chapter 5 vehicle operating costs

COST 334 - Chapter 5

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CHAPTER 5 VEHICLE OPERATING COSTS Table of Contents

5.1 Introduction 2

5.2 Vehicle Operating Cost (VOC) Models 2 5.2.1 General 2 5.2.2 Models Available 3 5.2.3 Selection of Model for use in COST 334 5

5.3 Use of the Model 5 5.3.1 Results for a German 40 t Tractor / Semi-Trailer Unit Super Single Tyres on Drive Axle instead of Twin Tyres 6

5.3.1.1 Scenario: 1 New Tyres 6 5.3.1.2 Scenario 2: Re-treaded and Re-grooved Wide Base Tyres on Drive Axle 11

5.3.2 Results for a British 40 t Tractor/Semi-Trailer 14 5.3.3 Super Single Tyres on Semi-Trailer Axles: 38t Four-Axle Unit Compared with 40t Five-Axle Unit 19

5.4 Transport Conditions for Forwarders and European Taxation for Trucks 21

5.5 VOC without Tax in EUROs 23

5.6 References 26


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5.1 Introduction In order to assess the overall effects of the use of wide single or dual tyres, it was necessary to establish their effects on road pavements, on the economics of the operation of road freight vehicles, and on other non-pavement effects. This Chapter presents the work of COST 334 in establishing the effects of the use of wide single and dual tyres on the costs of operation of road freight vehicles. Because of the experimental difficulty in doing so, it was not possible to carry out a range of appropriate tests on vehicles equipped with a wide range of single and dual tyres. COST 334 therefore sought to investigate the effects of the use of different tyre types by theoretical means, namely through the use of vehicle operating cost models (VOC). In such models, fixed costs, variable costs for different truck operating conditions and vehicle configuration parameters (e.g. tyres) can be input to the model (depending on its complexity), in order to calculate the overall cost of operating the vehicle over a period of time, or over a distance travelled. However, a number of models exist, though many of these are particularly directed at the operation of private cars and other passenger vehicles. Few models are specifically designed for the estimation of the operating costs of freight vehicles. The costs of operating road freight vehicles can be sub-divided, from the point of view of the work of COST 334, into those that are tyre-related, and those that are not. Examples of the former include the payload that can be carried by a vehicle, and the fuel consumption of that vehicle, while examples of the latter include driver’s salary and vehicle taxation. The COST 334 requirement was therefore for a model that was able to provide information on the relative costs of operating freight vehicles with appropriate wide single tyres, compared with the same vehicle operating on appropriate dual-tyre assemblies. Only the effects of the choice of tyre type were to be investigated, though it was recognised that these needed to be established under realistic operating conditions, if possible. In the first phase of the work, therefore, an appraisal was made of models that might be suitable for this task, or that could be readily adapted to do so. From those suitable, a selection was made, and this was then used to estimate the effects of operating costs of a range of different tyre types. The results of these estimations were finally taken into account in calculating the overall effects of the use of wide single and dual tyres. 5.2 Vehicle Operating Cost (VOC) Models 5.2.1 General Vehicle Operating Cost models are intended to estimate the costs of operation of a selection of vehicle types, when used under a range of operating conditions. They can range from complex models, requiring a wide range of input parameters, to simple models needing very few input data. Complex models will take into account not only vehicle-related parameters, such as the cost of purchase of the vehicle, its depreciation costs, maintenance costs, fuel consumption costs, etc, but also those other user costs such as value of time, road roughness, road texture, tyre life and replacement costs, etc.. On the other hand, simple models will exclude many of these more detailed (and difficult to establish) parameters. Bertholet et al (1996) [1], described the formulation of VOCs and categorised them. They describe two basic types of model, as follows: Empirical models


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Empirical models are based on a traditional approach in which data on vehicle operating costs (derived from previous records) are subjected to a regression analysis, from which a model is derived. The development of such models is data-intensive, and they require frequent updating and re-calibration as a result of changes and fluctuations in prices, and in vehicle and road parameters. However, they have the advantage of requiring less input data, and may be more suitable for those applications where the availability of such data is limited. Their disadvantage is that they cannot be applied to radically new situations or scenarios because of their empirical origins. Mechanistic models This type of model is based on a mathematical representation of the mechanical relationship between vehicle and road type. A number of these relationships are broadly established and mathematically derived. Calibration of these models is generally less data-intensive than for empirical models. Within this class of model, deterministic models provide a single result from the input data, having a discrete value. Probabilistic models use distributions of data as input, and provide, as output, a distribution of values for the result, with an indication of the likely reliability of that result. The advantage of this type of model is therefore that it is capable of predicting the outcome of a wide variety of scenarios, providing the appropriate input data is well known. However, the input data necessary for reliable operation of these models is often very extensive, and sometimes difficult to establish reliably. 5.2.2 Models Available In addition to the requirement for a model that was able to provide information on the relative costs of operating freight vehicles with appropriate wide single tyres, compared with the same vehicle operating on appropriate dual-tyre assemblies, COST 334 also required a model that was widely applicable in Europe. A wide variety of heavy vehicle fleets apply at national levels in Europe, however, and these are required to operate in an even wider range of road conditions, and fiscal regulations. The EC RTD project RIMES (1999) [2] carried out a survey of VOCs in use in European countries, in which their main features and capabilities were summarised. Table 5.1 presents the results of this survey in brief form.


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Cost Components Country Name Fuel Tyres-

Tyre wear Maintenance (including oil, parts, etc)

Capital & depreciation

Distance travelled

User Time

Road geometry & condition

Vehicle Type

Country specific

Remarks

United Kingdom

HEN2 (1997)

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✗ ✔ ✔ (gradients only) ✔ (5) Yes Requires updating

Finland FINVOC (1995)

✔ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ (6) Yes (?) Very simple model

Sweden VETO (1987- )

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✔ (3) No Also calculates emissions

Norway - (1986-1992)

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✗ ✔ ✔ ✔ (2) Yes Algorithms uncertain

Denmark BELMAN (1983-1997)

✔ ✔ ✔ ✗ ? ✗ ? ✗ ? ✔ (roughness only

✔ (2) Yes Algorithms uncertain

Hungary - (1998)

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ (on average annual basis)

✗ ✔ ✔ (3) Yes (?) Calibrated under rapidly changing traffic conditions

France SETRA (1995)

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ (2) No Very simple model

Table 5.1: Comparison of available European VOC models (ex. RIMES project) [2]


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In addition to these models used in EU states, COST 334 also identified several other models and analysed their potential usefulness. These were: 1. The VOC model(s) originating in, and derived from HDM III and IV (Watanatada et al,

1987) [3]. This group of models uses algorithm structures that tend to be of the mechanistic approach. The models are often used in pavement management and road network budgeting applications, and require extensive input data reflecting a wide range of physical measurements concerning the vehicle and the road on which it is operating.

