chapter 2 : review of literature -...
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21
THE GENUS CURCUMA
The genus Curcuma of family-zingiberaceae comprises of nearly
80 known species. Due to adaptation for the topographic conditions
Curcuma species are found from plains to Himalayas. These are
considered to be originated in Indo-Malayan region and distributed
through Asia, Africa and Australia. Curcuma longa Linn. exhibits inter-
specific and intra-specific variations, in biologically active constituents
and morphological and vegetative characters also like number of leaves,
flower colours, rhizome morphology etc. Genus Curcuma has a common
chemical constituent, Curcumin, as it is present in almost all species.
Turmeric and its allied species have many medicinal properties and used
as a complementary and alternative medicine even in developed nations.
The common turmeric (Curcuma longa Lin.) has anti-fungal, anti-
bacterial, anti-viral, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant etc
properties. While C.aromatica is used as cancer preventive and as
toiletry; C. alismatifolia and C. roscoeana are not only of floricultural
importance but antifungal also. C. amada and Curcuma zeodaria are
used in culinary preparations, as appetizer & laxative. These are also
used in unani and ayurvedic medicines extensively. C.pseudomonata and
C.anguistifolia in arrow root industry. (The wealth of India-Dictionary
1950; Willis 1973)
CHAPTER 2 : REVIEW OF LITERATURE
22
HISTORY OF TURMERIC (CURCUMA LONGA L.)
Turmeric has a great scientific and cultural history. It is
acknowledged that turmeric is in use since 5,000 years ago. Its uses are
admitted centuries before the modern medicine appeared. This herb of
zingiberaceae family is cultivated mostly in south-east Asia, extensively
in India.
The exact origin of turmeric in India is not known but is
considered to be originated in parts of Western and Southern India. It
has its mention in Ayurveda, which is considered to be written in Vedic
period (Maharishi Charak: Sharma PV 1981). From India it reached
China in 700 A.D. then to East Africa 800 A.D., West Africa by 1200 A.D.
and then spread through the world for its uses. The Arab traders are
considered to have taken it to Europe and it is also assumed that it
reached Europe via silk route through India. Since its historical
conception to nature it had a great importance in Indian and Buddhist
rituals and ceremonies. It was reportedly introduced into Jamiaca by Mr.
Edward in 1783, where it became naturalized (Winternitz M et al. 1981).
23
TAXONOMY OF CURCUMA LONGA L.
Genus Curcuma was established by Linnaeus (1737). Hooker (1878)
described Curcuma species in British India. Curcuma longa was
described by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Recently the
typification was recorded at nomenclature no. 12676 updated on 12
May 2008. (Germplasm resource information network 2012)
Scientific Classification Description
Kingdom Plantae Plants
Sub-kingdom Trachiobionta Vascular plants.
Super Division Spermatophyte Seed plants
Division Magnoliophyta Flowering plants
Class Liliopsida Monocotyledon
Sub-class Zingiberidae
Order Zingiberales
Family Zingiberaceae Ginger Family
Genus Curcuma Curcuma
Species Curcuma longa Common Turmeric
(Wikipedia- the free encyclopedia 2010)
East Jawa, Indonesia, India is arguably the centre of origin of
turmeric but these are certainly the most important centres of diversity
(Triem H 1888; Valeton T 1918; Parasher KK et al. 1995).
Renaming of Curcuma longa Linn. to Curcuma domestica val.
which has occurred since a long time in systematic botany has not been
established in pharmaceutical references till now or in any official
pharmaceutical book on nomenclature of turmeric (Jentzsch K 1954).
24
BOTANY OF PLANT-TURMERIC (CURCUMA LONGA L.)
Curcuma longa Linn. (Turmeric) is probably the triploid (sterile)
species developed from the selection and vegetative propagation
between the wild diploid species Curcuma aromatica Salisb. (Native of
India and Srilanka) and other closely related tetraploid species of
Curcuma.
Turmeric is short, stout, erect perennial herb usually cultivated as
an annual cultivar. The fleshy rhizome at the base of each aerial stem is
ellipsoidal, 5-8 cm x 1.5-2.5 cm, rings with the bases of old scale leaves
present at each node. At maturity the mother rhizome bears many
straight or slightly curved lateral rhizomes called as fingers, 5-10 cm x
1-2 cm size, which again branches at right angles finally forming a dense
clump with the roots. The roots are filiform, fleshy, tough, penetrating to
depth and often ending in a small oblong tuber 2-4 cm x 1-2 cm.
The erect leafy short plant goes to a height nearly 1 m with 8-10
alternate distichous leaves, surrounded by bladeless sheaths forming a
pseudostem. Flowers are autumnal spikes, 10-15 cm long and peduncle
15 cm or more, concealed by the sheathing petiole. The thin petiole
0.5-1.00 cm with narrow erect wings is rather abruptly broadened to the
sheaths. The ligule is about 1 mm. The leaf blade is oblong-lanceolate 7-
70 cm x 3-20 cm, with base connate and apex acute. Leaf colour is dark
green & below very light green, covered with pellucid dots (Holttum RE
1974; Weiss EA 2002).
25
Table No 2
TURMERIC RHIZOME- Nutritional Value per 100 gram
Energy - 335.0K Cal or 1340 KJ.
Water 14.2 gm.
Protein 2.3 gm.
