chapter 29 lecture - oak park independent · 12 table 29 -1 p669 viii. thunder across the sea...

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Chapter 29

WilsonianProgressivism inPeaceandWar,1913–1920

Presented by:

Mr. Anderson, M.Ed., J.D.

I.Wilson: TheIdealistinPolitics

• (Thomas)Woodrow Wilson:– SecondDemocraticpresidentsince1861

• FirstpresidentfromoneofsecededsouthernstatessinceZacharyTaylor,64yearsearlier

• Wilson'sadmirationforConfederateattemptatindependenceinspiredhisidealofself-determination

• Hisidealoffaithinmasses—iftheywereproperlyinformed—camefromJeffersoniandemocracy

• HisinspirationalpoliticalsermonsreflectedinfluenceofhisPresbyterianminster-father

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I.Wilson: TheIdealistinPolitics(cont.)

• WilsonconvincedthatCongresscouldnotfunctionproperlyunlesspresidentprovidedleadership

• Repeatedreliedonhiseloquencetoappealoverheadsoflegislatorstothesovereignpeople

– Wilsonsufferedfromseriousdefectsofpersonality:• IncapableofshowmanshiplikeRoosevelt,helackedcommontouch

II.Wilson TacklestheTariff

• Wilson's programs:– Calledforassaulton“thetriplewallofprivilege”: thetariff,thebanks,andthetrusts

– Hetackledtarifffirst:– Summoned Congress into special session in early1913– Inprecedent-shattering move,hedid not send his messageover toCapitol tobe read

– Heappeared inperson before ajoint session ofCongressandpresented his appeal with stunning clarityand force

– House soon passed major reductions inUnderwood Tariff

II.Wilson TacklestheTariff(cont.)

– WhenbillchallengedinSenatebylobbyists:• Wilsonissuedmessagetopublicurgingthemtoholdtheirelectedrepresentativesinline

• Publicopinionworked;in1913SenateapprovedbillWilsonwanted

• Providedforasubstantialreductionofimportfees• Landmarkintaxlegislation:

– Using recent16th Amendment, Congress enactedgraduatedincome taxbeginning with moderate levyon incomes over$3,000 (averagewageearner's annual incomeonly $740)

– By1917, revenue from income taxshot ahead ofrevenuefromtariffs

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III.WilsonBattlestheBankers

• Antiquated andinadequate bankingandcurrency system

• Nation'sfinancialstructurecreakedalongunderCivilWarNationalBankingAct

– Most glaring defectwas inelasticity ofcurrency (1907 panic)– Sincemost banks located inNewYork, hard tomobilize bankreserves elsewhere in times ofpanic

• CallsforreformsupportedbyLouisD.Brandeisinbook:OtherPeople'sMoneyandHowtheBankersUseIt(1914)

III.WilsonBattlestheBankers(cont.)

• WilsoninJune1913appearedpersonallybeforeCongressagainandcalledforsweepingbankreform:

– Endorsed Democraticproposal fordecentralized bank ingovernment hands

– Opposed Republican demands forhugeprivate bankwithfifteen branches

• FederalReserveAct (1913):• Wilsonappealedtothesovereignpeople• MostimportanteconomiclegislationbetweenCivilWarandNewDeal

III.WilsonBattlestheBankers(cont.)

• FederalReserveBoard:AppointedbyPresident•Wouldoverseenationwidesystemoftwelveregionalreservedistricts•Eachwithitsowncentralbank•FinalauthorityofFederalReserveBoardguaranteedasubstantialmeasureofpubliccontrol•Boardwouldbeempoweredtoissuepapermoney

– “Federal Reserve Notes”—backed bycommercialpaper– Thus amount ofmoney incirculation couldbeswiftlyincreased as needed forlegitimate requirements ofbusiness

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IV.ThePresident TamestheTrusts

• Wilson's third appearance beforeCongress ledtoFederalTradeCommission Act(1914):– Presidentiallyappointedcommissioncouldresearchindustriesengagedininterstatecommerce

– Commissioncouldcrushmonopolyatsourcebyrootingoutunfairtradepractices:• Includingunlawfulcompetition,falseadvertising,mislabeling,adulteration,andbribery

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IV.ThePresident TamestheTrusts(cont.)

– ClaytonAnti-Trust (1914):• Increasedlistofpracticesdeemedobjectionable:

– Pricediscrimination and interlocking directorates (wheresame individual served asdirector of supposedly competingfirms)

– Achieved through holding companies (seeFigure 29.1)

• Conferredlong-overduebenefitsonlabor:– Exempted labor and agricultural organization fromanti-trustprosecution, while explicitly legalizing strikes and peacefulpicketing

– Samuel Gompers, Union leader, hailed actasMagna Cartaoflabor

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Figure 29-1 p665

V.Wilson atthePeak

• Other progressivelegislation:– FederalFarmLoanAct(1916):

• Madecreditavailabletofarmersatlowratesofinterest—longdemandedbyPopulists

– WarehouseAct(1916):• Authorizedloansonsecurityofstaplecrops—anotherPopulistidea

– Otherlawsbenefitedruralareasbyprovidingforhighwayconstructionandestablishmentofagriculturalextensionworkinstatecolleges

V.Wilson atthePeak(cont.)