2. A group of VOC models in use in Australia and generally referred to as NIMPAC models [11]. These are based broadly on statistical relationships, i.e. equations that generate estimates of costs, etc., but which do not describe the physical processes involved. The group includes a number of significant variants.

3. Two European VOC models developed by truck manufacturers (Mercedes Benz and Scania).These models have been developed as an aid to customers in the purchase of appropriate truck types or configurations for a specific transport task. Because of the competitive nature of the industry, few details of the models are known, but it is clear that they have been developed on the basis of comprehensive testing of trucks on the road network.

5.2.3 Selection of Model for use in COST 334 The criteria adopted by COST 334 in selecting a model for use in their work were as follows: • Ease of use • Availability of appropriate input data • Applicability of the model in various European scenarios • Ability to deal adequately with the question of tyre type and tyre wear On the basis of these criteria, the group focused on the use of the truck manufacturer’s models available in Europe. Of these, the operation of one was supported by input data from the fleet of 50,000 leased trucks that the company has in operation in Europe, and this gave confidence in its forecasts. Principally for this reason the Mercedes Benz1 Charterway VOC Model [4] was selected for use by the group. The Mercedes Benz model is also available for different European countries and this satisfied the criterion “Applicability in various European scenarios” imposed by the group. 5.3 Use of the Model For truck operators in different countries the specific vehicle operation costs in that country depend on specific data such as fuel costs, driver wages, taxes, etc. The aim of the group was therefore to establish such data for a number of countries, so that the appropriate Mercedes Benz Charterway model could be used to estimate the overall effect of the use of different tyre types on vehicle operating costs. Because of the prevalence of the 40 t tractor / semi-trailer unit in operation in many European countries, and because this vehicle is the configuration for which the choice of tyre type is often most significant, it was chosen as the basis for the calculations. Although it was intended to make use of the model using several countries as examples, it was finally only possible to establish sufficient input data for Germany and Great Britain. In the case of Germany, two scenarios were examined: • an articulated vehicle running the whole time on new tyres • an articulated vehicle running on re-grooved and re-treaded tyres.

The possible future change to the use of wide single tyres on the drive axle instead of twin tyres was also studied. The past case, in which the vehicle was equipped with twin tyres on a

1 The name has recently changed to Daimler Chrysler


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2-axle semi-trailer, compared with wide single tyres on a 3-axle semi-trailer, was also examined. Although the calculations were made only for 5-axle tractor / semi-trailer units the results are also valid for 5-axle truck / trailer units. The trucks used have the same engines, and the trailer or semi-trailer units have the same tyre combinations. On this basis, 50%-80% of all heavy goods vehicles on highways in Europe (see chapter 4) are covered by these calculations. In the UK, the historical changes in vehicle configuration and use have been somewhat different from those in Germany. From a position, about 20 years ago, in which most road freight was carried on 4-axle semi-trailer vehicles, legislative changes, technical developments and economic pressures quickly encouraged the use of 5-axle semi-trailer vehicles, extensive use of air suspension, and the widespread use of wide single tyres on trailer axles. More recently, there is increasing evidence of the sue of such tyres on steering axles. There is every reason to expect, therefore, that further technical developments will be rapidly taken up by the industry. For these reasons, the Mercedes Benz Charterway VOC model was used for the UK to estimate the effect of these past and possible future changes using four different scenarios, including one "base case" used as the reference level. For economic comparisons, e.g. road damage (maintenance) costs vs. benefits to the vehicle operators, the calculations have to be made without tax, but including subventions, and this is discussed in section 5.5. A number of different assumptions had to be made in the calculations, and some of the values used were taken from different sources. The basic data were made available by Mercedes Benz Charterway. 5.3.1 Results for a German 40 t Tractor / Semi-Trailer Unit Super Single Tyres on Drive Axle instead of Twin Tyres 5.3.1.1 Scenario: 1 New Tyres A Mercedes Benz ACTROS 1840 LS articulated vehicle with 400 HP engine and 40 t GVW was selected for the calculations. It is used in long-distance haulage and carries freight for a forwarding company within Europe. It is assumed that the vehicle is loaded to 90% of its capacity on the way to its destination and to 30% of its capacity on the way back. This means that it has an average loading factor of 0.6 or 60%2. This figure conforms to the weight-related utilisation factor given in [5]3..The annual distance travelled by the articulated vehicle is assumed to be 150,000 km / year, with one driver as the specified crew. The figures regarding the costs of oil consumption, repair, servicing etc. were supplied by Mercedes Benz Charterway, as was the purchase price and the reselling price after 4 years in operation. The average fuel consumption of 34 litres of diesel per 100 km was taken from a test report [6]. This is the consumption on a test track in the Mittelgebirge (a low mountain range) which contains both autobahn and interurban road sections, see Figure 5.1. Comparative test data on diesel fuel consumption in the 420 HP truck category on the section Antwerp – Milan were in line with the above figure: MAN 19.414 FLS, 410 hp, 34.9 l / 100 km SCANIA R124 LA 4x2 NA 420, 420 HP, 34.6 l / 100 km MB ACTROS 1843 LS, 428 HP, 35.0 l / 100 km

2 Note: due to the high percentage of overloading (21%) an average weight utilisation of 78.8% was recorded in axle load measurements in DE for this type of articulated vehicle, see fig. 4.2 in chapter 4. 3 The average volume utilisation is given in [5 ] as being 82%.


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(Source: Transporting 08/99, p. 14 ff)

Figure 5.1: Fuel Consumption for the ACTROS 1840 LS on the Test Track Note: The fuel consumption for journeys on level sections may be lower; in hilly

terrain it may be considerably higher. An average value of about 40 l / 100 km is given for today’s fleet of heavy trucks in the UK.