Fat 5.0 gm
Carbohydrate 70.1 gm
Fibre 03.02 gm
Ash 5.2 gm
Ca(Calcium) 146.0 mg.
Fe (Iron) 18.6 mg.
Na (Sodium) 32.0 mg.
Carotenes 67.0 g
Retinal equivalents
11.0 g
Vitamin B1 0.03 mg.
B2 (Vitamin) 0.12 mg.
Niacin 2.3 mg.
(Indianet zone- encyclopedia on India 2008)
26
BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF CURCUMA LONGA L.
The Curcuma longa constituents can be roughly classified into
polar/polymeric components, i.e. 30-40% starch, sugars &
polysaccharides & some traces of interesting sulfur containing proteins,
the semi-polar components are curcuminoids and the lipophilic volatile
oils.
The active constituents are basically divided to phenyl propanoids,
Glycans, monoterpene including oxygenated monoterpenes &
Sesquiterpenes.
PHNEYL PROPANOIDS
These are C6H3 compounds made up of benzene ring with a three
carbon-side chain. The most important are ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid
etc.
They are derived from different stages of the Shikmic acid
pathway. These acids are of much therapeutic use and are non-toxic.
They may also occur as glycosides.
Modification of the side chain of these acids leads to formation of
alcohols like coniferyl alcohol which acts as precursors of lignins.
Curcumin, the main active principle phenylpropanoid, is present as
2-5% dry weight in the rhizome. Curcumenone, curlone, bisdesmethoxy
curcumin, bis-(parahydroxy- cinnamoyl) methane, L-a - curcumene,
cyclocurcumin, curcumenol, curdione, curzereone, dehydroturmerone,
dihydro curcumin, eugenol, turmerone, turmenonol and other are also
present.
TERPENOIDS:
The terpenoids or isoterpenoids are characterised by their
biosynthetic origin from isopentenyl or isoprene units joined head to tail
fashion. They are broadly lipophilic properties. Typical structure contain
carbon skeletons represented by (C5)n and are classified as
hemiterpenes (C5), monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15),
27
Diterpenes (C20), Triterpenes (C30) and tetra terpenes (C40).
Modification in monoterpene's six-membered ring can take place to give
essentially monoterpene variants e.g. zingiberene and
-Sesquiphellandrene. Sesiquiterpene in general will be less volatile than
monoterpene.
Monoterpenes:
Major monoterpenes are a - phellandrene, 1,8-cineole, P-cymene,
-pinene, Y-terpinene, terpinolene, -pinene, camphene, myrcene,
camphor and limonene.
Sesquiterpenes:
-Zingiberene, bisabolol, germacrone, sabinene, caryophyllene,
-turmerene, - Bisabolene, V-curcumene, V-sesquiphellandrene,
ar-curcumene and ar-tuemerone.
GLYCANS:
Ukonan, A, B, C and D. (Dewick Paul 2001)
Survey of literature reveals that phytochemical composition of
C.longa has been studied in details. Various authors throughout the
world has analysed C.longa and other species of Curcuma in detail.
32
Table indicating chemicals present in different plant parts of
Curcuma longa L.
TABLE-4
PHYTOCHEMICAL PRESENT PART OF PLANT
1,8-Cineole : Rhizome
4-Hydroxy-Cinnamoyl-(Feruloyl)-Methane
: Rhizome
Alpha-Pinene(Essential oil) Leaves & Rhizome
Ar-Turmerone : Rhizome
Arabinose : Rhizome
Ascorbic Acid : Rhizome
Ash : Rhizome
Beta-Pinene(Essential oil) : Leaves & Rhizome
Bis-(Para-Hydroxy-Cinnamoyl)- Methane
: Rhizome
Bis-Desmethoxy Curcumin : Rhizome
Boron : Root
Iron : Rhizome
Chromium : Rhizome
Cobalt : Rhizome
Copper : Rhizome
Manganese : Rhizome
Nickel : Rhizome
Phosphorus : Rhizome
Potassium : Rhizome
Calcium : Rhizome
Sodium : Rhizome
33
Carbohydrates : Rhizome
Carbohydrates : Rhizome
Cineole(Essential oil) : Leaves & Rhizome
Curcumene(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome
Linalool(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome
Niacin : Rhizome
P-coumaric-Acid : Rhizome
P-Methoxycinnamic Acid : Rhizome
P-Tolymethyl carbinol : Rhizome
Protein : Rhizome
Riboflavin : Rhizome
Terpinene(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome
Thiamin : Rhizome
Terpineol(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome
Turmerone : Rhizome
Ukonan-A : Rhizome
Ukonan-B : Rhizome
Ukonan-C : Rhizome
Water : Rhizome
Zinc : Rhizome
Zingiberene : Rhizome
Curcumenol(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome
Curcumin : Rhizome
Curdione(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome
Curlone : Rhizome
Cyclo-Isoprenemyrcene : Rhizome
D-alpha Phellandrene : Rhizome
D-Camphene : Rhizome
34
D-Camphor : Rhizome
D-Sabinene : Rhizome
Des-methoxy curcumin : Rhizome
Di hydro Curcumin : Rhizome
Eugenol(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome
Fat : Rhizome
Fibre : Rhizome
Fructose : Rhizome
Glucose : Rhizome
Isoborneol : Rhizome
L-alpha-curcumene : Rhizome
L-Beta-curcumene : Rhizome
Limonene(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome
35
PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF CURCUMA LONGA LIN.
