tea

Minimum

estates Duration

Large 18

15

Out of the various olantations crops, tea plants possess large-

Maximum

Duration

24

20

living- duration. The te:i-plants have more than 50 years life span

in general. The table 6 10 exhibits the replanting duration of tea

varies from 45 years to 80 years according to the area and quality

of the plants. In large sector estates, the replanting duration is

higher compared to small one because of their infrastructure

plants.

Table No.6.10.Life span of Tea plants

facilities. In large plantations, the minimum duration is 48 years

and maximum is 80 years (in general case). In the case of

smallholdings, the minimum duration is 45 years and maximum is

75 years.

S1.No

1

2

(Primary data)

From thc: table it is seen that replanting duration

Minimum

duration

48 years

45 years

Type of

estates

Large

Small

Maximum

duration

80 years

75 years

6.5.3.c. Cardamom

Normally cardamom plants planted for 14 to 19 years.'5

It is depend on the crop management system in the plantations and

the area under cultivation. In large plantation, the replanting

duration is high comparcd to small estates. In large plantation the

replanting duration varies from 16 years to 20 years while in the

case of small plantations, it varies from 9 years to 15 years.

Table 6.11 shows the replanting duration of

cardamom.

6.5.3.d. Comparison

Table No.6.11.Life span of Cardamom

Out of the vai.ious plantation crops, the living life of tea

Estates

Large

plant is very high. The :able 6.12 shows the details of replanting

duration of various crop::.

Table No.6.12.Life span of Plantations

(Primary Data)

Minimum

Duration

16

9

'Type of Minimum Maximum estates plantations duration duration

(years) (years) Rubber 18 24

Tea 48 80 Cirdamom 16 20

Maximum

Duration

20

15

(Primary data)

From the tilble it is observed that the tea plants have

long duration of life. (48- 80 years). In the case of large rubber

plantations and cardamom plantations, the replanting maximum

duration range varies from 16 years to 24 years and minimum

duration varies from 9 to 15 years.

6.5.4. New Planting

6.5.4. a. Rubber

New plantin,g is necessary for all plantations for their

smooth running. It strengthens the physical growth of the

plantations.

Table 6.12 shows the details of new planting rubber

estates.

Table No.6.13.New planting Rubber estates

S1.No / Type of 1 New planting / Others 1 Total I / estates 1 estates 1 I I I I I I

1 / Large I I I

I I 1 (Primary data)(C.V=2.596; T.V=3.841;Degrees of freedom=l;Siginificance

26(52%) / 24(48%) 1 50(100%)

2 1 Small I I I I

From the table, it is observed that 52% of the

(64%) 1 50(100%)

3 / Total

large estates have new planting areas and in case of small estates,

only 36% have new plantating area. This is because large

44

plantations have more ir~fra structure facilities for new planting. . A Chi-square test is conducted with Ho=there is no difference in

56

the new planting area in large and small estates. Since the

100

calculated value is less than the table value, the null hypothesis is

accepted and it is concluded that there is no difference in the new

planting area in large anc small estates.

6.5.4.6. Tea

There is less new planting area in tea plantations,

compared to other crops. For new planting of tea, an important

considerable element is geographical structure of land and climatic

conditions.

The table 6.14 shows the number of tea estates having

new planting area.

In large tea estates, 22% have new plantations and in

Table No.6.14.New planting Tea estates

the case of small estates only 8% have new planting area. A Chi-

SI.No New planting

estates

Small 4(8%)

Total 15

square test is conducted wi1.h Ho= there is no difference in the new

planting area in large and small estates.

(primary data)(C.V= 3.84Z;T.V=3,!<4;Degrees of freedom=l;Significance level=5%)

Others

39(78%)

46(92%)

85

Since the calculated value is greater than the table value, the null

Total

50(100%)

50(100%)

100

hypohothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the new planting

area in both large and small estates are different.

6.5.4.c. Cardamom

Most of the cardamom plantations have new planting

area. In small estates they wish to cultivate more cardamom that they

have more new planting areii while in the case of large plantations, it

is less.

The table 6.15 exhibits the details of new plantations in

cardamom plantations.