The fuel price for one litre of diesel fuel in Germany is given as 1.50 DM / litre, the price ruling at 1st January 2000. A calculation – here called scenario 1 – was used to substitute the twin tyres on the drive axle (four tyres) by two size 495/45R22.5 super single tyres. All other tyres remain unchanged, this means: 295/80R22,5 or 315/80R22,5 tyres on the steering axle and 385/65R22,5 tyres on the three semi-trailer axles. Old, worn tyres are replaced every time by new tyres. All vehicle parameters and starting values remain the same. Table 5.2. shows an overview of the starting values for the calculation. For the purposes of the calculation, the load is distributed on the vehicle as follows: 15% on the steering axle, 27% on the drive axle, and 58% on the three axles of the semi-trailer. If the differences in rolling resistance which were ascertained by Michelin for the different tyre pairings on the drive axle are accepted (-20% rolling resistance) and the proportion of engine power needed to overcome the rolling loss is 40% [10], there is a reduction in fuel consumption of 2.16% - according to the calculation method given in Table 5.3. If it is assumed that all tyres are replaced by new tyres after 150,000 km (i.e. after the tractor unit has been in operation for one year) and if the total tyres costs, which are given by Mercedes Benz Charterway as amounting to 9,600 DM/ year, are calculated for 12 tyres, then a realistic purchase price would be 800 DM / tyre. Note that the tyre-kilometres in service are very different for different tyres on different axles and strongly dependent on the truck operation. 150,000 km is an average value. Tyres in the middle of a tridem axle of a semi-trailer, for example, can be used for 240,000 – 300,000 km while the tyres of the last axle on the semi-trailer can only be used for 80,000 km. The life of the tyres on the first axle of a tridem semi-trailer lies between these figures. Driving around sharp bends is a crucial factor, and can be responsible for high tyre wear. Therefore tyres on semi-trailer axles are often changed around during service to maximise the life from each.


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The purchase price for 495 Super Single Tyres is at present not known as these tyres are still at the prototype stage. In order to promote purchase, however, a tyre of this size is likely to be cheaper than a pair of twin tyres. A purchase price of DM 1,400 is assumed for this single wide tyre, and this figure is used in the calculation. In addition to this, a reduction in repair and servicing of tyres of DM 100 is estimated and included; this is justified through there being less tyre maintenance, and less work in mounting the tyres. Table 5.4 shows the results of the model calculation for the ACTROS 1840 LS with twin tyres and super single tyres on the drive axle. The comparison is based on rolling resistance coefficients of so-called “low rolling resistance” (energy) tyres (silica tyres). This results in a gain for the forwarder of DM 2,152 or 0.82% per unit. Vehicle Operation Costs Mercedes Benz ACTROS 1840 LS Tractor with Semi-Trailer Parameter Tractor Parameter Semi-Trailer Kilometrage in 1000 km / year 150 150 Service life (years) 4 4 Type of homologation Long distance goods traffic Type of use (branch of business) Haulage Utilisation on the way to destination in % 90 Utilisation on the way back in % 30 Number of drivers 1 Area of use Central Europe Type of road Highways and National Roads Price of chassis in DM 160,000 50,000 Residual value of chassis in DM 52,000 8,000 Vertical load borne by the semi-trailer in kg 11,125 Payload in kg 0 26,000 Imputed interest in % 6.9 6.9 Tax in DM / year 1300 1750 Insurance in DM / year (K1000TK3) 17000 1932 Personnel costs including attendant expenses in DM / year (1 driver)

90,000

Repair / maintenance costs in DM/100 km1 5.90 3.42 Tyre costs in DM / 100 km 3.15 3.25 Fuel consumption in litres / 100 km 34 Rate of depreciation in % 100 100 Number of days per year 240 Number of hours per day 9 Oil consumption in litres / 1000 km 1 Fuel price (diesel) in DM / l 1.50 Oil price in DM / l 8.50 Other fixed costs, total in DM / year 6552 1 Service relevant special equipment: retarder and air condition 2 Reserve vehicle, accident processing, vehicle management, administrative costs, lorry autobahn fee Table 5.2: Vehicle Input Data in VOC Model It should be noted that a 40 t tractor semi-trailer or truck-trailer unit with the super single tyres saves 1,100 litres of diesel per year, which also leads to reduced emission of harmful substances. 2.6 kg of carbon dioxide is emitted when one litre of diesel is burnt. Figure 5.2 shows a graphical representation of the results for the articulated vehicle used in the calculation. The cost values in the graph are given in % and in the attached table in DM.


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Calculation of the Decrease in Fuel Consumption for the Mercedes Benz ACTROS 1840 LS

15% 27% 58% Share of rolling loss on different axles X X X

0% 20% 0% Decrease of rolling loss because of wide base super single tyres (495)

= = = 0% 5.4% 0% Decrease of rolling loss for different

axles 5.4% Total decrease of rolling loss 40% Share of rolling loss on all losses in

long distance transport 2.16% Total decrease of fuel consumption

Table 5.3. Calculation of Decrease in Fuel Consumption for Wide Base Tyres

Benefits from Lower Fuel Consumption and Tyre Costs

Original truck with twins

Truck with 495 Super Singles

Fuel costs per year (1.50 DM / l, 34 l / 100 km)

76500 DM (-2.16%) 74848 DM

Oil costs per year (8.50 DM / l) 1275 DM 1275 DM Tyre costs per year (12 X 800 DM) 9600 DM (8x800 DM+2x1400 DM)* 9200 DM Repair / maintenance per year 13980 DM (-100 DM) 13880 DM Depreciation 32600 DM 32600 DM Calc. Interest 9660 DM 9660 DM Tax 3050 DM 3050 DM Insurance 18930 DM 18930 DM Other costs 6552 DM 6552 DM Staff (Driver) 90000 DM 90000 DM Sum 262147 DM 259995 DM Difference (gain) per year 2152 DM *Estimation, no market prices available

Table 5.4: Calculation of VOC for Different Tyre Combinations on Drive Axles, ACTROS

1840 LS

40 tonnes grossvehicle weight


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Variable Costs Fixed Costs Staff Fuel Oil Tyres Maint.Rep. Depreciation Calc. Interest Tax Insurance Other Driver Sum 76500 1275 9600 13980 32600 9660 3050 18930 6552 90000 262147

Variable Costs Fixed Costs Staff

Fuel Oil Tyres Maint.Rep. Depreciation Calc. Interest Tax Insurance Other Driver Win Sum 74848 1275 9200 13880 32600 9660 3050 18930 6552 90000 2152 26214

7

Fuel Consumption: 34 ltr. Diesel / 100 km, Diesel Price: 1,50 DM / ltr.