Coniferyl alcohol p-coumaric acid
Curcumin
Curlone
42
Sabinene Caryophyllene
ar-turmerone
(Srimal RC 1987; J Bauer et al. 1994; Mohameed SM et al. 2002;
Quirin KW 2002; QB Liu et al. 2004; VK Raina et al. 2005; Nakamura
S et al. 2008; Raj G et al. 2008; Mishra P 2009)
43
Manufacturing and physico-chemical properties of Curcumin
Curcumin is the yellow product obtained by solvent extraction,
purification of the extract and crystallization of ground rhizomes of
Curcuma longa L.
Different solvents used for extraction and purification of Curcumin
from Curcuma longa rhizomes are
1. Acetone- Used in manufacturing process for bulk production.
2. Methanol- This solvent is used occasionally as a processing aid for
purification.
3. Ethyl acetate- Owing to its polarity it is a reasonable solvent
providing acceptable quality of product and commercially viable
yields.
4. Carbon di oxide- This is not currently used in commercial
production. However, it is listed as EC Directive 95/45/EC and has
potential as a substitute for chlorinated solvents.
5. Isopropanol- In the curcumin manufacturing process isopropyl
alcohol is used as a processing for purifying Curcumin.
6. Ethanol- This solvent is used sparingly because Curcumin is
completely soluble in ethanol.
Molecular Formula - C21 H20O6
Molar Mass - 368.3 g/mol
Appearance - Bright yellow orange powder
Melting Point - 1830C (3610F)
44
pH -
Curcumin relatively stable at acidic pH but it rapidly decomposes at
pH above neutral. It is not suitable as a coloring agent in aqueous
solutions of pH greater than 7.
Solubility-
Curcumin is an oil soluble pigment, practically insoluble in water at
acidic and neutral pH, soluble in alkali. It is stable at high
temperatures and in acids, but unstable in alkaline conditions and in
presence of light. Preparation of water-soluble Curcumin by
incorporation into various surfactant micellar systems (e.g. - Sodium
dodecyl sulfate, cetylpyridinium bromide, gelatine, polysaccharides,
polyethylenglycol, cyclodextrins) have been reported (Humphrey
1980; Tonnesen 2002).
Isomerism-
In solutions curcumin exhibits Keto-enol tautomerism and, depending
on the solvent up to 95% enol form (Kolev et al. 2005; Wikipedida-
the free encyclopedia 2010).
45
TURMERIC PRODUCTION
Turmeric is grown in many parts of world like Indonesia, Ceylon,
the East Indies, parts of China and India etc. But, India is the largest
producer of turmeric in the world, with an average of 1.73 lakh hectares
of land cultivated each year. As estimated, India produces 8.55 lakh tons
of turmeric per year, almost 80% of the total annual world production.
On an average 20% of the turmeric produced in India is exported,
primarily to Middle Eastern countries but also to West Europe and
America. However, major production of turmeric is consumed internally.
Andhra Pradesh tops the state list in both cultivated land area and
average of turmeric production.
India accounts for about 80% of world turmeric production and
60% of world exports (Yanai T 1998).
Data for production and export are summarized in following
table no. 5 to 7.
46
Table No 5
INDIAN PRODUCTION OF TURMERIC
Year Area (Hectare) Production (MT)
1997-1998 139,700 549,220
1998-1999 160,700 597,900
1999-2000 161,300 653,600
2000-2001 187,431 719,609
2001-2002 162,950 552,300
2002-2003 149,710 525,740
2003-2004 150,730 565,470
2004-2005 158,060 715,360
2005-06 173,005 855,763
(Spices Board of India, Indiaagristat.com 2001)
47
Table No 6
STATEWISE PRODUCTION OF TURMERIC IN INDIA
(Year 2005-2006)
State AREA
PRODUCTION
Area (Ha) % Share Production
(MT)
% Share
Andhra Pradesh 69,990 40.46 518,550 60.60
Tamil Nadu 25,970 15.01 143,358 16.75
Orissa 24,020 13.88 57,090 6.67
West Bengal 11,844 6.85 25,049 2.93
Gujarat 1,400 0.81 16,510 1.93
Karnataka 5,410 3.13 26,380 3.08
Maharashtra 6,760 3.91 8,427 0.98
Assam 11,700 6.76 8,400 0.98
Others 15,911 9.20 51,999 6.08
Total 173,005 100.00 855,763 100.00
Source: Spices Board of India, Indiaagristat.com 2001
48
Table No 7
INDIAN EXPORTS OF TURMERIC TO DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
(Year 2005-2006)
Country Quantity (MT) Value (Rs. lakh) % Share
U.A.E. 5,020.75 1,511.62 18.35
U.S.A. 3,128.99 1,039.31 11.44
Bangladesh 2,807.01 614.41 10.26
Japan 2,373.99 1,104.27 6.68
Srilanka 1,611.02 351.01 5.89
Malaysia 1,555.86 680.12 5.68
U.K. 1,491.42 634.68 5.45
South Africa 984.03 413.94 3.59
Netherlands 900.05 360.62 3.29
Saudi Arabia 735.02 235.06 2.68
Morocco 597.24 179.55 2.18
Egypt (A.R.E.) 543.64 233.06 1.98
Others 5,610.00 2,230.43 20.51
Total 27,359.13 9,588.08 100.00
Source: Spices board of India, Indiaagristat.com 2001.