Table No.6.15.New plantations in Cardamom

I / estates I plantations 1 I I S1.No of

I I I I 1 I Large 1 15(30%) 1 35(70%) / 50(100%)

I I 1 Small 1 28(55%)

New

I

(Primary data)(C.V=6.88;T.V=3.84 (;Degrees of freedom; Significance level=5%)

Others

I I I 1

In large plantations 30% have new plantations and in

Total 1

3

smallholdings 55% have n<:w planting area. . A Chi-square test is

conducted with Ho- there is no difference in the new planting area in

Total

both large and small estates .Since the calculated value is greater than

the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that

43

the new planting area are different in large and small cardamom

estates.

57

6.5.4. d. Comparison

100

The tables 6.16 show the details of new plantations.

in Rubber, Tea and Cardamom Others Total

Total 198 3 00

(primary data)(C.V=24.15 1 ; T.V=5.991; Degrees of freedom=2; Significance

New plantations are more found in large rubber estates

followed by cardamom plantations. Out of the three crops, tea

plantations have less new planting area.. A Chi-square test is

conducted with HHhere is no difference in the new planting area in

rubber, tea and cardamom plantations Since the calculated value is

greater than the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected and it is

concluded that the new planting area in different plantations are

different.

6.5.5. Fertiliser Requirements

6.5.5.a. Rubber

The following general fertiliser recommendations are

made for manuring mature rubber from the time of commencement

of tapping to the age clf economic production. No fertilizer

applications are recommencled for mature trees that are expected to

be replanted within a period of three years because of economic

considerations.

Applications of 10-10-10NPK mixtures at the rate of

900kgltree (300kglhectares) every year during April-May or in two

split doses during April-May, September-October. The composition

of mixture is 15:15:15 or 17:17:17 or 19:19:19 NPK may also be

used. The rubber plantations are generally used this type of fertilizer

(NPK).' The quantity varies ftom 300kglha to 450kglha. This is same

for large and small estates.

6.5.5. b. Tea

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and

Potassium are the major nutrients required by tea plants. In addition

I Rubber, Kerala Bhasha Institute, pp76-77

secondary nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and sulpher are also

required for plant growth. A third category of nutrient known as

micronutrients such as zinc, aluminium, Iron etc.are also necessary

for plant.

An important element in tea fertilizer is nitrogen.

Between 40%&50% of the protoplasm is made up of nitrogenous

compounds and 18 to 20% of dry protein is in the form of nitrogen.

Because of this, nitrogen is of considerable importance in the eligible

growth of the tea plant. NPK is the approved fertilizer in tea

plantations.2 The fertilizer requisition in tea estates varies from

350kg/herctare NPK to 490kglhectare NPK.This is based on the

climatic and geographical cc~nditions.

6.5.5.c. Cardamom

Ten kilogram of cattle manure or compost per plant year

may be applied once in a year during the monsoon season in May-

June in cardamom plantations. Present recommended dose of

chemical fertilizer is 15 k g . Nitrogen, 125 kg. Phosphorus and

250kg.Potassium/hectare for irrigated plantation and 75kg Nitrogen,

75kg.phosphorous and 15Okg potassium for rained plantations.

Recommended dose for irrigated area may be applied in three split

doses in May, Septmber and December. Recommended dose for

rained areas may be applied in two split doses at the beginning of

September after completior of southwest monsoon. The approved

quantity of fertilizer for cardamom cultivation in Kerala for both

large and small estates is 75:75: 150kg/hectares NPK.~

2 Tea, Kerala Bhasha Institute, ppl3-17 ' Ealem,C,Kannan,p23.

6.5.6. Major Diseases

6.5.6. a. ~ u b b e r ~

Crop losses resulting from ravages of disease causing

agencies in rubber plantetions are considerable. Timely plant

protection operations ensure healthy growth and economic

production. The important d seases are given below.

1. Shoot root

This is found in the plantation during the period of

South West Monsoon. The tender green shoots root damaging the

nursery seedlings and the young plants in the field.

The shoot root (:an be managed by spraying 6.2 liters of

40% oil based copper ox chloride paste in 37 liters of diluents oil or

8kg.oil dispersible copper oxiychloride powder 56% in 40 litters of

oil is usedlhectare. For youlig plants in the nursery as well as in the

field spraying with copper fi~ngicides before the onset of South West

Monsoon.

2. Abnormal leaf fall

This is occurrc:d annually during Monsoon period.

Prolonged wet weather coupled with humid atmospheric conditions

favour the disease. First the fruits rot, after infected leaves fall in

large numbers, prematurely, either green or after turning copper red.