– LaFolletteSeaman'sAct(1915):• RequireddecenttreatmentandlivingwageonAmericanmerchantships

– Workingmen'sCompensationAct(1916):• Grantedassistancetofederalcivil-serviceemployeesduringperiodsofdisability

– 1916:Wilsonsignedlawrestrictingchildlaboronproductsflowingintointerstatecommerce(butSupremeCourtlatervoidedit)

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V.Wilson atthePeak(cont.)• Adamson Act (1916):

– Establishedeighthourdayforallemployeesontrainsininterstatecommerce,withextrapayforovertime

• Supreme Court:– WilsonendearedhimselftoprogressiveswhenhenominatedprominentreformerLouisD.Brandeis—firstJewtohighcourt

• Limit onWilson's progressivism:– Stoppedwellshortofbettertreatmentforblacks

VI.NewDirectionsinForeignPolicy

– Wilson'sreactiontoearlierforeignpolicies:• IncontrasttoRooseveltandTaft,herecoiledatfirstfromaggressiveforeignpolicy

• Hatingimperialism,hewasrepelledbyTR'sbig-stickism• SuspiciousofWallStreet,hedetestedTaft'sdollardiplomacy

• Inofficeonlyaweek,hedeclaredwarondollardiplomacy:

– Proclaimed government would not support American investorsinLatinAmerica and China

VI.NewDirectionsinForeignPolicy(cont.)

• PersuadedCongresstorepealPanamaCanalTollsActof1912–

– Ithadexempted American coastwide shipping fromtolls– Thereby provokedsharp protests from injured Britain

• JonesAct (1916):– Granted Philippines territorial status andpromisedindependence as soon asa“stable government” couldbeestablished

– Wilson's racial prejudices didnot expectthis tohappen foralong time

– OnJuly4,1946—30 years later—United StatesacceptedPhilippine independence

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• Haiti'schaoticpoliticalsituationcausedWilsontoassumemoreactivestanceabroad

• Politicalturmoilclimaxedin1914-1915whenoutragedpopulaceliterallytoretopiecesbrutalHaitianpresident

• WilsondispatchedmarinestoprotectAmericanlivesandproperty

• MarinesremainedinHaitifornineteenyearsmakingHaitianAmericanprotectorate

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– In1916, Wilson used Roosevelt's corollary toMonroeDoctrine andconcluded treatywith Haiti:

» Provided forU.S.supervision of finances andpolice– In1916, hesent marines todebt-cursed Dominican Republic

» Cameunder American control foreight years– In1917, United States purchased theVirgin Islands fromDenmark

– UncleSamtightening itsgrip inCaribbean Sea,with its vitalapproaches toPanama Canal (seeMap29.1)

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VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico

• Mexicanrevolution (1913):– Mexicans resented exploitation byforeign investors– In1913 newrevolutionary president murdered andreplaced byGeneralVictoriano Huerta:

– Caused massive migration ofMexicans toUnited States– More thanamillion Spanish-speaking newcomers cameandsettled in Texas, NewMexico, Arizona, California

– Built highways and railroads, followed fruitharvests aspickers

– Segregated in Spanish-speaking enclaves:» Helped createunique borderland culture thatblendedMexicanand American folkways

Map 29-1 p667

VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico(cont.)

• RevolutionarybloodshedmenacedAmericanlivesandpropertyinMexico:

– Hearstcalled for intervention in Mexico– Wilson again refused topracticediplomacy ofhispredecessors:

» Deemed it“perilous” todetermine foreign policy“interms ofmaterial interest”

– Wilson tried tosteer amoral course in Mexico– Refused to recognize Huerta's bloody-handed regime– In1914 heallowed American arms to flow toHuerta'sprincipal rivals, Venustiano Carranza and firebrand Francisco(“Pancho”) Villa

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• Tampico Incident:– MexicovolcanoeruptedatAtlanticseaportofTampicoinApril,1914:• SmallpartyofAmericansailorsarrested• Mexicansreleasedcaptivesandapologized• RefuseddemandbyU.S.admiralfor21-gunsalute• DeterminedtoeliminateHuerta,WilsonaskedCongressforauthoritytouseforceagainstMexico

• BeforeCongresscouldact,WilsonhadnavyseizeportofVeracruztoblockarrivalofGermanweapons


• ShootingconflictavoidedbyofferofmediationfromABCpowers—Argentina,Brazil,andChile

• HuertacollapsedinJuly1914underpressurefromwithinandwithout

• Succeededbyhisarchival,VenustianoCarranzawhoresentedWilson'smilitarymeddling

• “Pancho” Villa,chiefrivaltoPresidentCarranza,– Killed 16American mining engineers traveling throughnorthern Mexico in January 1916

– Onemonth later, Villa andhis followers crossed border intoColumbus, NewMexicoand murdered another 19Americans

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– GeneralJohnJ.(“BlackJack”)Pershingorderedtobreakupbanditband• HishastilyorganizedforceofseveralthousandmountedtroopspenetrateddeepintoMexico

• ClashedwithCarranza'sforces• MauledVillistasbutmissedcapturingVilla• AstensionswithGermanymounted,WilsonwithdrewPershingfromMexicoinJanuary1917

VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea

• InEurope, Serbpatriot killedheir tothroneofAustria-Hungary insummer1914:

• Vienna,backedbyGermany,presentedultimatumtoSerbia

• Explosivechainreactionfollowed:– Serbia, backedbyRussia, refused tobackdown

– Russian czarbegan tomobilize military, menacing Germanyoneast

– Franceconfronted Germanyonwest

– Germans strucksuddenly atFrance through unoffendingBelgium

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VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea(cont.)