49
CONVENTIONAL CULTIVATION OF TURMERIC (C. LONGA L.)
Curcuma longa has its place as a drug, spice, condiment, colorant,
and cosmetics in various parts of world. Its bio-active components lead
to its importance in above mentioned fields. Though being native of
South Asia (probably India) it is cultivated in various other parts of world
from high altitudes to plains. These days its improved varieties are
cultivated. Various phytoclones of turmeric are also gaining position in
experimental and household used turmeric.
Turmeric requires warm and wet conditions. It grows well in sub-
tropical and tropical regions ranging from plains (area at sea level) to
Himalayas (1200 meters above sea level). Turmeric requires a good
rainfall or proper irrigation facilities for 100-120 days of plantation.
Cultivation has been extended in areas with over 2000 mm rainfall.
Optimum temperature ranges from 30-350C during sprouting, 25-300C
during tillering, 20-250C during rhizome initiation and 18-200C during the
pulking stage. Turmeric is grown in various soil types but the best suited
is the well-drained loamy or clay-loam soil with good organic matter and
pH 5-7.5. As a shade loving plant, it does well in partial shade and can
be grown under fruit trees (Annamala SJK 1994; Ce de Guzman &
Siemonsa JS 1999; Burkill HM 2000).
PROPAGATION AND PLANTING :
Turmeric is propagated vegetatively by rhizome. Mother rhizome
(bulbs), whole or cut into pieces, and daughter rhizomes (fingers) are
generally used. Mother rhizome is better than fingers to be used as
seeds. But it is also stated that the finger rhizomes are more tolerant of
wet soil conditions and can be planted at a lower seed rate. Curcuma
longa seed (rhizome) preferred for plantation should be 8, 12 or 16 cm
long.
The field should be well prepared by ploughing or digging and
turning over to a depth of about 30 cm, to provide a good tilth. Large
quantities of organic manure (farm yard manure, oilseed, cake, green
50
leaves) are usually applied. Turmeric is generally planted by one of two
methods-the flat-bed method or the ridge and furrow method.
The flat-bed method is generally better, but in sites with
excessive or deficient moisture the ridge and furrow method is superior,
facilitating drainage and irrigation. Ridges should be 20-25 cm high and
45-50 cm wide and the rhizomes planted at a distance of 30-40 cm, at
the depth of 7.5 cm. If turmeric is intercropped, spacing is adjusted
accordingly. A spacing of 45cmx15cm reported a high yield of turmeric
(Upadhayaya SK et al. 2000; Wakhare et al. 2007). Planting time depend
on plant material, cultivar and agro-climatic conditions. Plantlet
formation occurred throughout year else then the usual dormancy period
of field-grown plants.
Mixed Cropping:
Turmeric can be grown as an inter crop with chillies, colocasia,
onion, brinjal and cereals like maize, ragi, etc.
Manuring and Fertilizer Application:
Farm yard manure (FYM) or compost @ 30-40 t/ha is applied by
broadcasting and ploughed at the time of preparation of land or as basal
dressing by spreading over the beds or into the pits at the time of
planting. For better growth Zinc @ 5 kg/ha may also be applied at the
time of planting and organic manures like oil cakes can also be used @ 2
t/ha. In such case the dosage of FYM can be reduced and integrated
application of compost @ 2.5 t/ha combined with FYM, biofertilizer
(AzoSpirillum) and half recommended dose of NPK may also be given.
Total nitrogen 40 kg, phosphorus and potash 80 kg each, per hectare is
also required.
Mulching: The crop is mulched immediately after plant with green leave
appear, at the rate 12-15 t/ha. Mulching may be repeated @ 7.5 t/ha at
45 and 90 days after weeding, application of fertilizer and earthing up.
51
HARVESTING AND CURING:
The crop is ready to harvest in 7-10 months depending upon the
cultivar and time of sowing. The aromatic type matures at 7 months time
while longa type matures at 9 months time. The intermediates mature
between 7-9 months. The harvest is carried out in January to March. The
marketing is done in months February to May.
The leaves become dry and brown after maturity of crop and the
cracks in the field signifies a good yield of the crops. Height of the crop is
1.5 - 2 meters after complete growth.
The land is ploughed and rhizomes are carefully lifted with spade.
The harvested rhizome is cleaned of the mud and any other extraneous
matter fixed to them. This is then boiled for in water and allowed to dry
under sun for 10-15 days. During boiling farmers add Sajji or sodium
bicarbonate which helps in deepening of colour. The mother rhizomes
and fingers are allowed to dry separately. The rounds take much time for
drying than fingers. The dried rhizomes are hard and stiff. The dried
rhizomes are spread over the floor and rubbed against floor or the
rhizomes are trampled under feet covered with pieces of gunny bags.
Then, the scales and roots removed are separated by winnowing.
Rhizome for seed are leaped under trees or placed in a well
ventilated store room and covered with turmeric leaves. They are then
used for further plantation in sowing period (Annamal SJK 1994;
Upadhayaya SK et al. 2000).
52
Modern scenario of Curcuma cultivation
In India Curcuma is cultivated mostly in southern and eastern
states. Recently due to high demand by the pharmaceutical companies
for the manufacture of curcuminoids and resinoids market value has
gone up and moreover due to this high demand of unfinished turmeric
farmers of UP, Punjab and Haryana has also begin to take interest in its
cultivation.