This disease can be managed by spraying of the foliage prior to the

onset of Monsoon period with Bordeaux mixture using high volume

sprayers and oil based copper ox chloride dispersed in diluents spray

oil employing either low volume air blast sprayers from the ground.

4 Rubber and its cultivation, Rubber Board (2000) p47

The table 6.17 shows the influence of diseases in rubber

estates.

Table No. 6.17.Disease influence in Rubber estates

Abnormal leaf Shoot root

Large 47(95%) 45(90%)

(Primary data)

In rubber estates (both large and small), 95% are affected

by abnormal leaf fall and 90% are affected by short root.

6.5.6.6. ~ e a '

The following ace the major diseases that are found in tea

plantations in Kerala.

1) Black Root disease

This disease is sharacterized by black woolly mycelia

growth on the bark of the ilfected root and also of the solar region

and the presences of radiating stars of white mycelium between the

bark and the wood. The spread of the disease is very rapid in dry

weather.

Control

Mulch and oth:r organic materials should be removed

around lometers of the focal center. Soil should be drenched with

Dithane M45/capton-50kg/lOlitres of water. Soil rehabilitation

should be avoided.

2 I Small

5 Tea, Tea Board, p34

47(95%) 45(90%)

2) Brown Root

This disease is prevalent in low elevation tea growing

area. The important distinguishing character of this disease is the

presence of the typical tawny brown mycelium. Diseased roots are

encrusted in soil, sand and stone particles, which are so firmly

attached to the roots as to make them very difficulty to remove.

Control

There are less control measures for these diseases. A

mixture of cuprous oxide and copper oxicloryd with water are used

for controlling this disease.

The table 6.18 shows the details of diseases influence in

tea plantations in Kerala.

Table No.6.18.Disease influence in Tea estates

S1.No 1 T Y P ~ of

From the table, it is noticed that 90% of the estates (both

large and small) are affected by black root and 70% by brown root

and 40% by other such as primary root, leaf fall etc. In Keala, brown

root is the main disease of tea plants.

6.5.6.c. Cardamom plants6

The following are the major diseases found in cardamom

plantations in Kerala.

estates root

35(70%)

6 Cardamom-Package and Practices, Spices Board (1992),p8

Black

20(40%)

20(40%)

(Primary data)

Brown root Others

1) Katte (Mosaic disease)

Kattee disease affects plants of all ages. The first

visible symptoms appear on the youngest leaf of affected filler as

spindle shaped chlorotocic flecks. Later, these flecks develop into

slender discontinuous stripes of pale green and dark green areas

running parallel to the veins from the midrib to leaf margin. As the

disease advances, subsequent leaves show characteristic mosaic

symptoms. The leaf sheat~s and pseudostems also show mosaic

pattern. Mature leaves do lot develop symptoms. The infection is

systematic in nature and gradually spreads to all tillers of affected

plant. Immediately after injection, there is no growth reduction but

within one to two yeas aftt:r infection there is gradual reduction in

clump size. In advanced sages, the affected plants produce shorter

and slender tillers with few shorter panicles. Katte affected plants do

not die but the plants give only poor yield. The yield reduction has

been found to be 70% within 3 years after infection. Virus causes this

disease and insect vectors transmit it.

This disease can be managed by adopt the following

measures.

1. Keep a constant surveillance on the occurrence of Katte

disease.

2. Use only healthy seedlings raised from Katte free plants.

3. Avoid rhizome planting using materials taken from disease-

affected gardens

4. Practice regular gouging.

5. Repeat tracing of affected plants and rouging at weekly

intervals for at least 3 months.

6. Replant the rouged aeeas with healthy disease free materials.

7. Destroy wild planls like Amomum, Alpinia, Curcuma,

Collocation etc.if they are affect with Katte.

2) Azhuckal or Capsule Rot disease.

Azhuckal disease is mostly prevalent in Idukki and

Wayanad district of Kerala.Azhucka1 (rotting) is caused by the

fungus phytophhthrora meadi. This disease starts with the onset of

Monsoon in June and becomes severe during July-August months.

Symptoms of decay appear on all plant parts, first

symptoms appear on the young leaves or on capsules in the form of

water socked lesions. In leilves these areas enlarge become necrotic

and gradually the leaves shrivel and begin to share. Finally the

affected leaves break at the base of the petiole and remain hanging.