Figure 5.2: Vehicle Operation Costs, ACTROS 1840 LS, Different Tyres on Drive Axle

Vehicle Operation Costs Actros 1840 LS Twin Tyres on Drive Axle (DE 2000)

Fuel29,18%Driver

34,33%

Depreciation12,44%

Maint.Rep.5,33%

Oil0,49%

Tyres3,66%

Other2,50% Tax

1,16%Calc. Interest

3,68%

Insurance7,22%

Vehicle Operation Costs Actros 1840 LS Super Single Tyres on Drive Axle (DE 2000)

Fuel28,55%Driver

34,33%

Win0,82%

Tax1,16%

Calc. Interest3,68%

Insurance7,22%

Other2,50%

Depreciation12,44%

Tyres3,51%

Maint.Rep.5,29%

Oil0,49%


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A second cost component is influenced by the lighter tyre and rim weight of the single tyres compared with the twin tyres on the drive axle. The two single tyres are approximately 130 kg – 150 kg lighter than two pairs of twin tyres. The maximum possible improvement in weight utilisation can be calculated in terms of cost, see Table 5.5. With a cost of 1.75 DM per articulated vehicle km or 0.112 Pfennig / t km and an average weight utilisation of 60%, a gain of 2524 DM / year (^= 1%) could be achieved if extra load weight could be added each time. This is an optimistic estimation; in reality the value would vary between 0 DM per year (not able to add extra weight i.e. articulated vehicle always full or no additional freight available) and 2524 DM / year. Max. Benefit from Additional Load because of Lighter Wheels

Truck Operation (km per year): 150,000 km % full load one way: 90% } mean 60% % full load return: 30% load capacity: 26,000 kg average load capacity: 0.6 x 26 t = 15.6 t less tyre and rim weight (495): 130 kg – 150 kg (1 % of 15.6 t) cost per truck km: 1.75 DM / km (control: 150,000 km x 1.75 DM / km = 262,500 DM) cost per t and km: 1.75 DM / km: 15.6 t = 0.112 Ppfennig / t km max. Cost saving (win) per truck per year: 2524 DM * *only to be achieved if the additional freight is available each time and there is enough empty space in the semi-trailer. Table 5.5: Calculation of Benefit because of Lighter Wheels Hitherto, the possible change of tyres on the steering axle has not been considered. If such a change is from 295/80R22,5 or 315/80R22,5 to super singles, size 385/65R22,5, the weight of the two wide single tyres and rims increases to about 125 kg, which is 15 kg more than for the smaller tyres. The wide single tyres also have a (small) negative effect on the drag loss, by increasing the effective frontal silhouette of the vehicle. 5.3.1.2 Scenario 2: Re-treaded and Re-grooved Wide Base Tyres on Drive Axle In the preceding chapter the scenario considered was that the articulated vehicle selected for calculation was always equipped with new tyres (scenario 1). In practice, however, the freight forwarder will make use of the possibility of re-grooving the tyre profile once it has become worn. This means that a new tyre can be used for a further 50,000 km after an initial 150,000 km. The re-grooving of the tyre profile is estimated to cost from DM 40 upward (^= 5% of the cost for the new tyre). The tyres are then re-treaded.4 The re-treaded tyres can also be used for 150,000 km. The tyre use scheme depicted in Figure 5.3 as scenario 2 can be used for reference for an ACTROS 1840 LS articulated vehicle with 12 tyres and a service life of 4 years. The tyres costs decrease from 38,400 DM over 4 years when only new tyres are used for the vehicle to 25,440 DM when the tyres are re-cut and re-treaded i.e. the tyre costs are reduced by a third.

4 Note: Approximately 50% of trucks drive with re-treaded tyres in Germany [7 ]


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Figure 5.3: Tyre Usage Strategies for Trucks If the figures given are used in the calculation model (see chapter 5.3.1.1) and it is assumed that the 495 Super Single Tyres which are not yet on the market can be re-grooved and re-treaded at a similar cost, the VOC cost distribution is as shown in Figure 5.4. According to this the gain for the company amounts to 2016 DM, which corresponds to 0.78 % of the total costs (see Figure 5.4). No other parameters were changed in the calculation. There may also be an additional profit due to better weight utilisation of the tractor-trailer combination on account of the reduction in tyre and rim weight, see chapter 5.3.1.1.

Tyre Usage Strategy in 4 Years Truck Operation (12 Tyres)

1st Set New Tyres

1st. Set New Tyres

Regrooving

2nd Set New Tyres

Retreading

3rd Set New Tyres

Regrooving

4th Set New Tyres

2nd Set New Tyres

Regrooving

0

100.000

200.000

300.000

400.000

500.000

600.000

700.000

Scenario 1 Scenario 2

38.400 DM (Factor 1) 25.440 DM (Factor 0,66)


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Variable Costs Fix Costs Staff

Fuel Oil Tyres Maint.Rep. Depreciation Calc. Interest Tax Insurance Other Driver Sum

76500 1275 6336 13980 32600 9660 3050 18930 6552 90000 258883

Variable Costs Fix Costs Staff

Fuel Oil Tyres Maint.Rep.

Depreciation Calc. Interest Tax Insurance Other Driver Win Sum

74848 1275 6072 13880 32600 9660 3050 18930 6552 90000 2016 258883

Fuel Consumption: 34 ltr./100 km, Diesel Price:1,50 DM /ltr., Tyre Cost Factor: 0,66

VOC ACTROS 1840 LS, Twins, in EUROS without tax

Deprec14,81%

Calc. Int.5,06%Insur.

8,67%Other2,98%

Driver47,43%

Tyres4,36%

Oil0,58%

Maint.Rep.6,35%

Fuel9,76%

VOC ACTROS 1840 LS, Single Tyres 495, in EUROS without tax

Deprec14,88%

Calc. Int.5,08%Insur.

8,71%Other2,99%

Driver47,64%

Maint.Rep.6,33%

Oil0,58% Tyres

4,20%

Fuel9,59%


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Figure 5.4: Vehicle Operation Costs for Operation with Re-grooved and Re-treaded Tyres

5.3.2 Results for a British 40 t Tractor/Semi-Trailer In the United Kingdom, developments in vehicle and tyre technology have been taken up rapidly by vehicle operators over the past 15 years. This has resulted in a vehicle fleet somewhat different from the remainder of Europe. At the same time, maximum gross vehicle and axle weights have been different from those elsewhere in Europe, as a result of limited derogation from European Directives. During this period, there has been an apparent change in the nature and extent of pavement wear, and the purpose of the VOC calculations for the United Kingdom was to enable an examination of the balance between the benefits that have accrued to vehicle operators during the period, and the additional pavement damage caused. As noted previously, heavy goods vehicle operating conditions in the United Kingdom are different from those in Germany. Not only are vehicle configurations often very different, but fuel and oil costs, driver salaries, etc., are also rather different. For the studies of vehicle operating costs in the UK, 4 separate scenarios were selected, representing the changes that have occurred in recent years. In the Old case (Scenario 1), 5-axle semi-trailers are equipped with dual tyre assemblies on the drive axle and all trailer axles. The Recent case (Scenario 2) represents the change to more modern tyre types, while retaining the same overall configuration as in the Old case. The Current case (Scenario 3) represents the widespread change to the use of wide base single tyres on trailer axles. Currently, approximately 85% of 5-axle semi-trailers in the UK are fitted with this type of trailer tyre, and because of this, Scenario 3 is taken as the reference case. The New case (Scenario 4) indicates the possible future change to the use of wide single tyres (presently at the prototype stage of development) on drive axles. The various cases examined are represented in Figure 5.5 below.