In western UP an important variety Vallabh Priya has been
developed and described by scientists of Sardar vallabh Bhai Patel
University with a gross yield of 279.50 Q/ha with oil content of 0.38%.
This is disease free and mature in 250-260 days. Detailed phytochemical
studies have not been done on this variety (Singh B et al. 2007).
Some significant work has been done in Karnataka at University of
Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. They have performed nutritional trials on
yield and quality parameters. They have also studied physiological basis
of yield variation. Study of macro as well as micro nutrients have been
made after soil application and foliar application of macro and micro
nutrients (Jirali DI et al. 2007; Jirali DI et al. 2008; Jirali DI et al.(a)
2008; Nawalagathi CM et al. 2008).
In Tamil Nadu studies on processing was made at Annamalai
University.
In Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology at Gunupur
studies were made on soil application of NPK ratio and mulching near
maturity, mulching resulted in high yield (Swain SC et al. 2007).
In Maharashtra work has been done at National bureau of soil
survey and land use planning at Nagpur (Prasad J et al. 2007).
At Dr Punjab Rao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola,
Maharashtra, cultivation of six varieties were studied for performance
(Pirijade FN et al. 2007).
53
At agricultural research station, Digraj district Sangli, experiments
were performed on method of planting and spacing (Wakhare AV et al.
2007).
It is evident that there is need of research work on the method of
cultivation even in the states where turmeric is an important crop. The
effect of micronutrients and phytochemical associates on gross &
phytochemical yield was not studied.
In northern states turmeric is cultivated mostly as intercrop in the
orchard, also with the social forestry trees. There is no qualitative and
quantitative study on the gross yield and phytochemicals variations.
54
DISEASES AND PESTS
Leaf Spot:
Caused by - Taphrina malucans.
Characterized by appearance of spots on both surfaces of leaves,
1-2 mm in diameter. The leaves turn red-browinsh with infestation of
disease and dries out. It can be controlled with Bordeaux mixture, ethion
and zineb. Disease resistant cultivars are also available.
Leaf Blotch:
Caused by - Collectotrichum Capsici.
Spots of size range 4-5 cm x 3 cm occur and frequently coalescing
over most of the leaf, which then dries up. In severe condition most
leaves dry out leading a scratch appearance to plant. Some times yield is
reduced to 50%. It can be prevented by spraying a mixture of Bordeaux
prior to disease infestation. Captan and Zineb spraying on monthly
intervals would also control the disease. Planting should be done from a
disease free seed and must be treated with fungicide before planting.
Excess shade and intercropping favours disease.
Rhizome rot-
Caused by - Phythium aphanidermatum.
Leaves of the plant dries up and the diseases passes to stem
which shows water soaked soft lesions. In severe condition it passes to
rhizome which colour changes from orange yellow to Brown and yield is
highly reduced. One of the effective methods is eradication and burning
of infected plants. Treating the planting material with a fungicide helps
preventing the disease. In severe condition it is advisable to disinfect the
field with an authorized fungicide e.g. metalaxyl and manoze. Some
cultivar, like Suvarna in India, shows field tolerance.
55
PESTS:
Shoot borer - Conogethes punctiferalis (synonym- Dischocrocis
punctiferalis).
It attack the central shoot and lead to its death (dead heart).
Monthly spraying with Malathion controls the insect.
Hersperiid catepillar/grass demon - Udaspes folus.
It is a serious foliage feeding insect in some varieties. Spray of
Carbaryl, dimethoate or phosphamidon is recommended for its control.
Sucking insect - Aspidiella hartii.
In Africa and the South pacific the scale insect is a sucking insect
infesting rhizomes while still in the field. It multiplies on fresh rhizomes
being kept for seed. The infested rhizome ultimately desiccates. Dipping
the seed rhizome in phosalone, monocrotophos or quinalphos helps
control disease effectively.
Tinged bug - Stephanotis typical.
Causes leaf discoloration by sucking the sap. Thrips also suck the
leaves, which then roll up, turn pale and gradually dry up.
Nematodes recorded in trumeric include root-knot nematode,
Meloidogyne incognita and burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis
(Purseglove JW 1972; Abdul Kader 1994).
56
ADULTERATIONS AND SUBSTITUTES
In India adulteration of turmeric is an issue especially in powdered
turmeric in local market. It is usually adulterated with lead chromate,
clay, sand and cheap talc. However, in International market the
adulteration problem is for the Curcumin content in various varieties.
Usually Curcuma longa is substituted with C.aromatica or C.zedoaria
since they also contain Curcumin, but in low quantity. Nevertheless they
can be identified with the presence of camphor and camphene as a part
of essential oil, Curcuma longa essential oil actually lacking them.
Moreover turmeric varieties which are not rich in gross yield and are
poor in phytochemicals are also mixed (Purseglove JW et al. 1981).
57
USES OF TURMERIC
Turmeric, as a medicinal plant and spice is used since primitive
times. Turmeric has part in Ayurveda, Siddha, Chinese, Unani and other
traditional medicinal therapies of different countries and civilizations. It is
extensively used as a medicine, spice and colouring agent in many
South-East Asian countries like India and China. Chinese traditional
drugs of Chinese materica medica (Zhongyao) are used by doctors of
Chinese traditional medicines. About 500 items or plants are generally
used in Chinese traditional medicine of which Panax schizseng,
Glycyerhiza uralensis and Curcuma species have a special place.