• GreatBritain,itscoastlinejeopardizedbyassaultonBelgium,pulledintoconflagrationonsideofFrance

• NowEuropelockedinfighttothedeath• CentralPowers:Germany,Austria-Hungary,laterTurkeyandBulgaria

• Allies:France,Britain,andRussia,laterJapanandItaly

• AmericansthankedGodforoceanandcongratulatedthemselvesonhavingancestorswiseenoughtohaveabandonedhellpitsofEurope

• Americafeltstrong,snug,smug,andsecure—butnotforlong


– WilsonissuedneutralityproclamationandcalledonAmericanstobeneutralinthoughtanddeed

– BothsideswooedU.S.A.,greatneutral inWest• Britishenjoyed:

– Cultural, linguistic, and economic ties with America– Advantage ofcontrolling transatlantic cables– Their censors sheared awaywarstories harmful toAlliesanddrenched United States with talesofGerman bestiality

• GermansandAustro-Hungarians:– Counted on sympathies oftransplanted countrymen inAmerica (some11million in1914)


– Someof these recent immigrants expressed noisy sympathy forfatherland

– Most simply grateful tobedistant fromfray(see Table29.1)

• MostAmericans:– Anti-German fromoutset– Kaiser Wilhelm II seemed embodiment ofarrogantautocracy– Impression strengthened byGerman's ruthless strikeatneutralBelgium

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Table 29-1 p669


– Germanand Austrian agents further tarnished imageofCentral Powers when they resorted toviolence inAmericanfactories andports

– Germanoperative in1915absentmindedly left hisbriefcaseonNewYorkelevated car:

» Documents detailing plans for industrial sabotagediscovered and quicklypublicized

– Further inflamed American opinion against Kaiser– Yetgreatmajority ofAmericans earnestly hoped tostayoutofhorrible war

IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney– WhenwarbrokeoutinEurope,U.S.A.inmidstofrecession:• BritishandFrenchwarorderspulledU.S.industryontopeakofwar-bornprosperity(seeTable29.2)

• PartofboonfinancedbyAmericanbankers• NotablyWallStreetfirmofJ.P.MorganandCompanyadvancedtoAlliesenormoussumof$2.3millionduringperiodofAmericanneutrality

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Table 29-2 p670

IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney(cont.)

» Germany legally could havehadsame level oftradewith United States

» Wasprevented fromdoing sobyBritish navy» British imposed blockade with mines andships acrossNorth Seagateway toGerman ports

» Overprotests fromvarious Americans, British forcedAmerican vessels offhighseas

» Harassment ofAmerican shippers highly effectiveastradebetween GermanyandUnited Statesvirtuallyceased


– Germanydidnotwanttobestarvedout:• BerlinannouncedsubmarinewarareaaroundBritishIsles(seeMap29.2)

• Newsubmarinesnotfitexistinginternationallaws• PosedthreattoUnitedStates—solongasWilsoninsistedonmaintainingAmerica'sneutralrights

– Berlin officials declared theywould trynot tosink neutralshipping, butwarned mistakes would probably occur

• Wilsondecidedoncalculatedrisk:– Claimed profitable neutral trading rights while hoping noincidents would cause war

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Map 29-2 p670

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– Germansubmarines(U-boats “underseaboat”)begandeadlywork

– Infirst months of1915, sank90ships inwarzone– British passenger liner Lusitania torpedoed and sankoffcoastof Ireland, May7,1915:

» With loss of1,198 lives, including 128Americans

• Lusitaniawascarryingforty-twohundredcasesofsmall-armsammunition

– A factGermany used to justify sinking

– Americans shockedand angeredatactof“mass murder”and“piracy”

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– TalkofwarfromeasternUnitedStates,butnotfromrestofnation• Wilsondidnotwanttoleaddisunitednationintowar

– Byseries of strong notes, Wilson attempted to takeGermanwarlords sharply to task

– Policy too risky forSecretaryofStateBryanwho resigned– T.Roosevelt harshly criticized Wilson's measured approach

• Britishliner,Arabic,sunkinAugust,1915:– With loss of two American lives

– Berlin reluctantly agreednot tosinkunarmed and unresistingpassenger ships without warning


– Pledge appeared tobeviolated in March,1916 whenGermans torpedoed Frenchpassenger steamer, Sussex

– Infuriated, Wilson informed Germans:» Thatunless they renounced inhuman practiceof sinkingmerchant ships without warning, hewould breakdiplomatic relations—almost certain prelude towar

• GermanyreluctantlyknuckledunderWilson'sSussexultimatum:

– Germanyagreed tonot sink passenger and merchant shipswithout warning

» Attached longstring totheir Sussex pledge

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• GermanSussexpledge:– United Stateswould have topersuade Allies tomodify whatBerlin regardedas illegal blockade

– This obviously, was something thatWashington could notdo– Wilson promptly acceptedpledge, without accepting“string”– Wilson won temporary butprecarious diplomatic victory–precarious because:

» Germanycould pull string whenever it chose» And president might suddenly find himself tuggedovercliffofwar

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X.Wilson WinsReelectionin1916

• Presidential campaign of1916– BullmooseProgressivesandRepublicansmetinChicago:• ProgressivesnominatedTheodoreRoosevelt:

– TR, who loathed Wilson, hadno intention of splittingRepublicans again

– With his refusal, TRsounded deathknell ofProgressive party

• RepublicansdraftedSupremeCourtjusticeCharlesEvansHughes,whohadbeengovernorofNewYork

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X.Wilson WinsReelectionin1916(cont.)