1. Old case: S D D D D 11R22.5 11R22.5 3 AXLES X 11R22.5 2. Recent case: S D D D D 295/80R22.5 295/80R22.5 3 AXLES X 295/80R22.5

3. Current (Base) case: S D WS WS WS 295/80R22.5 295/80R22.5 3 AXLES X 385/65R22.5 4. New case: S WS WS WS WS 315/70R22.5 495/45R22.5 3 AXLES X 385/65R22.5 S = Single tyre D = Dual tyre WS = Wide single tyre Figure 5.5 Scenarios of vehicle configuration selected for the study of VOC in UK The European Tyre and Rim Technical Organisation (ETRTO) provided information on the relative rolling resistance and differences in weights of tyres and wheels of these

40 tonnes grossvehicle weight


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configurations, based on data supplied by their members. This information was first used to calculate the differences in fuel consumption using Case 3, the Current case, as the reference value. The results of these calculations are shown in Table 5.6 below. 1. Old case: S D D D D 11R22.5 2 X 11R22.5 3 AXLES X 11R22.5 Difference in fuel consumption from Case 3 17.56%

2. Recent case: S D D D D 295/80R22.5 2 X 295/80R22.5 3 X 295/80R22.5 Difference in fuel consumption from Case 3 6.92%

3. Current (Base) case: S D WS WS WS 295/80R22.5 2 X 295/80R22.5 3 AXLES X 385/65R22.5 Difference in fuel consumption from Case 3 0% 4. New case: S WS WS WS WS 315/70R22.5 495/45R22.5 3 AXLES X 385/65R22.5 Difference in fuel consumption from Case 3 -3.76% Table 5.6 Scenarios used in study of UK Vehicle Operating Costs Using the values for fuel consumption noted above, the Mercedes Benz Charterway model was then used to compare the effects on vehicle operating costs of Cases 1, 2 and 4, when compared to the reference case 3. Much of the remaining input data for the model was identical to that for the German study, but there were of course significant differences in some areas. In particular, fuel, oil and tyre costs were different, as were depreciation and notional interest rates on capital invested. Vehicle tax, insurance and driver costs were also significantly changed. In using the model to estimate VOCs, therefore, values for these parameters were chosen either on the basis of statistical information or on other published information specific to UK. For the reference case in particular (i.e. the current situation), the fuel consumption used was 32.3l / 100km. This figure is somewhat lower than that used in Germany, and may reflect changes in traffic conditions, terrain, and other factors. In other respects, the input data was identical to that used for the German calculations. Thus, the annual distance travelled was retained at 150,000 km per year, the truck type was retained (as being typical of others in use in the UK), and the duty cycles undertaken by the vehicle were considered to be the same. Finally, the calculations of vehicle operating cost are also based on the use of low rolling resistance tyres, or silica-containing tyres. The operating cost model was used to examine three comparisons, namely: Old case (1) vs. Base (Current) case (3) Recent case (2) vs. Base (Current) case (3) Future case (4) vs. Base (Current) case (3) The results of these comparisons are presented in Tables 5.7 - 5.12, below.


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Old case (1) compared to Current case (3) Benefits (Costs) from lower (or higher) fuel consumption and tyre costs All values in £ Sterling

Case 3 Case 1

Fuel costs per year 29070 34174.69 (+17.56%) (£0.6/litre for all cases), 32.3l/100km for Case 3) Oil costs per year (£0.95/litre) 116.9 116.9 Tyre costs per year 4800 7200 Tyre Repair & Maintenance per year 3135 3100 Depreciation 8977 8977 Notional interest 2512 2512 Tax 9250 9250 Insurance 1000 1000 Other costs - - Staff - Driver 18000 18000 Total: 76860.9 84330.59

Difference -7469.69

Gain (%/year) -9.72 (representing a 9.7% reduction in

operating costs in favour of Case 3) Table 5.7 Comparison of VOCs of Old case and Current case in UK The results show that by comparison with the Old case, in which all axles were fitted with single tyres (steering axle) or dual tyres (all other axles), the Current situation, in which trailer axles are fitted with 385/65R22.5 wide single tyres reduces vehicle operating costs by about 10%. In addition to these direct savings, further savings arise due to the reduced weights of tyre and wheel on the Current configuration. Information supplied by ETRTO on these weights was used to estimate this further saving, as follows. Payload 26 Tonnes Cost per tonne-km 0.0328465 (£) calculated from the base case Reduced wheel/tyre weights 0.325 (tonne) data supplied by ETRTO

60% available 0.195 (tonne) using the same outward/return loading scenarios

Therefore, potential savings 9607.61 (£) assuming weight saving is carried as payload

Effective saving -10.97 % (sum of savings due to fuel consumption, tyre costs, and additional payload)

Table 5.8 Benefit due to additional payload from lighter wheel weights (Old vs Current) The effective saving implies that the overall saving due to the different configuration of the Current case, when compared with the Old case, is about 11%. That part of the savings attributable to reduced tyre and wheel weights is of course the maximum. In reality, the possibility to use the additional payload available will be limited by the availability of such payload, and the possible presence of volume limitations on the vehicle.