Affected immature capsule soon decay and fall off within 3 to 5 days

and mature capsules get shriveled on drying. In severe cases,

infection spreads over to the rhizomes and filers also. However

Malabar variety is more affected due to this disuse.

The Azhucakal disease can be managed by the

following methods.

1. Trashing and cleaning the plant basins are to be followed

+ monsoon. during May before th-

2. Thick shade may regulate by gently loping of tree branches.

3 . Provide drainage low lying and marshy areas.

4. Destroy the azhuckal-affected portions.

After completii~g this, the plants may be sprayed with

any one of the following fimgicides.

a. Boardeaux mixture 1%

b. Aliette 80wp.3%

3) Chenthal Disease

This disease is seen almost all areas of Cardamom

cultivation. Initial symptoms appear as water soaked lesions on the

young leaves. Later these become yellowish to reddish brown with a

pale yellow halo. In severe cases, it leads to the withering of eave and

withering of psuedo stems. It is caused by corynebacteerium. This

disease can be managed by providing adequate shade in the

plantations. Compared to the other disease, Chenthal disease is found

very few.

Table 6.19 shows the disease influence in cardamom

plantations.

Table No 6.19.Disease influence in Cardamom plantations

It is observec from the table that 95% of the estates

Azhuckal

45(90%)

45(90%)

(both large and small) are affected by Kattee disease and 90% by

Others (Chenthal, Clumprot)

20(40%)

20(40%)

Azhuckal disease. Chenthal and other disease affect only few estates

(primary data)

6.5.7. Soil and Climatic Conditions

6.5.7. a.Rubber

The rubber tree is sturdy, quick growing and tall, it

grows on many types of soils provided the soils are deep and well

drained. A warm humid equable climate (21' to 35') and a fairly

distributed annual rainfall of not less than 200 cm are necessary for

the optimum growth of this plant. The Ph index suited for rubber

cultivation is 5-6.5'

6.5.7. b. ~ e a '

Tea soils must b: acid; tea cannot be grown in alkaline

soils. Red-clay soil is most suited for tea cultivation. The acid content

of the soil is (PH) 4-5.8. This is the favourable ph value fort tea plant.

The physical structure of the soil suited for tea cultivation

is given below

Light sand- 17.8%

Rough sand 3 1.5%

Silt 13.7%

Light silt 14.7%

Clay 15.7%

A suitable climate for cultivation has a minimum annual

rainfall of 1140 to 1270 millimeters. If the rainfall is very high, but it

not affect the tea plants, while long-dry climate conditions adversely

affect the plants. The average hot condition in the tea plantation is

13 .0~ to 29.0~. The minimum height required for tea cultivation is

8700mtr-2000metre.

' Rubber, Kerala Bhasha Institute,p33 Tea, Kerala Bhasha Institute,p38

6.5.7. c. cardamomg

Cardamom thrives at elevations from 600 to 1500m, but

the most productive range of elevation is from 1000 to 1500m.

Humus-rich soils holdings s good growth of evergreen forest is ideal

for this crop. Cardamom itdhors disturbance of soil, it required an

evenly distributed annual rainfall of not less than. l50cm with warm

humid atmosphere. The sails have PH2 ranging from 4.5-5.5 is

considered optimum. Som~: of the best cardamom areas receive a

rainfall of not less than 500 to 625cm a year. But in areas with low

rainfall, by a carefil selection of site like the moist valleys, in jungles

or canopy of evergreen forests, where ground water supplies

guarantee moisture, cardamom cultivation can be made a success.

Suitable areas

Malabar type: from 600- 1200m

Mysore type: from 900-1200m

Vazhukka: from-1200m

6.5.8. Planting Methods

6.5.8.a. ~ubber."

It is essential that planting should be carried out during

favourable weather. The following are the various types of planting

adopted in Rubber plantatiorks.

1. Stump planting

Seedling stumps and budged stumps are used for

planting. A stump with plenl y of food reserve gives a vigorous shoot

P Spices,Henhy.N(1912) pp320-335.

l o Rubber and Its cultivation, Rubber Bcrard(2000)p8

with healthy initial whorl of leaves, which is above to withstand

adverse conditions that may arise subsequent to planting.

It is always advisable to plant the stumps soon after

pulling out from nursery beds. While planting budded stumps, the

bud patch should be just above the ground level. If a considerable

part of the stock below the union is left above the ground level.

