chapter 5 fungi...deuteromycetes, or imperfect fungi bui tan anh –college of natural sciences...
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CHAPTER 55Fungi
Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Overview
• Fungi are diverse and widespread
• They are essential for the well-being of most terrestrial ecosystems because they break down organic material and recycle vital nutrients
• Despite their diversity, fungi share key traits, most importantly the way in which they derive nutrition
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Nutrition and Ecology
• Fungi are heterotrophs and absorb nutrients from outside of their body
• Fungi use enzymes to break down a large variety of complex molecules into smaller organic compounds
• Fungi exhibit diverse lifestyles:– Decomposers (Saprotrophs)– Parasites– Symbionts
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Body Structure
• The most common body structures are multicellular filaments and single cells (yeasts)
• Some species grow as either filaments or yeasts; others grow as both
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Morphology
• The morphology of multicellular fungi enhances their ability to absorb nutrients
• Fungi consist of mycelia , networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption
• Most fungi have cell walls made of chitin
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Reproductive structure
Spore-producingstructures
Hyphae
Mycelium
20 µm
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Some fungi have hyphae divided into cells by septa, with pores allowing cell-to-cell movement of organelles
• Coenocytic fungi lack septa
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(b) Coenocytic hypha
Septum
(a) Septate hypha
Pore
Nuclei
Nuclei Cell wallCell wall
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(a) Septate hypha
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(b) Coenocytic hypha
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Specialized Hyphae in Mycorrhizal Fungi
• Some unique fungi have specialized hyphae called haustoria (giác mút) that allow them to penetrate the tissues of their host
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(a) Hyphae adapted for trapping and killing prey
NematodeHyphae
25 µm
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(b) Haustoria
Plantcellwall
Haustorium
Plant cellplasmamembrane
Plant cell
Fungal hypha
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Mycorrhizae are mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots
• Ectomycorrhizal fungi form sheaths of hyphae over a root and also grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex
• Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi extend hyphae through the cell walls of root cells and into tubes formed by invagination of the root cell membrane
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Reproduction
• Fungi propagate themselves by producing vast numbers of spores, either sexually or asexually
• Fungi can produce spores from different types of life cycles
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Sexual Reproduction
• Fungal nuclei are normally haploid, with the exception of transient diploid stages formed during the sexual life cycles
• Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of hyphae from different mating types
• Fungi use sexual signaling molecules called pheromones to communicate their mating type
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Plasmogamy is the union of two parent mycelia
• In most fungi, the haploid nuclei from each parent do not fuse right away; they coexist in the mycelium, called a heterokaryon
• In some fungi, the haploid nuclei pair off two to a cell; such a mycelium is said to be dikaryotic
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Hours, days, or even centuries may pass before the occurrence of karyogamy, nuclear fusion
• During karyogamy, the haploid nuclei fuse, producing diploid cells
• The diploid phase is short-lived and undergoes meiosis, producing haploid spores
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Spores
Spore-producingstructures
GERMINATION
ASEXUALREPRODUCTION
Mycelium
Key
Heterokaryotic(unfused nuclei fromdifferent parents)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
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Spores
Spore-producingstructures
GERMINATION
ASEXUALREPRODUCTION
Mycelium
Key
Heterokaryotic(unfused nuclei fromdifferent parents)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
SEXUALREPRODUCTION
KARYOGAMY(fusion of nuclei)
PLASMOGAMY(fusion of cytoplasm)
Heterokaryoticstage
Zygote
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Spores
Spore-producingstructures
GERMINATION
ASEXUALREPRODUCTION
Mycelium
Key
Heterokaryotic(unfused nuclei fromdifferent parents)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
SEXUALREPRODUCTION
KARYOGAMY(fusion of nuclei)
PLASMOGAMY(fusion of cytoplasm)
Heterokaryoticstage
Zygote
Spores
GERMINATIONMEIOSIS
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Asexual Reproduction
• In addition to sexual reproduction, many fungi can reproduce asexually
• Molds produce haploid spores by mitosis and form visible mycelia
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2.5 µm
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Other fungi that can reproduce asexually are yeasts, which inhabit moist environments
• Instead of producing spores, yeasts reproduce asexually by simple cell division and the pinching of “bud cells” from a parent cell
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10 µm
Parentcell
Bud
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Many molds and yeasts have no known sexual stage
• Mycologists have traditionally called these deuteromycetes, or imperfect fungi
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Fungal diversity
• Molecular analyses have helped clarify evolutionary relationships among fungal groups, although areas of uncertainty remain
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
The phylogeny of fungi
ChytridsZygote
fungiArbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi
Sac fungi
Club fungi
Chy
trid
iom
ycot
a
Zygo
myc
ota
Glo
mer
omyc
ota
Asc
omyc
ota
Bas
idio
myc
ota
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Chytrids (1,000 species)
Hyphae 25 µm
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Zygomycetes (1,000 species)
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Glomeromycetes (160 species)
Fungal hypha
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Ascomycetes (65,000 species)
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Basidiomycetes (30,000 species)
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Chytrids
• Chytrids (phylum Chytridiomycota) are found in freshwater and terrestrial habitats
• They can be decomposers, parasites, or mutualists
• Molecular evidence supports the hypothesis that chytrids diverged early in fungal evolution
• Chytrids are unique among fungi in having flagellated spores, called zoospores
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Flagellum
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Flagellum
4 µm