Aryurveda (the science of life), a traditional medicinal system
native to India is used in other countries as a complementary and
alternative medicine system. Turmeric has a special place in this system
of remedy for 5000 years. Now special emphasis has been laid on
pharmacological effect of turmeric, using modern techniques throughout
the world. A bioactive component Curcumin has been found to be very
effective against various diseases.
SPIRITUAL USE OF TURMERIC
Yellow and Yellow-Orange are colours with sacred and auspicious
connotations in the Indian Sub-continent. Turmeric is important in Hindu
and Buddhist ceremonies.
Symbolism:
Turmeric is associated with prosperity and fertility. It brings good
before wedding.
Turmeric roots are presented as an auspicious and loving in
several occasions like visiting a pregnant woman. Turmeric powder is
also sprinkled on sacred images.
58
In Himalayan region dried roots are used in many religious
practices and its powder is used as pithiya (for tilaka).
Yellow and orange are both special colours in Hinduism, yellow
being associated with Vishnu, and as the colour of the space between
Chastity and sensuality. Orange signifies sacrifice and renunciation and
courage. Originally associated with the sun and as a part of solar
symbolism, the colours were absorbed into the mythology of India
(Hinduism).
It is best described even in the texts of Vajrayana Buddhism. In
Buddhism yellow is the colour of the Bodhisattva Ratna Sambhava.
Turmeric paste is also anointed over the idols as a mark of
veneration, especially in South-Indian temples. This is respectfully
abbreviated as "Manjal Kappu".
CULINARY USE
Turmeric is well known among Malaysian community and has been
used since hundreds of years for many purposes in India as well. The
Malaya and Indians use the rhizome as a condiment in cooking to add
fragrance and a yellow colour in their dishes. The spice ingredient for
curry contains approximately 20-30% of turmeric.
The young rhizome of turmeric are sliced and eaten fresh as ulam
dipped in sambal belacon. Some times the young shoots and flowers are
also used as ulam. The young leaves of turmeric are used for much
purpose such as making rendang and also in wrapping fish before
steaming or baking. In India, turmeric is used mostly all the dishes
whether a gravy containing or a dry dish.
The rhizome is used as a colouring agent in the food industry for
processed food, sauces and confectionery. Turmeric is also used to
protect food products from sun light.
59
EXTERNAL USES OF TURMERIC (HOME REMEDY HALDI)
1. Juice of the fresh rhizome is applied to fresh wounds, bruises and
leech bites.
2. Mixed with gingerly oil, it is applied to the body to prevent skin
eruptions.
3. Turmeric paste mixed with a title lime and saltpetre and applied
hot as a popular application to sprains, bruises, wounds and
inflammatory trouble of the joints.
4. In small pox and chicken pox a thin paste of turmeric or turmeric
powder is applied to facilitate the process of curing scabbing.
5. An ointment of turmeric leaves, hemp leaves, onions, and warm
mustard or linseed oil provides a cure for piles, especially when
they are painful and protruding.
6. A turmeric-soaked rag piece when placed over effective eye
relieves pain and further complication.
7. In Coryza, the inhalation of fumes of burning turmeric through
nasals provides instant relief and leads to copious mucous
discharge through nose.
8. Decoction of turmeric (1 part of bruised root and 20 parts of water
is applied as a lotion to sooth burning Catarrhal (countrysoreEye)
and Purulent ophthalmic (Nandkarni AK 1976; Khanna NK 1999).
60
TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USES IN THE WORLD
Arabic Countries - Hot water extracts of dried rhizome is taken
orally and in the form of pessary in unique medicine, as an abortifacien
(Ross A Ivan 2003).
Brazil - Dried rhizome is used to protect against snake bite
(Qureshi et al. 1992).
China - Hot water extract of dried tuber is taken orally in
traditional medicine to improve circulation and to dissolve blood clots
(Reddy et al. 2000).
Oils of dried fruit, Saussurea lappa, Sansevieria roxburghiana &
Rubia cordifolia are mixed with salt, butter milk and rice and massaged
on to patients during fever. The mixture is also taken orally for cough.
Essential oil of dried fruits is taken orally to bring unconscious patients to
consciousness, mixed with honey and leaf of patola (Ross A Ivan 2003).
Cooks Island - For urinary tract problem decoction of fresh
rhizome is taken. Grated rhizome of Curcuma longa with leaves of
Occimum bacilium or dry skin of Pandanus tectorius fruit are also used
externally. Grated rhizome of turmeric is applied for punctured wounds.
A mixture is drunk for treatment of urinary infection and consists of 2
roots of turmeric with 12 leaves and a piece of Syzygium malaccensis
squeezed into juice of coconut oil or castor oil (Holds worth 1990).
England - For amenorrhea, dried rhizome together with C.
aromatica, licorice, sulfur and ferrous sulfate is taken as remedy.
Fiji - Poultice of dried rhizome and boiled rice is applied for
sprains, bruises and aching wounds. Used for ophthalmic diseases as
well.
Haiti - Dried rhizome extract is taken to treat liver ailments
(Joynex M et al. 1986).
61
Hawaii - Hot water extract of turmeric is used for asthma and
urinary Calculi (Hope BE 1993).
India - Turmeric has following Ayurvedic properties.