About 5 cm of surface soil is first removed from an adequate area

around the planting points to accommodate the whorl of lateral roots.

A planting cavity is them made with an alavango to a depth equal to

the length of the pruned t;aproot. After thrusting the alavango the

required depth its top end is moved around and the cavity widened

sufficiently for the whorl of' lateral roots to be in position in the area

dug. Loose soil is put in the cavity around the taproot and pressed

firmly. This is best done by pushing the alavango into the edge of the

planting hold as deep as the tap roots it, in a slanting manner so that

the top part of their alavan5;o is away from the stump and the lower

end near the ti of the tap root and then pulling it strongly towards the

stump which is firmly held in position. This is repeated on all sides

without causing any damage to the bud.

2. Polybag planting

The top storey of leaves should be fully mature at the

time of planting. The soil around the bag is removed and the bag

taken out of the trench. Dressing of the lateral roots and tap root if

growth out of the bags may be necessary. Then they are carried to the

planting points. A planting hole bigger than the size of the bag is

made. The bottom of the bag is completely cut and then the bag

along with the plant is inseded in to the planting hole.

A vertical cut is madder at the bottom half of the

plastic sleeve and the space around the bag are gradually filled, with

cylinder of soil without t)eing broken at the same time of his

operation. When the hole i:; thus partially filled the bag is slit along

its full length and carefully removed. The gap around the upper part

of the soil core is also filled with soil without causing any damanger

to the soil core.

3. Seed at stake planting

The system of planting seeds in situ is called seed-at -

stake planting. Field budding follows it.

Out of the various planting method, Polybag planting

is more popular and this type is more suited for the climatic

conditions of Kerala and stump planting follows it. The third

category planting-seed-at-stake planting have less importance in

India Rubber field because of country's climatic conditions. The

table 6.20 shows the planting methods adopted in rubber estates in

Kerala.

Table No.6.20.Methods of planting in Rubber plantations

1 1 estates 1 planting 1 planting 1 stake I I

It is observed from the table that most of the rubber

Seed-at- SI.No

1

2

3

estates adopt polybag planting (both large and small). 85% if the

Total Poly bag Type of Stump

(Primary data)

Large

Small

Total

42(853/0)

45(90%)

87

7(14%)

5(9%)

12

planting

1(1%)

l(l%)

2

50(100%)

50(100%)

100

large estates and 90% of the small estates adopt polybag planting and

14% of the large estates and 9% of the small estates adopt stump

planting and 1% of each adopt seed-at-stake planting.

6.5.8.6. Tea

Polybag planting is the main method of planting in tea

plantations." Both large and small plantations are entirely depending

on this type of planting.

6.5.8.c. Cardamom

In large cartlamom plantations poly bag planting is

most commonly used. In small plantations, seed-at-stake planting is

more popu~ar.'2

The table 6.21 shows the details of planting methods of

cardamom plantations.

Table No.6.21.Planting methods in Cardamom plantations

I I estatei / I I 1 stake 1 SI.No.

I I I I I

1 / Large 1 46(920/;,) 1 3(6%) / 1(2%) 1 50(100%) I I I I I

2 1 Small 1 4(8%) 1 45(90%) 1 1(2%) 1 50(100%)

Type of

(primary data)

In large cardamom plantations, 92% of the estates adopt

polybag planting, 4% seed-st-stake planting and 2% adopt other

traditional methods. In the case of small estates, only 8% adopt

polybag method and 2% adopt other normal methods.90% of the

small estates adopt seed-st-stake methods.

Others

I I I I I

Total

2 48 3 100 Total 50

6.5.8.d. Comparison

In most of the rubber and tea plantations (both large

and small estates) adopt polybag method. But in Cardamom

plantations, large estates are more adopt polybag planting and small

estates adopt seed-st-stake planting.

6.5.9. Water Management System Plantations

6.5.9.a. Rubber

Proper water management and irrigtion facilities are

necessary for rubber cultivation. In most of the estates, there have a

good systematic water management system exist. In large

plantations, modern technique and equipment are used for proper

water management system such as motor-pumping, modern irrigation

facilities etc. while in small estates, traditional system such as ponds,

wells in the estates itself are used.13 Table 6.22 reveals the water

management system in rubber plantations.