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Recent case (2) compared to Current case (3) Benefits (costs) from lower (or higher) fuel consumption and tyre costs All costs in £ Sterling

Case 3 Case 2

Fuel costs per year 29070 31081.64 (+6.92%) (£0.6/litre for all cases), 32.3l/100km for Case 3) Oil costs per year (£0.95/litre) 116.9 116.9 Tyre costs per year 4800 7200 Tyre Repair & Maintenance per year 3135 3100 Depreciation 8977 8977 Notional interest 2512 2512 Tax 9250 9250 Insurance 1000 1000 Other costs - - Staff - Driver 18000 18000 Total: 76860.9 81237.54

Difference -4376.64

Gain (%/year) -5.69 Table 5.9 Comparison of VOCs of Recent case and Current case in UK The results show that by comparison with the Recent case, in which all axles were fitted with more modern-sized single tyres (steering axle) or dual tyres (all other axles), the Current situation, in which trailer axles are fitted with 385/65R22.5 wide single tyres reduces vehicle operating costs by about 5%. By implication, there was a reduction in vehicle operating costs of approximately 5% due to the adoption of the more modern tyre size of 295/80R22.5. As before, in addition to these direct savings, further savings again arise due to the reduced weights of tyre and wheel on the Current configuration. Information supplied by ETRTO on these weights was used to estimate this further saving, as follows. Payload 26 Tonnes Cost per tonne-km 0.328465 (£) calculated from the base case Reduced wheel/tyre weights 0.292 (tonne) data supplied by ETRTO



Effective saving -6.82 % (sum of savings due to fuel consumption, tyre costs, and additional payload)

Table 5.10 Benefit due to additional payload from lighter wheel weights (Recent vs Current) The effective saving implies that the overall saving due to the different configuration of the Current case, when compared with the Recent case, is about 7%. That part of the savings attributable to reduced tyre and wheel weights is again of course the maximum. In reality, the possibility to use the additional payload available will be limited by the availability of such payload, and the possible presence of volume limitations on the vehicle.


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New case (4) compared to Current case (3) Benefits (costs) from lower (or higher) fuel consumption and tyre costs All costs in £ Sterling

Case 3 Case 4

Fuel costs per year 29070 27976.97 (-3.76%) (£0.6/litre for all cases, 32.3l/100km for Case 3) Oil costs per year (£0.95/litre) 116.9 116.9 Tyre costs per year 4800 4400 * Repair & Maintenance per year 3135 3100 Depreciation 8977 8977 Notional interest 2512 2512 Tax 9250 9250 Insurance 1000 1000 Other costs - - Staff - Driver 18000 18000 Sum: 76860.9 75332.87

Difference 1528.032

Gain (%/year) 1.988049 * = Estimated (no market prices available) Table 5.11 Comparison of VOCs for New case and Current case in UK The results show that by comparison with the Current case, in which the drive axle is fitted with dual tyres, the New situation, in which the drive axle is fitted with wide single tyres (495/45R22.5), reduces vehicle operating costs by a further 2%. This is a significant benefit, due solely to the use of the prototype tyre on the drive axle. Again, in addition to these direct savings, further savings arise due to the reduced weights of tyre and wheel on the New configuration. Information supplied by ETRTO on these weights was used to estimate this further saving, as follows. Payload 26 Tonnes Cost per tonne-km 0.0328465 (£) calculated from the base case Reduced wheel/tyre weights 0.098 (tonne) data supplied by ETRTO



Effective saving 2.37 % (sum of savings due to fuel consumption, tyre costs, and additional payload)

Table 5.12 Benefit due to additional payload from lighter wheel weights (New case vs Current case) The effective saving implies that the overall saving due to the different configuration of the New case, when compared with the Current case, is about 2.4%. That part of the savings attributable to reduced tyre and wheel weights is again of course the maximum. In reality, the possibility to use the additional payload available will be limited by the availability of such payload, and the possible presence of volume limitations on the vehicle. Because the weight


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saving is comparatively small (98kg), it may be even more difficult to take advantage of than in other cases, and the additional savings may be very much reduced because of this. Taken together, the results above confirm that vehicle operators in the UK have secured a significant economic benefit from the technological advances that have taken place in the tyre industry in recent years. They further suggest that additional benefits will be available from the introduction of the new generation of wide-base single tyres for drive axles, when these have progressed beyond the prototype stage. 5.3.3 Super Single Tyres on Semi-Trailer Axles: 38t Four-Axle Unit Compared with 40t Five-Axle Unit This section examines a somewhat different aspect, namely: how have the operating costs changed during the transition from 38 t vehicle units with four axles in the 1970s to 40 t vehicle units with 5 axles in the 1980s (law amendment in Germany in 1986). A comparison will be made of the situations shown on the left and centre of Figure 4.4. The 38 t units usually had at least 2 trailer axles with twin tyres; today’s units have 3 trailer axles with size 385/65R22.5 super single tyres. The earlier articulated vehicles had 14 tyres; today’s have only 12 tyres. It is difficult to compare the vehicle operating costs due to the fact that at present there are two different types of tyre (conventional carbon and low rolling resistance silica tyres) which have different rolling resistances. An additional difficulty is the fact that the rolling resistance coefficients for the same types of tyre differ greatly from manufacturer to manufacturer. In chapter 5.3.1 silica tyres were compared with silica tyres. Two comparative calculations must be carried out at this point. The same calculation conditions and starting values apply as in the calculations in chapter 5.3.1: a) an old 38 t tractor semi-trailer combination with 14 carbon tyres on 4 axles, twin tyres on

the drive axle and twin tyres on the semi-trailer; b) a current 40 t tractor semi-trailer combination with 12 carbon tyres on 5 axles, twin tyres

on the drive axle and 385 super single tyres on the semi-trailer; c) a current 40 t tractor semi-trailer combination with 12 silica tyres on 5 axles, twin tyres on

the drive axle and 385 super single tyres on the semi-trailer; [d) a future 40 t tractor semi-trailer combination with 10 silica tyres on 5 axles, 495 super

single tyres on the drive axle and 385 super single tyres on the semi-trailer.] Here, a) is compared with b) and b) with c); in chapter 5.3.1. c) was compared with d). According to ETRTO the entire tractor semi-trailer combination a) had a +5.5% higher rolling resistance than combination b). Account is taken of this value in the calculation. Rolling resistance readings of individual size 295, 315 and 385 tyres carried out by TÜV Automotive5 showed that rolling resistance of the size 315 and 295 tyres is approximately 20% higher than that of the size 385 tyres. Results from test runs comparing b) and c) carried out by TÜV have shown a reduction in rolling resistance of 11.5% (corresponding to –4.6% fuel consumption) . For the comparison of c) and d) the calculation used the values from Michelin (20% less rolling resistance with twin tyres on the driving axle than with 495 wide base tyres), see chapter 5.3.1. (Bridgestone, however, cites a lower reduction in rolling resistance for the latter case of only 5% - 15% [8]). If the vehicle parameters from the exemplary calculation in chapter 5.3.2 are used, the vehicle operating costs are as shown in Table 5.13 below. The values have been converted into EUROs. The tractor-trailer unit c) is taken as the basis; this is used in Germany i.e. the table is based on German taxation and other conditions. The values for c) are taken as 100%.