• RepublicanplatformcondemnedWilson's:– Tariff– Assault on trusts– Wishy-washiness indealing with Mexicoand Germany

• Wilsonrealizedhis1912wincausedbyTaft-TRsplit– Used his first termto identify himself ascandidate ofprogressivism and towoo bull moose voters into Democratic fold

– Wilson,nominatedbyacclamationatDemocraticconventioninSt.Louis

– Hiscampaignslogan,“HeKeptUsOutofWar”


– Onelectionday:• HughessweptEast• Wilsonwenttobedpreparedtoacceptdefeatbutrestofnationturnedtide:

– Midwestern andwesterners, attractedbyWilson'sprogressive reforms andantiwar policies, flocked tohim

– Final result, indoubt for several days,hinged on Californiawhich Wilson carried with 3,800 votesout ofabout amillion


– Finalcount:• Wilson:277to254inElectoralCollege• 9,127,695to8,533,507inpopularcolumn(seeMap29.3)

• ProlaborWilsonreceivedstrongsupportfromworkingclassandfromrenegadebullmoosers

• Wilsondidnotspecificallypromisetokeepcountryoutofwar

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XI.WarbyActofGermany

• Wilson tried tomediate between twowarringsides:– January22,1917:restatedU.S.commitmenttoneutralrightsandcalledfor“peacewithoutvictory”

• Germanyresponded with mailed fist:– Announcedunrestricted subwarfareonJan.31– HopedtodefeatAlliesbeforeU.S.A.enteredwar

• Wilson brokediplomatic relations, but movednocloser towarunless “overt” byGermans

Map 29-3 p673

XI.WarbyActofGermany(cont.)

– PresidentaskedCongressforauthoritytoarmmerchantships,butblockedbySenatefilibuster

– Zimmermannnote:• InterceptedandpublishedonMarch1,1917• GermanforeignsecretaryArthurZimmermansecretlyproposedGerman-Mexicanalliance

• Temptedanti-YankeeMexicowithpromisesofrecoveringTexas,NewMexico,Arizona

– Long-dreaded“overt” actinAtlantic:• GermanU-boatssankfourunarmedAmericanmerchantvesselsinfirsttwoweeksofMarch,1917

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XI.WarbyActofGermany(cont.)

• RevolutioninRussiatoppledcruelregimeoftsars:– America could nowfight fordemocracyon Allies' side,without Russian despotism inAllied fold

• Wilson,beforejointsessionofCongressonApril2,1917,askedfordeclarationofwar:

– British harassment ofU.S.commercehadbeen galling butendurable

– Germanyhad resorted tomass killing ofcivilians– Wilson had drawnclear line against depredations ofsubmarine

• Infigurativesense,wardeclarationonApril6,1917boreunambiguoustrademark“MadeinGermany”

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XII.Wilsonian IdealismEnthroned

• Formorethan acentury, Americans pridedthemselveson isolation from OldWorld

• Since1914that pride reinforced bybountifulprofits gainedthrough neutrality– Sixsenatorsand50representatives(includingfirstcongresswomanJeannetteRankin,ofMontana)votedagainstwarresolution

– Wilsoncouldincitenoenthusiasmbycallingonnationtofighttomakeworldsafefromsubmarineattacks

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XII.Wilsonian IdealismEnthroned(cont.)

– Wilsonneededtoproclaimmoreglorifiedaims:• Supremelyambitiousgoalofcrusade“tomaketheworldsafefordemocracy”

• Wilsonvirtuallyhypnotizednationwithloftyideals:– Contrasted selfish waraims ofother belligerents withAmerica's shining altruism

– Preached America didnot fight for sakeofriches orterritorial conquest

– Republic sought toshape international order in whichdemocracycould flourish without fearofpower-crazedautocrats andmilitarists


• Wilsonian idealism:– Personalityofpresidentandnecessitiesofhistoryperfectlymatched

– Hebelievedmodernworldcouldnotaffordhyper-destructivewarusedbyindustrialstates

– ProbablynootherargumentcouldhaveworkedtoarouseAmericanstounprecedentedburden:• Americanscouldbeeitherisolationistsorcrusaders,nothinginbetween


• Wilson'sappealworked—perhapstoowell• Holdingtorchofidealism,presidentfireduppublicmindtofeverpitch

• LostwasWilson'searlierpleafor“peacewithoutvictory”

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XIII.Wilson's FourteenPotentPoints

• Wilson soonrecognized asmoralleader ofAllied cause– OnJanuary8,1918,hedeliveredtoCongressfamedFourteenPoints:• (1)proposaltoabolishsecrettreatiespleasedliberalsofallcountries

• (2)freedomofseasappealedtoGermansandAmericanswhodistrustedBritishseapower

• (3)removalofeconomicbarriersamongnationshadbeengoalofliberalinternationalistseverywhere

XIII.Wilson's FourteenPotentPoints(cont.)

