Chapter 4Chapter 4

Developing the Research PlanDeveloping the Research Plan

Research ApproachesResearch Approaches

General framework for conducting research– Historical– Descriptive– Qualitative– Experimental

The general nature of the research problem will determine which approach to use

HypothesesHypotheses

Important to most research studies

Tentative explanation of the outcome of a research problem

In some research in the behavioral sciences, especially descriptive studies, it may be appropriate for the researcher to list objectives rather than hypotheses or to exclude them all together, unless comparisons are being made

Types of HypothesesTypes of Hypotheses

Research Hypothesis - An “educated guess” or tentative proposition regarding the possible solution or explanation to the problem being studied– based on theory or previous research

Null or Statistical Hypothesis - A hypothesis of “no difference or no relationship”– primary use is for statistical testing– hypothesis which says the independent variable has no effect on

the dependent variable– does not necessarily reflect the researcher’s expectations

Hypothesis TestingHypothesis Testing

The Research Hypothesis is transformed into a Statistical or Null Hypothesis (Ho)– This is done so that statistical tests can be

employed that will determine whether the findings are statistically significant or can be attributed to chance

– The results of the statistical test will enable the researcher to accept or reject the null hypothesis

More Hypothesis Testing More Hypothesis Testing

The purpose of the statistical test is to evaluate the null hypothesis at a specified level of probability– For instance, testing the difference in the mean values between 2

groups at the .05 level means:

Do the values of the dependent variable differ significantly (p<.05) so that these differences would not be attributable to chance occurrence more than 5 times in 100?

– If the null hypothesis is accepted, then the researcher rejects the research hypothesis and concludes there is no difference between the groups

– If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the research hypothesis is affirmed and the researcher concludes there is a significant difference between the groups

Example Research HypothesisExample Research Hypothesis

It is hypothesized that children taught by teaching method A will perform better on a reading achievement test than children taught by method B

Direction of Expected ResultsDirection of Expected Results

Directional Hypothesis – when the researcher has reason to believe a particular relationship or difference exists– Children with a high IQ are more easily motivated than

children with a low IQ

Nondirectional Hypothesis – when the researcher has no reason to believe a particular relationship or difference exists in any direction– There is a difference in the motivational level of

children with a high IQ and children with a low IQ

Example Null HypothesisExample Null Hypothesis

There will be no significant difference in reading performance between students taught by method A and students taught by method B

or

Teaching method has no effect on the reading performance of students

Rule of ThumbRule of Thumb

Research which asks DIFFERENCE or RELATIONSHIP questions should always have hypotheses

Research which asks DESCRIPTIVE questions (with no comparisons across groups) may not need hypotheses

You can only reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis

Data Collection TechniquesData Collection Techniques

The nature of the study will determine what type of data are required to answer the question and the method of collecting these data

Multiple techniques may be used in a single study

Three Basic TechniquesThree Basic Techniques

Observation - the researcher may watch the research participants perform and record relevant information about them

Measurement - the researcher may test the research participants or apply a device to measure certain qualities

Questioning - the researcher may ask the research participants questions to obtain information

Observation TechniquesObservation Techniques

Direct observation

Indirect observation

Participant observation

Direct ObservationDirect Observation

Researcher directly observes research participants

Research participants usually know they are being observed

Researcher’s presence might change the way the research participants act

Indirect ObservationIndirect Observation

Research participants are filmed or videotaped

Researcher views tape

Participant ObservationParticipant Observation

The observer participates in the research setting with the research participants, often spending considerable time in the natural setting developing field notes

Qualitative research methodology

Measurement TechniquesMeasurement Techniques

This broad category of techniques involves actively testing the research participants on the characteristics of interest

Almost anything can be measured

Major categories of measures include– Physical– Cognitive– Affective

Prevalent TypesPrevalent Types

Physical measures– e.g., muscular strength, blood pressure, physiological responses

to exercise . . . common in HHP

Cognitive measures – e.g., knowledge on innumerable topics

Affective measures– e.g., opinion, attitude, interest, personality traits, motivation, self-

concept– affective factors are often more difficult to capture quantitatively

and are typically measured through the use of pencil and paper self-report scales

Scaling TechniquesScaling Techniques

Scaling is the process of assigning numbers to the various levels of a particular concept that we wish to measure. Thus, a scale provides an indirect measure of the concept of interest

Scales can be used to obtain information on almost any topic, object, or subject. Attitude, opinion, behavior, performance, and perception are frequently measured by some type of scale

Common ScalesCommon Scales

Rating Scale

Semantic Differential Scale

Rank Order Scale

Likert Scale

Rating ScaleRating Scale

Individual items are judged on a single dimension and scored on a linear scale or continuum by selecting a numerical or verbal point on the scale that corresponds to their impression of the item

Numerical Rating ScaleNumerical Rating Scale

How important to you is each of the issues listed below:

Extremely ExtremelyUnimportant Important

1 2 3 4 5

The protection of endangered species of animals ____The improvement of the quality of the air ____The provision of social services to those in need ____