5 Personal communication


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In

EUROs

In EUROs

In EUROs

In EUROs

In EUROs

In percent

In percent

In EUROs

Tractor Semi-trailer

No. of tyres

Rolling loss

Fuel consump.

Fuel costs

Tyres costs

Maint./ rep. costs

All other costs

VOC VOC Diff Diff

a) 14 120.50%

107.30%

41969 5727 7199 82865 137760

102.80%

2.80% 3724

b) 12 113% 104.80%

40991 4908 7149 82865 135913

101.40%

1.40% 1877

c) 12 100% 100% 39114 4908 7149 82865 134036

100% 0% 0

d) 10 94.60%

97.84%

38270 4704 7097 82865 132936

99.18%

0.82% -1099

34 l Diesel / 100km, German Taxation, 1.50 DM / l Diesel Table 5.13: Vehicle Operating Costs for Different TractorSemi-Trailer Units and Tyre Configurations In addition to the fuel consumption costs, which were calculated according to the formulae in Tables 5.2 and 5.3, the tyre costs for new tyres (800 DM each) were adapted to the respective situation in accordance with the number of tyres and the repair and servicing costs (+/- 100 DM for two tyres). As described earlier no other costs were changed. It must also be taken into account in the comparison of a) and b) that the 38 t articulated vehicle obviously has higher costs regarding the number of kilometres driven as its ability to be loaded with additional cargo is lower than that of a 40 t vehicle; this would correspond to the following values for 60% weight utilisation: 14.4 t average additional loading for the 38 t vehicle and 15.6 t for the 40 t vehicle. This would have to be included in the calculation for the maximum possible gain through altered weight of the vehicle (similar to the calculation in table 5.3). This does not, however, take account of the fact that with an average weight of 110 kg for a size 295/80R22.5 wheel (tyre with rim), an average weight of 125 kg for a size 385/65R22.5 wheel and an axle weight of 350 kg the weight advantage for the 38t vehicle (two axles instead of 3 axles and 8 tyres each of 110 kg instead of 6 tyres each of 125 kg) amounts to approx. 220 kg. Differences in weights caused by different semi -trailers lengths are not considered. Taking the average weight utilisation of the 38 t vehicle to be 14.6 t and that of the 40 t vehicle to be 15.6 t, the values in the above table are arrived at and the following costs reached with a kilometrage of 150,000 km per year: a) 38t vehicle: 0.918 EUROs / vehicle-km corresponding to 0.0629 EUROs per ton

kilometre; c) 40t vehicle: 0.893 EUROs / vehicle-km corresponding to 0.0572 EUROs per ton

kilometre.


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This corresponds to 10% additional cost caused by less cargo transport (corresponding to 13.400 EUROs per vehicle per year) for the 38 t vehicle compared with the current 40 t vehicle under the assumptions given. 5.4 Transport Conditions for Forwarders and European Taxation for Trucks The transport conditions for forwarders differ greatly from one country of the European Community to the next. According to IRU [9], the tax for a 40 t articulated vehicle amounts to between 200 EUROs in Luxembourg and 2780 EUROs in Austria, see Figure 5.6. A litre of diesel costs for example 0.46 EUROs in Poland and 0.88 EUROs in Denmark, see Figure 5.7. Tax (mineral oil tax and VAT) accounts for a large percentage of the fuel prices.

LU 200

ES 330

PL 395

GR 420

PT 420

IT 500

DK 510

FR 635

NL 697

HU 720

IRL 1020

BE 1190

SE 1200

CZ 1400

CH 1450

DE 1510

UK 2630

AT 2780

Motor Vehicle Tax

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

LU ES PL GR PT IT DK FR NL HU IRL BE SE CZ CH DE UK AT Figure 5.6: Motor Vehicle Tax for a 40t Unit in Different European Countries


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LU 0,61

PL 0,46

IT 0,86

DK 0,88

FR 0,76

NL 0,77

BE 0,76

CZ 0,57

CH 0,84

DE 0,75

AT 0,72

FUEL COSTS IN EUROPE

0,00

0,10

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

1,00

LU PL IT DK FR NL BE CZ CH DE AT

Source: ADAC, January 2000

Figure 5.7: Price for one Litre of Diesel in Different European Countries

LU 0,25 0,11

ES 0,26 0,07

PL 0,14 0,03

GR 0,23 0,08

PT 0,27 0,08

IT 0,51 0,11

DK 0,30 0,15

FR 0,37 0,11

NL 0,34 0,09

HU 0,28 0,12

IRL 0,33 0,13

BE 0,29 0,11

SE 0,31 0,15

CZ 0,24 0,09

CH 0,46 0,04

DE 0,31 0,09

UK 0,68 0,16

AT 0,28 0,11

Mineral Oil Tax and Value Added Tax on Diesel Fuel

0,00

0,10

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50

0,60

0,70

0,80

LU ES PL GR PT IT DK FR NL HU IRL BE SE CZ CH DE UK AT

Mineraloil tax Value added tax on diesel fuel

Figure 5.8: Mineral Oil Tax and Value Added Tax on Diesel in Different European Countries The taxes on one litre of diesel fuel in EUROs (1999) are shown for various countries in Figure 5.8.