• (4)reductionofarmamentburdensgratifyingtotaxpayersinallcountries

• (5)adjustmentofcolonialclaimsininterestsofbothnativepeoplesandcolonizersreassuredanti-imperialists

– Wilson'spronouncementaboutcoloniespotentiallyrevolutionary:• Helpedtodelegitimizeoldempires• Openedroadtoeventualindependenceformillionsof“subjectpeople”

XIII.Wilson's FourteenPotentPoints(cont.)

– Otherpointsprovedtobenolessseductive:• Hopeofindependence(“self-determination”)tooppressedminoritygroups(e.g.,Poles)

– Capstonepoint(numberfourteen):• ForeshadowedLeagueofNations:

– International organization thatwould provide system ofcollective security

– Wilson'spointsnotapplaudedeverywhere:• SomeAlliedleaderswantedterritorialgains• RepublicansmockedfourteenPoints

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XIV.ManipulatingMinds andStiflingDissent

– CommitteeonPublicInformation:• Purpose—mobilizepeople'smindforwar• Headedbyyoungjournalist,GeorgeCreel• HisjobtosellAmericaonwarandsellworldonWilsonianwaraims

• Employed150,000workersathomeandabroad– Sentout75,000 “four-minute men” whodeliveredcountless speeches containing much“patriotic pep”

• Creel'spropagandatookvariedforms:– Posters splashed onbillboards:

» “Battle of theFences”

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XIV.ManipulatingMinds andStiflingDissent(cont.)– Millions of leaflets andpamphlets contained mostpungentWilson-isms

– Hang-the-Kaiser movies– Songs poured scornon enemyandglorified “boys” inuniform

– Extensive useof songs, esp.GeorgeCohan's “OverThere”– Creel typified American war mobilization:

» Relied moreonaroused passion and voluntarycompliance than on formal laws

» Oversold ideals ofWilson and led world toexpect toomuch

» Result waseventual disillusionmen t at home andabroad

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XIV.ManipulatingMindsandStiflingDissent(cont.)

– GermanAmericans—overeightmillion:• MostprovedtobedependablyloyaltoUnitedStates• Afewtarred,feathered,andbeaten• HystericalhatredofGermansandthingsGermanicsweptnation:

– Orchestras found itunsafe topresent German-composedmusic

– Germanbooks removed from library shelves

– Germanclasses canceled– Sauerkraut became“liberty cabbage”– Hamburger, “liberty steak”

XIV.ManipulatingMinds andStiflingDissent(cont.)

• Espionage Act of1917 andSedition Actof1918:– ReflectedfearsaboutGermansandantiwarAmericans

– 1,900prosecutionsofantiwarSocialistsandmembersofradicalIndustrialWorkersoftheWorld(IWW):• SocialistEugeneDebssentencedtotenyearsinfederalpenitentiary

• IWWleaderWilliamD.(“BigBill”)Haywoodand99associatesalsoconvicted

– Virtuallyanycriticismofgovernmentcouldbecensoredandpunished

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XIV.ManipulatingMinds andStiflingDissent(cont.)

• InSchenkv.UnitedStates (1919):– SupremeCourtaffirmedlegalityofrestrictions

• Freedomofspeechcouldberevokedwhensuchspeechposed“clearandpresentdanger” tonation

– ProsecutionsformeduglychapterinhistoryofAmericancivilliberty:• Withpeace—presidentialpardonsgranted,includingPresidentHarding'stoDebsin1921

• Afewvictimsremainedinjailinto1930s

XV.ForgingaWarEconomy

– Wilsonbelatedlybackedpreparednessmeasures– Bigobstaclesconfrontedeconomicmobilizers:

• Sheerignoranceamongbiggestroadblocks– Nooneknew precisely how muchsteel orexplosive powdercountrycapable ofproducing

• Oldideasprovedtobeliabilities:– Traditional fearofbiggovernment hamstrung effort toorchestrate economy fromWashington

– Largelyvoluntary characterofeconomicwar organization

– Wilsoneventuallysucceededinimposingsomeorderoneconomicconfusion:

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XV.ForgingaWarEconomy(cont.)– WarIndustriesBoard:

• March1918;BernardBaruchthehead• Setprecedentforfederalgovernmenttotakecentralroleineconomicplanninginacrisis

• Herbert Hooverheaded FoodAdministration:– Reliedonvoluntarycompliancewithpropaganda,notcompulsoryedicts(i.e.,rationcards)

– Thankstowartimespirit,Hoover'svoluntaryapproachworkedasfarmproductionincreased

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XV.ForgingaWarEconomy(cont.)

• Wartime restrictions onfoodstuffs foralcohol accelerated waveofprohibition

• 1919:EighteenAmendment banned alcohol• Wilson expanded federalgovernment in sizeandpower tomeetneedsofwar:– WIBsetproductionquotas– Allocatedrawmaterials– Setpricesforgovernmentpurchases

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XVI.WorkersinWartime

• “LaborWillWin theWar:”– Americanworkerssweatedway tovictory:

• DrivenbyWarDepartment's“workorfight” rule:– Threatened anyunemployed malewith immediate draft;powerful discouragement tostrike

– Government tried to treat labor fairly

– SamuelGompersandAmericanFederationofLabor(AFofL)loyallysupportedwar:• Loyaltyrewardedasmembershipdoubledandrealwagesformanyunionizedworkersrosemorethan20%

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XVI.WorkersinWartime(cont.)