Rasa - Tikka (bitter), Katu (Pungent)
Guna - Laghu (right), ruksha (dry)
Veerya - Ushma (hot)
Vipaka - Katu (Pungent)
Dosha - Balances Tridosh (Mahrishi Charak)
Fresh rhizome, ground with cow milk and castor oil is applied
externally to treat paronychia (Reddy et al. 2000).Two to five ml of fresh
juice is taken orally for treating and preventing stomach disorders.
Hot extract is taken for slow lactation (to regulate metabolism).
Used as a tonic, carminative diseases like dropsy, diabetes and
diarrohea etc. It is also used to facilitate the scabbing process in Chicken
pox and Small pox (Hope BE et al. 1993).
62
Table No 8
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF TURMERIC AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Compound/ Extract Biological activities Reference
Turmeric Powder Wound healing Gujral ML et al. 1953 ;Khanna NK,1999
Ethanol extract Anti-inflammatory
Anti- tumor
Anti Protozoan
Kuttan R et al. 1985;
Dhar ML et al. 1968
Petroleum ether extract Anti-inflammatory
Anti- fertility
Arora RB et al. 1971;
Garg SK 1974
Alcoholic extract Anti-bacterial Bhavanishankar et al. 1979
Chloroform extract Anti-fungal Lutomski J et al. 1974
Aqueous extract Anti- fertility Liao S et al. 2001
Volatile Oil Anti- inflammatory
Anti-fungal
Anti- bacterial
Yegnanarayana R et al. 1976;
Lutomski J et al. 1974
Bhavanishankar TN 1979
Curcumin Anti - bacterial
Anti - viral
Lutomski J et al. 1974; Kumar S et al. 2001
63
Hypolipemic
Anti-Oxidant
Anti Coagulant
Anti- rehumatic
Anti- carcinogenic
Anti- fibrotic
Anti- fertility
Gastro-protectant
Majumdar A et al.1995; Mazumdar A et al. 1997
Rao DS et al. 1970;
Ruby AJ et al. 1971; Unnikrishanan MK et al. 1995;
Srivastava R et al. 1985; Srivastava R et al. 1986
Deodhar SD 1982
Chen HW et al. 1998;Arbriser JL et al.1989;
Egan ME et al. 2004
Laio S et al. 2001;
Lee CJ et al. 2003
Ar-turmerone Anti-venom Ferreria L et al. 1992
Methyl Curcumin Anti-protozoan Gomes Dde C et al. 2002
Demethoxy curcumin Antioxidant Frankel EN 1998
Bisdemethoxycurcumin Antioxidant Frankel EN et al.1998
64
Bio-piracy :
In December 1993, the University of Missicipi Medical Centre had
a patent issued to them by United States Patent and Trademark Office
on the use of turmeric for healing. The patent was contested by India's
individual industrial research organization Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (C.S.I.R.) on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic
practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the
substance and had used for centuries, making this patent a case of
bio-piracy (TWN- the third world network 2010).
65
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTION OF CURCUMIN AND OTHER
EXTRACTS OF CURCUMA LONGA
EFFECT ON GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
STOMACH:
Turmeric Powder has positive effect on stomach. It increases
mucin secretion in rabbit irritants. However, controversy exists regarding
antiulcer activity of curcumin. Both antiulcer and ulcerogenic effects of
curcumin have been reported but detailed studies are lacking (Prasad DN
et al. 1996; Gupta B et al. 1998). Curcumin has been shown to protect
the stomach from ulcerogenic effects of phenylbutazone in giunea pigs at
50 mg/kg dose (Das gupta SR et al. 1969; Sinha M et al. 1974;
Chattopadhayay 2004). Recent studies in laboratories indicate that
Curcumin can block indomethacin, ethanol and stress-induced gastric
ulcer and can also prevent pylorus ligation induced acid secretion in rats.
The anti ulcer effect is mediated by scavenging of reactive oxygen
species by Curcumin.
INTESTINE:
Curcumin has some good effects on the intestine also
antispasmodic activity of sodium curcuminate was observed in isolated
guinea pig ileum. Hikino H observed that - Antiflatulent activity was also
observed in both in vivo and in vitro experiments in rats. It is also
observed that Curcumin also enhances intestinal lipase, sucrase and
maltase activity (Songs EK et al. 2001).
66
LIVER:
Curcumin and its analogues have protective activity in cultured rat
hepatocytes against carbon tetrachloride, D-galactosamine, peroxide and
ionophore-induced toxicity (Kang Hee-Chul et al. 2002; Shukla Y and
Arora A 2003). Curcumin also protects against diethylnitrosamine and 2-
acetylamino flourine induced altered hepatic foci development (Jentzsch
K et al. 1959). Increased bile production was reported in dogs by both
curcumin and essential oils of Curcuma longa (Platel K Srinivasan K
1995; Ozaki Y & Liang OB 1998; PLatel K & Srivastavan K 2000).
PANCREAS:
1-phenyl-1-hydroxy-n-pentane, a synthetic derivative of P-
tolylmethyl carbinol (an ingredient of Curcuma longa) increases the
activity of pancreatic lipase, amylase, trypsin and chymotrypsin (Platel K
et al. 2000).
EFFECT ON CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM:
Curcumin improves Ca2+ transport & it's slipage from the cardiac
muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum thereof raising the pharmacological
intervention that correct the defective Ca2+ homeostasis in the cardiac
muscle (Vijragupta O et al. 2003).