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The different dimensions and weights for articulated vehicles mentioned in chapter 4 and the different social regulations for the drivers are further examples of different transport conditions. The regulations have now been formally harmonised in the EU but are controlled and sanctioned differently in the different countries . Drivers’ wages also differ considerably from country to country. At this point it is necessary to give the figures (total cost and percentage made up by drivers’ wages) for a calculation made by the IRU for transport using a 40 t articulated vehicle with a 26 t payload on three different routes within Europe: Route I: Vienna – Istanbul – Vienna Forwarder from Austria: total cost per year: 135,500 EUROs; of which 42% for drivers’ wages Forwarder from Hungary: total cost per year: 90,700 EUROs; of which 16% for drivers’ wages Forwarder from Turkey: total cost per year: 128,300 EUROs; of which 8% for drivers’ wages Route II: Vienna – Moscow - Vienna Forwarder from Austria: total cost per year: 123,900 EUROs; of which 47% for drivers’ wages Forwarder from Poland: total cost per year: 93,800 EUROs; of which 26% for drivers’ wages Forwarder from Russia: total cost per year: 80,500 EUROs; of which 21% for drivers’ wages Route III: Rotterdam – Budapest - Rotterdam Forwarder from Hungary: total cost per year: 78,000 EUROs; of which 15% for drivers’ wages Forwarder from Germany: total cost per year: 120,400 EUROs; of which 43% for drivers’ wages Forwarder from Holland: total cost per year: 109,100 EUROs; of which 47% for drivers’ wages These figures show that the competitive conditions are very different for forwarders within Europe and that even the following calculation of the operating costs without tax, which is required for the cost / benefit calculation in chapter 7, contains differences specific to the individual country. Treatment of taxes in procedures for evaluating the economy as a whole usually differs from that in calculations applying to individual economic units, e.g. forwarders, see chapter 5.3.1. Costs are only taken into account to the amount to which they cause a depletion of resources. Costs applying to individual economic units should therefore be adjusted for the market taxes and subventions which they contain. It is therefore necessary to adjust the VOC for the axles before the VOC is used in a cost / benefit analysis of the economy as a whole. This does not include, for example, wages and income tax which is not a market tax and which does not distort an evaluation of resources.6 5.5 VOC without Tax in EUROs This chapter presents the vehicle operating costs without tax for a 40t articulated vehicle using the figures in chapter 5.3.1. As the calculation in chapter 5.3.1 was for a German articulated vehicle the German tax is deducted from this. The DM values have been converted into EUROs at the fixed exchange rate of 1 EURO= 1.9558 DM. VAT (16% = 0,20 DM / l) and Mineral oil tax (0,75 DM / l) (see chapter 5.4) are deducted from the fuel price of 1,50 DM/l ( fuel price at 01:01: 2000)7. Fuel consumption costs are therefore calculated with 0.55 DM / l diesel fuel without all taxes. The VAT of 16% is deducted from the expenditure on oil consumption, tyres, servicing and repair, depreciation and other items. The

6 Costs of CO2 emissions are determined according to the cost-of-avoidance approach. Tax aspects are therefore irrelevant 7 Source: DEA Mineraloil AG


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insurance tax of 13% is deducted from the vehicle insurance costs. The vehicle tax is excluded completely from the calculation. No changes were made to the imputed interest and the drivers’ wages, i.e. these still contain tax which, however, is not considered in the usual economic calculation methods. Figure 5.9 shows the calculation results of the vehicle operating costs without tax for ACTROS 1840 LS, the standard articulated vehicle; the upper figure shows the results with twin tyres on the drive axle and the lower figure with 495/45R22.5 single wide tyres. The vehicle operating costs decrease by 0.5% from 101895 EUROs to 101365 EUROs when tax is deducted. These altered operating costs, summarized in Table 5.14, will be used in the overall cost / benefit calculation in chapter 7.


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Fuel Oil Tyres Maint/Rep Deprec Calc Int Insur Others Driver SumDM 28050 1099 8276 12051 28103 9600 16461 5648 90000 199288Euro 14342 562 4231 6162 14369 4908 8416 2888 46017 101895

Fuel Oil Tyres Maint/Rep Deprec Calc Int Insur Others Driver Gain SumDM 27444 1099 7931 11966 28103 9600 16461 5648 90000 1036 199288Euro 14032 562 4055 6118 14369 4908 8416 2888 46017 530 101895

VOC ACTROS 1840 (without tax) Twin Tyres on Drive Axle

Oil0,6%

Maint/Rep6,0%

Deprec14,1%

Calc Int4,8%

Insur8,3%

Others2,8%

Driver45,2%

Tyres4,2%

Fuel14,1%

VOC ACTROS 1840 (without tax) Super Single Tyres on Drive Axle

Oil0,6%

Maint/Rep6,0%

Deprec14,1%

Calc Int4,8%

Insur8,3%

Others2,8%

Driver45,2%

Gain0,5%

Tyres4,0%

Fuel13,8%

(34 ltr. Diesel / 100 km, Diesel price without Tax: 0,55 DM / ltr., Date: 1.1.2000, 1 Euro = 1,9558 DM)

Figure 5.9: Vehicle Operation Costs for Dual and Single Tyres on Drive Axle without Tax


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A b C d Old version Current version Current version Future version GVW [t] 38 (4 axles) 40 (5 axles) 40 (5 axles) 40 (5 axles) No of tyres 14 12 12 10 Tyres on drive axle Twin C* Twin C* Twin S* Single S* Tyres on towed axle Twin C* Single C* Single S* Single S* Aver. Load [t] 14,6 15,6 15,6 15,6 Rolling Loss [%] 120,5 113,0 100,0 94,6 Fuel cost [ ] 15.389 15.030 14.342 14.032 Tyre cost [ ] 4.936 4.231 4.231 4.055 Maint.+Rep. co[ ] 6.206 6.162 6.162 6.118 VOC [ ] 103.691 102.583 101.895 101.365 Gain [ ] -1796 -688 0 +530 Gain [%] 101,76 100,67 100 99,48 VOC [ / unit] 0,691 0,684 0,679 0,675 VOC [cents / t km 4,73 4,38 4,35 4,33

* C = conventional tyres * S = low rolling resistance tyres Table 5.14: Different VOC for Different Tyre Configurations without Tax in EUROs 5.6 References [1] Bertholet CH, Sparkes GA, Blomme T, Kajner L, and Nickeson M. (1996) Mechanistic

probabilistic vehicle operating cost model. Journal of Transportation Engineering 122 (5) pp337-241

[2] RIMES (Road Infrastructure Maintenance Evaluation Study) Project carried out for European Commission. (Unpublished) (1999)

[3] Watanatada T, Harral CG, Paterson WDO, Dhareshwar AM, Bhandari A, and Tsunokawa K. (1987) The Highway Design and Maintenance Standards Model - Volume 1 Description. The World Bank, Johns Hopkins University Press.

[4] Mercedes Benz Charterway: TransCalc Wirtschaftlichkeitsberechnung 3.2.1999 [5] VDA Hrsg.: Nutzfahrzeuge verbinden, IAA, Frankfurt, 1999 [6] Lastkraftwagen und Omnibus: Testbericht ACTROS 1840 LS, Heft 3/1997 [7] Aubel T., Glaeser, K.-P.: Verkehrssicherheit runderneuerter Reifen, Schriftenreihe der

BASt, Heft F 29, Bergisch Gladbach, 12/1999 [8] Bridgestone: Internet http://www2.bridgestone.co/hqe/news/000203.html, Date

28.2.2000 [9] IRU Hrsg.: East-West Road Freight Transport , Geneva, 1999 [10] Porth, D.; Krämer, W.: Verringerung des Verlustleistungspotentials bei

Nutzfahrzeugen, ATZ 95, 1993 [11] NAASRA (1981) NIMPAC Road Planning Model 1981. NAASRA Data Bank

Maintenance Group, National Association of Australian State Road Authorities.

chapter 5 vehicle operating costs

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