• Recognition ofright toorganize notwonandworkershit bywartime inflation:– 6,000strikesbrokeoutinwaryears– IndustrialWorkersoftheWorld(“Wobblies”)engineereddamaging industrialsabotagebecause• Victimsofshabbiestworkingconditions

– 1919greateststrikeinU.S.historyrockedsteelindustryasmorethan250,000struck:• Wantedrighttobargaincollectively,butmanagementrefusedtonegotiate

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XVI.WorkersinWartime(cont.)

– Eventually steel strike collapsed aftermore thanadozenstrikers killed

– Setbackcrippled union movement formore than adecade

• Blackworkersenteredsteelmillsin1919• TensofthousandsofsouthernblacksdrawntoNorthtowar-industryemployment

• Interracialviolenceresulted,esp.inChicagoinJuly1919– 15whites and23blackskilled during twoweeks of terror

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XVII.SufferingUntilSuffrage

• Womenheeded callofpatriotism andopportunity:– Thousandsenteredfactoriesandfieldsleftbymengoingtofrontline

– Warsplitwomen'smovementdeeply:• Manyprogressive-erafeministswerepacifists

– Found avoice in National Woman's party– LedbyQuaker activistAlice Paul– Demonstrated against “Kaiser Wilson” with marches andhunger strikes

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XVII.SufferingUntilSuffrage(cont.)

• Largerpartofsuffragemovement:– Represented byNational American WomanSuffrageAssociation– Supported Wilson's war– Argued women must takepart in wareffort toearn role in shapingpeace

– Fight fordemocracyabroad waswomen's best hope forwinningtruedemocracyathome

• Warmobilizationgavenewmomentumtosuffragefight:– Wilson endorsed suffrage as“vitally necessary warmeasure”– In1917 NewYorkvoted for suffrageat state level– Followed byMichigan, Oklahoma, andSouth Dakota– Whole U.S.A.followed with Nineteenth Amendment (1920)


• Ratified70yearsafterfirstcallforsuffrageatSenecaFalls

• GaveallAmericanwomenrighttovote(seeAppendixandTable29.3)

– Women'swartimeeconomicgainsfleeting:• PermanentWomen'sBureauinDepartmentofLaborcreatedtoprotectwomeninworkplace

• Mostwomenworkersgaveupwartimejobs


• Congresssupportedtraditionalroleasmothers:– Passed Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act1921:

» Provided federally financed instruction inmaternal andinfant health care

» Expanded responsibility of federal government forfamilywelfare

• WWIforeshadowedfuturewhenwomen'swage-laborandpoliticalpowerwouldreshapeAmericanwayoflife

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Table 29-3 p680

XVIII.MakingPlowboysintoDoughboys

• America's earlyroleinwar:– DidnotdreamofsendinglargeforcetoFrance– Assumednavalpowerandmaterial supportwouldsuffice

– ByApril/May1917,Europeansrunningoutofmoneyandmanpower

• HugeAmerican armyneeded toberaised,trained, andtransported quickly orwholewestern front would collapse

XVIII.MakingPlowboys intoDoughboys (cont.)

– Conscriptiononlyanswertourgentneed:• Wilsondislikeddraft,buteventuallyacceptedconscriptionasdisagreeableandtemporarynecessity

• ImmediatelyranintoproblemswithCongress– Latergrudgingly passed conscription

• Draftworkedeffectivelyoverall• Armygrewtooverfourmillionmen• Womenforfirsttimeadmittedtoarmedforces:

– 11,000 tonavyand269 tomarines– Armyrefused toenlist women

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XVIII.MakingPlowboys intoDoughboys (cont.)

• AfricansAmericansservedinstrictlysegregatedunits,usuallyunderwhiteofficers

• Militaryauthoritieshesitatedtotrainblacksforcombat:

– Thus majority assigned to“construction battalions” or puttoworkunloading ships

• RecruitssupposetoreceivesixmonthsoftraininginAmericaandtwomoreoverseas

• becauseofurgency,manydoughboysputmoreswiftlyintobattle

XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”

• Russia:• Bolsheviksseizedpowerin1917• Withdrewfrom“capitalisticwar”1918• ThisreleasedmanyGermansfromeasternfrontinRussiaforwesternfrontinFrance

• France:– GraduallybegantobustlewithU.S.doughboys(seeMap29.4):• Firstonesusedforreplacementsordeployedinquietsectors

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XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun” (cont.)

• Americansoldierssufferedhighratesofvenerealdisease

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Map 29-4 p682


– MassiveGermandriveofspring1918:• AlliesunitedunderFrenchmarshalFoch

– Germans smashed towithin 40miles ofParis, May1918– Threatened toknockFranceoutofwar

– 30,000 Americans sent toChateau-Thierry, right in teethofGermanadvance

– First significant engagement ofAmerican troops inaEuropean war

– America putdecisive weight on scales (see Figure29.2) toblunt German drive

– Americans joined in SecondBattle of theMarine (July)– Markedbeginning ofGerman withdrawal

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• Americansnowdemandedandgotseparatearmy• GeneralJohnJ.Pershingassignedafrontof85milesnorthwestwardfromSwissbordertoFrenchline:

– Pershing's armyundertook Meuse-Argonne offensive:» FromSeptember 26 toNovember 11,1918» Battle lasted 47days

» Engaged1.2million American troops» 120,000 Americans killed orwounded» Victory in sight

XIX.America HelpsHammer the“Hun” (cont.)

