Chapter 3Learning and Memory

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CONSUMER BEHAVIOR, 10eMichael R. Solomon

Theories of Learning

• Behavioral learning theories focus on stimulus-response connections

• Cognitive theories focus on consumers as problem solvers who learn when they observe relationships

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• Conditioning results in learning.

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Types of Behavioral Learning Theories

Classical Conditioning: a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Instrumental Conditioning

(also, operant conditioning): the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.

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Classical Conditioning

• Components of Conditioning• Unconditioned stimulus• Conditioned stimulus• Conditioned response

• Conditioning Issues• Repetition• Stimulus generalization• Stimulus discrimination

For Reflection

• How might classical conditioning operate for a consumer who visits a new tutoring Web site and is greeted by the website’s avatar who resembles Albert Einstein?

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Marketing Applications of Repetition

• Repetition increases learning

• More exposures = increased brand awareness• “Mere exposure effect”

• When exposure decreases, extinction occurs

• However, too MUCH exposure leads to message wear out• Example: Izod crocodile on clothes

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Marketing Applications of Stimulus Generalization

• Stimulus generalization: tendency for stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar, unconditioned responses.• Family branding• Product line extensions• Licensing• Look-alike packaging

How Does Instrumental Conditioning Occur?

• Positive reinforcement• Do a good job, get a bonus

• Negative reinforcement (remove aversive stimulus)• Apply suntan lotion to avoid a sunburn

• Punishment (initiate aversive stimulus)• Do 100 pushups for disobeying

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Types of Reinforcement

For Reflection

• What kind of reinforcement is being used when stores offer loyalty programs?

• What kind of reinforcement is being used when customers are charged late fees?

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• We learn about products by observing others’ behavior.

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For Reflection

• To what extent do you emulate a celebrity’s choices?

• How does this differ for celebrities who are overtly endorsing a brand versus those who have an “organic” relationship with the brand?

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• Our brains process information about brands to retain them in memory.

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Memory Systems

Other concepts we associate with an individual product influence how we will remember it.

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Spreading Activation

• Brand-specific

• Ad-specific

• Brand identification

• Product category

• Evaluative reactions

Scripts

• We rely on Scripts to set our expectations for product and service encounters

• Examples of scripts:• Flying• Eating out• Doctor Visits

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Retrieval

• Unique images are more easily retrieved from memory.

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Understanding When We Remember & Forget

• Memory Decay vs. Interference (proactive vs. retroactive)

• State-dependent retrieval

• Salience / Recall and the “Von Restorff” effect

• Unipolar vs. Mixed Emotions

• Marketers measure our memories about products and ads.

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Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli

• Recognition versus Recall

• Problems with memory measures• Response biases• Memory lapses

• Omitting• Averaging• Telescoping (time distortion)

• Illusion of truth effect• Sleeper effect

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The Marketing Power of Nostalgia

• Marketers may resurrect popular characters to evoke fond memories of the past• Nostalgia• Retro brand