Table No.6.22.Water Management System in Rubber estates

S1.No

mr3%3-pq5y\ (Primary data)(C.V= 8.98;T.V=3.84 !;Degreesof freedom=l ;Significance level=5%)

estates syslem

32(64%)

In large rubber estates 64% have a good and

Type of

systematic water management system .In the case of small estates;

Water management

18(36%)

only 34% have such systeni. A Chi-square test is conducted with

50(100%)

13 Rubber News,January(l999)pl4.

Ho= there is no difference in the water management system followed

in both large and small estal es.

Since the calculated value is greater than the table value,

the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the water

management system in both large and small estates are different.

6.5.9.6. Tea

A good and systematic water management system exists

in both large and small plantations. The table 6.23 shows the details

of water management systern in tea plantations.

Table No.6.23.Water Management System in Tea plantations

From the table it is observed that 92% of the large

plantations have a good system of water management and 8% of

them have not. While in the case of smallholdings, 90% have

systematic water management system and 10% have not. A Chi-

square test is conducted with Ho=there is no difference in water

management system in both large and small tea estates. Since the

calculated value is less than the table value, the null hypothesis is

accepted and it is conclud?d that the size of the estates have no

influence in the water management system in tea plantations.

Water No

4(8%) Small 5(10%)

9

Total

50(100%) 50(100%) 100

(Primary data)(C.V=. 12; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=I; Significance level=S%)

6.5.9.c. Cardamom

It is noticed that in most of the large plantations, there

should be sufficient water management system. In small estates their

number is low. The table 6.24 reveals the details.

I I estates I management / I I

(Prirnruy data)(C.V=25.68; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=l; Significance level=S%)

From the table, it is viewed that 94% of the large

1 2 3

plantations have a good and systematic water management system.

Large Small Total

But in the case of small estates only 49% have such system. A Chi-

square test is conducted with Ho= there is no difference in the water

management system followed in large and small cardamom estates.

Since the calculated value is greater than the table value, the null

hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the water management

system followed in both large and small are different.

6.5.9.d. Comparison

The details of water management system in different

plantations crops (comparison) are given in the table 6.25

Table No.6.25.Water Management System in Plantations

SI.No I Type of Water / No system / Total I plantations I management I I I

Rubber

Cardamom 7 1 4 Total 21 1

(Primary data)(C.V=42.24;T.V=5.991;Degrees of freedom=2;Siginificance level=S%)

5 1 9

29 89

100 100 100 300

A good and systematic water management system exists

in tea plantations than rubber and cardamom estates. A Chi-square

test is conducted with I-Io= there is no difference in water

management system fo1low1:d by different plantations.

Since the calculated value is greater than the table value,

the null hyphtotieseis rejected and it is concluded that the water

management system fol1owc:d by different plantations are different.

6.5.10. Disease Management System in Plantations

6.5.1O.a. Rubber

Abnormal leaf fall and shoot root are the main diseases

of rubber plantations found in Kerala. Most of the estates have

facilities for managing these diseases. The table 6.26 shows the

details of disease management system in rubber plantations.

Table No.6.26.Disease management system in Rubber plantations. Disease No Total

estates Management system system -

5(10%) 50(100%) I I

2 I Small I I I I 1 3 I Total 85 15 100

It is observed from table that 90% of the large estates

and 80% of the small estat2s have a scientific disease management

system. A Chi-square tesi. is conducted with Ho= there is no

difference in the disease management system followed in both large

and small rubber estates. Since the calculated value is less than the

table value, the null hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that

there is no difference in the disease management system followed in

both large and small estates.

6.5.10.6. Tea

A good and systematic disease management system

exists in both large and sma 1 estates. Table 6.27 reveals the details.

(Primary data)(C.V=.795;T.V= 3.841;Degees of freedom=l;Significance level=5%)

Table No.6.27.Disease management system in Tea plantations

From the table, it is seen that 90% of the large estates

and 85% of the small estates have its own disease managements

Total

50(100%)

50(100%)

100

Disease estates management

system

Small

Total 87

system. A Chi-square test is conducted with Ho=there is no

No system

5(10%)

8(15%)

13

difference in the disease management system followed in large and

small estates. Since the calculated value is less than the table value,

the null hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that there is no

difference in the disease management system followed in large and

small tea estates.

6.5.1O.c. Cardamom

It is observed that 96% of the large estates and 53% of

the small estates have a systematic and good disease management

The details of the disease management system are shown in

table 6.28.