• Berlin readytohoist white flag:– LookedtoWilsoninOctober1918forpeacebasedonFourteenPoints:• WilsondemandedKaiserberemovedbeforeanyarmisticecouldbenegotiated

– War-weary Germans tookhint– Kaiser fled toHolland, lived forhis remaining 23years“unwept, unhonored, andunhung”

– ExhaustedGermanslaiddownarmsat11:00on11th dayof11th month,1918


• Costsexceededcomprehension:– 9million soldiers died– 20million suffered grievous wounds– 30million people died in influenza pandemic of1918-1919– more than 550,000 Americans—more than ten timesnumber ofU.S.combatcasualties—died fromflu

• U.S.'smaincontributionstovictory:– Foodstuffs, munitions, credits– Oil forfirst mechanized war

– And manpower, butnotbattlefield victories– Yanks foughtonly twomajor battles—St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne, both in last two months of four-yearwar,andwere still fighting in latterwhen warended

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p684

Figure 29-2 p684


• Itwasprospect ofendlessU.S.troopreserves,ratherthanAmerica'sactualmilitaryperformances,thateventuallydemoralizedGermans

• GeneralPershing'sarmy:– Purchased more supplies in Europe than it shipped from

United States– Most of itsartillery andvirtually all its aircraftprovided by

Britain andFrance– United Statesnoarsenal ofdemocracy in this war

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XX.WilsonStepsDownfromOlympus• Wilson's role inshapingpeace?

• Presidenttoweredatsummitofpopularityandpower:– Noother manhadeveroccupied sodizzy apinnacle asmoralleader ofworld

– At this moment, his sureness of touchdeserted him, andhebegan tomakeseries of tragic fumbles

– Hecalled forDemocraticcongressional victory in election ofNovember, 1918:

» Backfired, voters returned narrow Republican majority toCongress

» Wilson went toParis asdiminished leader

XX.Wilson StepsDownfromOlympus (cont.)

– Wilson'stripinfuriatedRepublicans:• Tothattime,nopresidenthadtraveledtoEurope

– Looked tocritics likegrandstanding

• SnubbedSenateinassemblingpeacedelegation– Neglected to include a single Republican senator indelegation

• LogicalchoicewouldhavebeennewchairmanofSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations:

– HenryCabot LodgeofMassachusetts– Wilson loathed Lodge,and feeling was reciprocated

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XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists

• Wilson receivedtumultuous welcomes:– FrommassesofFrance,England,Italy– ParisConference(January18,1919):

• BigFour:Wilson,PremierOrlando(Italy),PrimeMinisterGeorge(Britain),PremierClemenceau(France)

• Wilsonwantedtopreventvengefulparcelingofcoloniesandprotectoratesofvanquishedpowers

• LessattentivetofateofcoloniesbelongingtovictoriousFrenchandEnglish

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XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists(cont.)

• Victorsreceivedconqueredterritory(SyriatoFrance,IraqtoEngland)astrusteesofLeagueofNations

– Basically prewarcolonialism– Infuture, anticolonial nationalists would wield Wilsonianideal of self-determination against imperial occupiers

• WilsonenvisionedLeagueasaworldparliament:– An assembly seat forall nations– Council controlled bygreatpowers

• Signalvictory—whendiplomatsmadeLeagueintegralpartoffinalpeacetreaty

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– ClemenceaupressedWilsonwithFrenchdemandsforrichcoalareaofSaarValley• Francefinallysettledforcompromise:• SaarValleywouldremainunderLeaguefor15years• Thenpopularvotewoulddetermineitsfate

– Wilson'snextbattlewithItalyoverFiume,avaluableseaporttoItalyandYugoslavia:• WilsonwantedFiumetogotoYugoslaviaandappealedoverheadsofItalianleaders

• Maneuverfellflat


• Wilson'snextbattlewithJapan:– During war, Japanseized China's Shandong (Shantung)Peninsula and German islands in Pacific

– Japan received Pacific Islands under Leaguemandate– Wilson strongly opposed Japanese control ofShandong asviolation of self-determination for its 30million Chinese

– Wilson reluctantly acceptedcompromise:» JapankeptGermany's economic holdings in Shandong» Pledged to return peninsula toChina atlater date» Chinese outraged by imperialistic solution


• TreatyofVersailles handed toGermans inJune1919:

• HadbeenexcludedfromnegotiationsinParis• HopedforpeacebasedonFourteenPoints• Vengeance,notreconciliation,wastreaty'sdominanttone

• LoudandbittercriesofbetrayalburstfromGermans– Charges Adolf Hitler would lateruse

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• Wilson guiltyofnoconscious betrayal:– Alliestornbyconflictingaims– WilsonhadtocompromisetogetanyagreementandespeciallytosalvageLeagueofNations

– Treatyhadmuchtocommendit:• Liberationofmillionsofminoritypeoples,e.g.Poles

XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification

• Returning toAmerica,Wilson sailed straightinto political typhoon– Isolationistsprotestedtreaty:

• EspeciallyWilson'scommitmenttousherU.S.intonewLeagueofNations

• SenatorsWilliamsBorah(Idaho),HiramJohnson(California)andotherswereirreconcilables

– Rejected any“entangling” alliance

XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)

– CriticsshoweredTreatyofVersailleswithabuse• ForHun-haters,pactnotharshenough• Liberalsthoughtittooharsh—agrossbetrayal• “HyphenatedAmericans” arousedbecausepeacesettlementnotsufficientlyfavorabletonativelands

– Irish Americans feared Leaguewould empower England tocrush anymove for Irish independence

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XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)

• Strongmajority ofpeople favoredTreaty– July1919,Lodgehadnorealhopeofdefeatingit

• Hewantedonlytoamendit• To“Americanize,” “Republicanize,”or“senatorialize”it

• Todividepublicopinion,Lodgereadentire264-pagetreatyaloudinSenateForeignRelationsCommitteeandheldprotractedhearingstoairgrievances

XXII.Wilson's BattleforRatification(cont.)