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Until recently, systematists thought that fungi lost flagella only once in their evolutionary history
• Molecular data indicate that some “chytrids” are actually more closely related to another fungal group, the zygomycetes; chytrids are a paraphyletic group
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Zygomycetes
• The zygomycetes (phylum Zygomycota) exhibit great diversity of life histories
• They include fast-growing molds, parasites, and commensal symbionts
• The zygomycetes are named for their sexually produced zygosporangia
• Zygosporangia, which are resistant to freezing and drying, can survive unfavorable conditions
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• The life cycle of black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer) is fairly typical of the phylum
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Some zygomycetes, such as Pilobolus, can actually “aim” their sporangia toward conditions associated with good food sources
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Glomeromycetes
• The glomeromycetes (phylum Glomeromycota) were once considered zygomycetes
• They are now classified in a separate clade
• Glomeromycetes form arbuscular mycorrhizae
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Ascomycetes
• Ascomycetes (phylum Ascomycota) live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats
• The phylum is defined by production of sexual spores in saclike asci, usually contained in fruiting bodies called ascocarps
• Ascomycetes are commonly called sac fungi
• Ascomycetes vary in size and complexity from unicellular yeasts to elaborate cup fungi and morels
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Morchella esculenta,the tasty morel
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Tuber melanosporum, a truffle
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Peziza badia
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Aspergillus
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Ascomycetes include plant pathogens, decomposers, and symbionts
• Ascomycetes reproduce asexually by enormous numbers of asexual spores called conidia
• Conidia are not formed inside sporangia; they are produced asexually at the tips of specialized hyphae called conidiophores
• Neurospora is a model organism with a well-studied genome
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Neurospora crassa
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Basidiomycetes
• Basidomycetes (phylum Basidiomycota) include mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi, mutualists, and plant parasites
• The phylum is defined by a clublike structure called a basidium, a transient diploid stage in the life cycle
• The basidiomycetes are also called club fungi
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Maiden veil fungus (Dictyphora)
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Puffballs
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Puffballs emittingspores
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Sheft fungi
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Amanita
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Coprinus
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Trametes
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Tremella
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Roles of Fungi
• Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfare
• Fungi interact with other organisms in many ways
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Fungi as Decomposers
• Fungi are efficient decomposers
• They perform essential recycling of chemical elements between the living and nonliving world
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Fungi as Mutualists
• Fungi form mutualistic relationships with plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and animals
• All of these relationships have profound ecological effects
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Fungus-Plant Mutualisms
• Mycorrhizae are enormously important in natural ecosystems and agriculture
• Plants harbor harmless symbiotic endophytes that live inside leaves or other plant parts
• Endophytes make toxins that deter herbivores and defend against pathogens
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Fungus-Animal Symbioses
• Some fungi share their digestive services with animals
• These fungi help break down plant material in the guts of cows and other grazing mammals
• Many species of ants and termites use the digestive power of fungi by raising them in “farms”
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Lichens
• A lichen is a symbiotic association between a photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus in which millions of photosynthetic cells are held in a mass of fungal hyphae
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
A fruticose (shrublike) lichen
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Crustose (encrusting) lichens
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
A foliose (leaflike) lichen
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• The fungal component of a lichen is most often an ascomycete
• Algae or cyanobacteria occupy an inner layer below the lichen surface
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Algal cell
Ascocarp of fungusSoredia
Fungal hyphae
Fungalhyphae Algal
layer
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• The algae provide carbon compounds, cyanobacteria provide organic nitrogen, and fungi provide the environment for growth
• The fungi of lichens can reproduce sexually and asexually
• Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation or the formation of soredia, small clusters of hyphae with embedded algae
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
• Lichens are important pioneers on new rock and soil surfaces
• Lichens are sensitive to pollution, and their death can be a warning that air quality is deteriorating
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Fungi as Pathogens
• About 30% of known fungal species are parasites or pathogens, mostly on or in plants
• Some fungi that attack food crops are toxic to humans
• Animals are much less susceptible to parasitic fungi than are plants
• The general term for a fungal infection in animals is mycosis
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(a) Corn smut on corn
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(b) Tar spot fungus onmaple leaves
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(c) Ergots on rye
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Bui Tan Anh – College of Natural Sciences
Practical Uses of Fungi
• Humans eat many fungi and use others to make cheeses, alcoholic beverages, and bread
• Some fungi are used to produce antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial infections, for example the ascomycete Penicillium
• Genetic research on fungi is leading to applications in biotechnology
– For example, insulin-like growth factor can be produced in the fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae
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Penicillium
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Staphylococcus
Zone ofinhibitedgrowth
Penicillium