Table No.6.28.Disease manage~nent system in Cardamom plantations I S1.No I Type of I Disease management I No system I Total

(primary data)(C.V=23.52; T.V=3.84; Degrees of freedom=l; Significance level=S%)

system 48(96%)

Small 27(53%)

75

A Chi-square test is conducted with Ho= there is no

difference in the disease m.~nagement system followed in large and

2(4%)

23(47%)

25

small cardamom estates.

50(100%)

50(100%)

100

Since the calculiited value is greater than the table value,

the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the disease

management system followed in large and small cardamom estates

are different.

6.5.10.d. Comparison

It is analysed that 87% of the tea estates have a good

disease management system followed by rubber (85%) and

cardamom (75%).

The details are shown in table 6.29.

Table No 6.29.Disease Management System in plantations

Type of Disease

System Rubber 85

87 Cardamom 75

Total 247 (primary Data)(C.V=S.700; T.V=5.99; Degrees of freedom=2; Significance level=S%).

No System

15 13 25 53

Total

100 100 100 300

From the table, it is observed that most of the tea estates

have its own disease management system followed by rubber and

cardamom Chi-square tesl. is conducted with Ho=there is no

difference in disease management system followed by rubber, tea and

cardamom. Since the calculated value is less than the table value, the

null hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that there is no

difference in the disease management system followed in rubber, tea

and cardamom estates.

6.5.11. Scientific crop management in plantations.

The scientific crop management in plantations is measured

by conducting a correlatio~i test by taking three variables-nursery

management systems, disease management system and water

management system. If all these variables are possessed by estates, it

is assigned three points, if any one or two of them are possessed, then

it is given two points and il' none of them are possessed, it is given

one point.

The detail of the scientific crop management system is

given below.

6.5.11.a. Rubber The correlatiori test conducted under rubber plantations

are given in table 6.30. Table No.6.3O.Scientific crop management and productivity in rubber estate

(Primary data)

The value obts~ined from the correlation test is .730and

it is concluded that the scientific crop management and the

productivity in rubber estates are positively correlated.

The scientific crop management system and the productivity

in tea plantations are given in table 6.3 1.

Table N0.6.31 Scientific crop management and the productivity in tea estates

(Primary Data)

The value obtained from the correlation test is .606 and

it is concluded that the scientific crop management and the

productivity in tea estates are positively correlated.

6.5.11. c. Cardamom

The scientific crop management system and the productivity in cardamom estates are given in table 6.32. Table No.6.32.Scientific crop management and the productivity in cardamom estates.

Primary Data

From the table, it is observed that 35% of the rubber

estates have full scientific management practices in respect of crop,

50% have partial scientific management and 15% have not. In the

case of tea, 36% have full scientific management, 48% have partial

and 16% have not. In the case of cardamom 30% have full scientific

crop management, 40% have partial and 30 have not. From the

analysis, it is clear that tea estates have more scientific crop

management followed by rubber. A chi-square test is conducted with

Ho= there is no differeno: in the scientific crop management

The value obtained from the correlation test is .704 and

it is concluded that the scientific crop management and the

productivity in cardamom piantations are positively correlated.

6.5.12. Scientific crop management in Plantations

The scientific crop management practices in

plantations are measured by considering three variables-nursery

management systems, disease management system and water

management system. If all these variables are possessed by an estate,

then three points are assigned to such estates, if any two or one of

them is possessed, two points are assigned such estates and if none of

them is possessed, one point is assigned. The table 6.33 shows the

details of scientific management practices in plantations.

Table No.6.33 Scientific crop management in plantations.

Scientific llubber mana ement

k T t 3 5

Partial 50 15

4 Total 100 (Primary data)(C.V=8.758; T.V=9.488, DF=4; sg=5%)

Tea

36 48 16 100

Cardamom

3 0 40 3 0 100

Total

101 138 61 300

practices followed in rubber, tea and cardamom. Since the calculated

value is less than the table value, the null hypothesis is accepted and

it is concluded that there is no difference in the scientific crop

management practices followed in rubber, tea and cardamom.

Inorder to tezt the effectiveness of scientific crop

management practices and the productivity of each crop, multiple

regression test is conducted. From the results it is observed that the

crop management in rubber plantations has more significance with

productivity than tea and cardamom. (The details of the multiple

regression test are shown in Appendix-3)