• Facedwith such delayingtactics, Wilsondecided totakecasetonation:

• Spectacularspeechmakingtourundertakendespiteprotestsofphysiciansandfriends

• Wilson'sfrailbodybegantosagunderstrainsof:– Deathof firstwife in1914

– Partisan strife– Global war– Stressful peaceconference

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– TourbeganSeptember1919withlamestartinisolationiststrongholdsofMidwest

– RockyMountainregionandPacificCoastwelcomedhim:• Highpoint—andbreakingpoint—ofreturntripatPueblo,Colorado,Sept.25,1919

• Withtearscoursingdown,WilsonpleadedforLeagueasonlyhopeofpreventingfuturewars

• Thatnighthecollapsedfromphysicalandnervousexhaustion


• WhiskedbacktoWashington,whereseveraldayslaterhesufferedstroke

– Laid indarkened room inWhite House for several weeks– Formore than 7months, hedid notmeetcabinet

• Senator Lodgenowathelm:– Cameupwithfourteenformalreservations:

• ReservedrightsofUnitedStatesunderMonroeDoctrineandConstitutiontoprotectU.S.sovereignty


– Wilsonstillstrongenoughtoobstruct:• SentwordtoalltrueDemocratstovoteagainsttreatywithLodgereservationsattached

• Wilsonhopedthatwhenthesewereclearedaway,pathwouldbeopenedforratification

• LoyalDemocratsinSenateonNovember19,1919didWilson'sbidding

• Combiningwith“irreconcilables”,theyrejectedtreaty55to39

– Nationdeeplyshockedbyverdict

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• InMarch1920treatybroughtupagainwithLodgereservationstackedon

• WilsonagainsentwordtoloyalDemocratstovotedowntreatywithobnoxiousreservations

• HethussigneddeathwarrantoftreatyasfarasAmericanswereconcerned

• OnMarch19,1920,treatynettedsimplemajoritybutfailedtogetnecessarytwo-thirdsmajoritybycountof49yeasto35nays


• Whodefeatedtreaty?:– Lodge-Wilsonpersonalfeud,traditionalism,isolationism,disillusionment,andpartisanshipallcontributed

– Wilsonmustbearsubstantialshareofresponsibility• Heaskedforallornothing—andgotnothing

XXIII.The“SolemnReferendum”of1920

• “Solemn Referendum”—Wilson's solution todeadlock Treatywastodecide issueinpresidential campaign of1920

• RepublicansgatheredinChicago,June:– Senatebosses decided onSenator Warren G.Harding, Ohioascandidate

– Forvice-president nominated Calvin (“Silent Cal”) CoolidgeofMassachusetts

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XXIII.The“SolemnReferendum”of1920(cont.)

– DemocratsmeetinSanFrancisco:• NominatedGovernorJamesM.CoxofOhio:

– Strongsupporter ofLeague– Running mateAssistant NavySecretaryFranklin D.Roosevelt

• DemocratsattemptedtomakeelectionareferendumonLeague

• EffortmuddledbycontradictorystatementsbyHarding


– Electionreturns:• Newlyenfranchisedwomenswelledvotetotals• Hardinghadprodigiouspluralityofoversevenmillionvotes—16,143,407to9,130,328forCox

• Largestvictorymargintodateinpresidentialelection• Electoralcountwas404to127• Debs,federalprisoner#9653atAtlantaPenitentiaryrolleduplargestSocialistvoteeverwith919,799


• Public desire forchangeresulted inrepudiation of“high-and-mighty” Wilsonism– Peopleeager togobackto“normalcy”:

• Willingtoacceptsecond-ratepresident—– Got third-rate one

• Harding'svictorydeathsentenceforLeague• PoliticiansincreasinglyshunnedLeagueasaleper

– WhenWilsondiedin1924—his“greatvision” ofleague forpeacehadperishedlongbefore

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XXIV.TheBetrayalofGreatExpectations

– America'sspurningofLeagueshort-sighted:• Republichadhelpedtowinwar,butfoolishlykickedfruitsofvictoryundertable

• Leagueundercutbyrefusalofmightiestpoweronglobetojoinit

• UltimatefailurelayatAmerica'sdoor-step• Leaguedesigned,alongwithfourotherpeacetreaties,torestuponUnitedStates

XXIV.TheBetrayalofGreatExpectations(cont.)

– SenatespurnedSecurityTreatywithFrance:• Francethenundertooktobuildpowerfulmilitary• ThusGermanybegantorearmillegally

– UnitedStateshurtitsowncausewhenitburieditsheadinsand• U.S.shouldhaveassumedwar-bornresponsibilitiesandembracedroleofgloballeader

• Shouldhaveuseditsstrengthtoshapeworldevents

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