Verbal Rating ScaleVerbal Rating Scale

Concepts No Moderate GreatestImportance Importance Importance

Staff Discipline ___ ___ ___

Communication ___ ___ ___

Goal Setting ___ ___ ___

Public Relations ___ ___ ___

Computer Use ___ ___ ___

Administrative Concept Scale

Semantic Differential ScaleSemantic Differential Scale

A scaling method designed for measuring ones “image” of a selected topic or concept. Subjects will choose a relative position between pairs of bipolar adjectives which describe the topic along a single dimension

No more than about 20 items should be used. Responses are converted to numeric values and treated statistically

Semantic Differential ScaleSemantic Differential Scale

Place an “x” in the space on each line below to show your opinion of the pizza served here:

Hot ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ColdBland ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ SpicyFresh ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ StaleSoggy ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Crisp

Rank Order ScaleRank Order Scale

Items are ranked, usually in terms of preference or importance, relative to each other. This forced ranking results in ordinal scores, thus limiting the statistical treatment of the scores

The number of items to be ranked should be less than 10, to avoid making the task too difficult

Rank Order ScaleRank Order Scale

Please rank the brands of beer listed below in order of preference, with a 1 being the brand you most prefer, 2 being your second choice, and so forth.

____ Budweiser____ Coors____ Miller____ Corona

Likert ScaleLikert Scale

A very popular scaling technique which measures the respondent’s degree of agreement or disagreement on an issue, opinion, or particular belief

The continuum of response typically runs from SA , A, U, D, to SD

Responses to a Likert scale can be considered to be interval level scores, thus allowing scores to be summed and treated statistically

Likert ScaleLikert Scale

Pick a number from the scale to show how much you agree or disagree with each statement:

1 Strongly agree2 Agree3 Undecided4 Disagree5 Strongly disagree

College athletes should be paid ____A woman’s place is in the home ____Participating in sports is all about winning ____

Scales & StatisticsScales & Statistics

Some controversy exists among researchers and statisticians regarding the appropriate statistical treatment of scaled responses – If the intervals between score points are presumed to

be equal, thus resulting in interval data, the responses can be analyzed statistically

Interval Level ScalesInterval Level Scales

Most authorities are willing to accept Likert Scales, Semantic Differential Scales, and to a lesser extent Rating Scales, as meeting these assumptions, thus enabling the scores to be treated statistically

Ordinal Level ScalesOrdinal Level Scales

On the other hand, there is virtually no controversy concerning Rank Order Scales such as “Forced Ranking Scales” or “Paired Comparison Scales”

Responses constitute ordinal data . . . thus it is inappropriate to perform arithmetic operations or combine responses for a total scale score

Report frequencies and percentages only

Questioning TechniquesQuestioning Techniques

Wide variety of methods that involve questioning the research participant

Questionnaires– Structured– Unstructured– Checklist

Interviews

QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

Survey research - most common type of descriptive research

Usually self-report questionnaires pertaining to attitudes, behaviors, practices, likes, dislikes, etc.

May be mailed, distributed by the researcher or completed online

Many formats

Interviews Interviews

Essentially an oral questionnaire

May be personal or telephone interviews– Structured interview– Unstructured interview

Focus Group InterviewFocus Group Interview

Essentially an interview with groups of people

Designed to stimulate participants free expression of feelings, beliefs, etc.

Requires a skilled facilitator to guide discussion

Delphi TechniqueDelphi Technique

Unique questioning method used to get consensus on a specific issue or topic

Involves obtaining responses from a well-defined group of individuals

Each person then reviews his/her position based upon the collective responses from the group and revises position as warranted

May require several iterations

Selecting the Data Collection MethodSelecting the Data Collection Method

What type of data is needed to answer the research problem?

Factors to consider– Demands on the research participant– Costs in terms of money, energy, and time– Ability of the researcher to handle the selected

technique, including the data analysis

Data Collection InstrumentsData Collection Instruments

May include any mechanical or electronic equipment, physical performance task, paper-and-pencil test or scale, as well as a questionnaire designed to collect data on the variable of interest

Researcher’s choice of instrument involves deciding if one already exists that can be used as is, if one exists but needs to be revised, or if one needs to be developed

Instrument SelectionInstrument Selection

Thoroughly review the literature

If instrument is found, assess suitability– Reliability - consistency with which it measures– Validity - measures what it is suppose to measure

Reliability and validity of an instrument are often specific to the age, gender, characteristics of subjects on which it is used

Without acceptable reliability and validity, the data are of no use in answering the research question

– Objective - free from scorer bias– Appropriateness to current study– Ease of administration and scoring

Instrument RevisionInstrument Revision

If an instrument is found, but it is not quite acceptable for the current research situation, it may be modified or revised

Permission should be obtained before revising copyrighted instrument developed by someone else

If changes are major, then it may be necessary to determine new indices of reliability and validity of the revised instrument

Instrument DevelopmentInstrument Development

This is a time-consuming and difficult task

Only undertake if there is no existing instrument that will suffice

Basic steps include the following:1. Review the literature

2. Develop tentative instrument

3. Obtain opinions of experts concerning the instrument

4. Revise the instrument as needed

5. Pilot test the instrument

6. Further revise the instrument as needed

7. Finalize instrument