EFFECT ON NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Curcumin and manganese complex acts protective against
vascular dementia by being anti-oxidation (Krishanan A 2001;
Thiyagarajan M & Sharma SS 2004).
EFFECT ON LIPID METABOLISM:
Curcumin reduces low density lipoproteins (LDL) and very low
density lipoproteins in plasma and cholesterol level in liver, alongwith
increasing - tocopherol level in rat plasma, suggesting in vivo interaction
between Curcumin and tocopherol that increases bio-availability of
vitamin E and decreases cholesterol levels (Kamal-Eldin A et al. 2000).
67
The increase in fatty acid content after ethanol-induced liver damage is
significantly decreased by Curcumin treatment and arachidonic level is
increased (Krishna A & Menon VR 2001).
ANTI-INFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY:
Curcumin is effective against carragenin-induced oedema in rats.
The natural analogues of Curcumin viz. Feruloyl-(4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl)-
methane (FHM) and (bis-(4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl)-methane) (BHM) are
also potent anti-inflammatory. The volatile oil & also the petroleum
ether, alcohol and water extract Curcuma longa show anti inflammatory
effects (Ghatak N & Basu N 1972). The anti-rheumatic activity of
Curcumin is established as the oral administration of Curcumin helped
proved symptomatic rheumatism in patients (Sharma OP 1976).
ANTI-OXIDANT EFFECT:
The anti-oxidant activity of Curcumin was reported as early as
1975. It acts as a scavenger of oxygen free radicals (Subramanian M et
al. 1994; Sharma OP 1976). It can protect haemoglobin from oxidation
(Frankel EN 1998). In Vitro, Curcumin can significantly inhabit the
generation of reaction oxygen species (ROS) like super oxide anions,
H2O3 and nitrite radical generation by activated macrophages, which
play an important role in inflammation. Curcumin also lowers the
production of ROS in Vivo. The anti-oxidant mechanism of Curcumin is
attributed to its unique conjugated structure, which includes two
methoxylated phenols and end form of -diketone; the structure shows
typical radical trapping ability as a chain-breaking antioxidant. Generally,
the non-enzymatic antioxidant process of phenolic material is thought to
be medicated through several stages (Barclay LR 2000; Sun YM et al.
2002).
68
ANTI-CARCINOGENIC EFFECT:
Induction of Apoptosis and Anti-tumor effect Curcumin acts as an
important and active anticarcinogenic. Among various mechanisms
apoptosis is one major way of being anti-carcinogenic. It induces
apoptosis and cell cyle inhibition to present cell maturation and cell
proliferation (Purseglove JW 1972; Purseglove JW 1976). Recently it was
studied that SW480 cells were transfect or with hsp 70c DNA sense and
antisense orientation and effect of Curcumin on affected cells were
tested Curcumin was ineffective on cells with hsp sense but showed
positive result on cells with antisense hsp and caused apoptosis (Araujo
CCA & Lenon LL 2001).
1. Curcumin inhibits tumorigenesis - there are numerous reports of
chemo-preventive and chemotherapeutic uses of Curcuma.
(Aggarwal BB et al. 2003). Curcumin checks normal cell
transformation into tumor suppressor gene.
2. Curcumin checks proliferation of the tumor cells by effecting
oncogenes HER-2, growth factor receptors and decoy receptors. It
also has inhibitory effects on cyclin D1 (Slamon DJ 1987; Chen H
et al. 1999).
3. Curcumin also induces apoptosis by up regulation of caspase 3
and down regulation of expression of NF-kB (Pahl Hl 1999;
Baldwin AS 2001; Bava SV et al. 2005; Siwak DR et al. 2005;
Shishodia S et al. 2005; Gloire G et al. 2006). Due to this function
Curcumin is able to significantly inhibit growth of ovarian cancer.
Curcumin has also proved to be effective in ectodermal skin
carcinoma and breast cancers. Curcumin is also effective in
checking metastasis because it checks expression of various cell
surface adhesion molecules such as intercellular cell adhesion
molecules such as intercellular cell adhesion molecule, vascular
cell adhesion molecule and endothelial cell leukocyte adhesion.
69
These molecules are absolutely critical for metastasis (Kumar A et
al. 1998; Ohene-abukawa 2000). Jaiswal et al. (2002) showed the
cancer sensitivity drug cisplatin causes nephro-toxicity when
supplemented neat, so overdoses are not given. But use of
cisplatin along with Curcumin may reduce the dosage of cisplatin.
Deeb et al. 1994 explored that Curcumin and TNF related
apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) cooperatively act to promote
death of LNCap cells. The Curcumin and TRAIL combined
increased the number of hypodiploid cells and induced DNA
fragmentation in LNCap cells. Curcumin also encounters many cell
proliferation genes which are resisitant to chemotherapy. There
are numerous reports which suggest that Curcumin is also
effective against multiple myeloma (Li WQ et al. 2001; Philips &
Kundee GC 2003; Bharti AC 2003).
4. Down regulation of COX-2 expression-
Over expression of cycloxygenase (COX-2) is associated with wide
variety of cancers including colon (Fourier DB & Gordon G B
2000), Lung (Hida et al. 1998) and breast cancers (Chen H et al.
1999). Several groups have shown that Curcumin down regulates
COX-2 protein expression in many tumor cells mainly through
deactivating NF-k B (Plummer SM 1999; Reddy BS et al. 2000).
5. Inhibition of angiogenesis-
It is known that blood vessel formation is esential for solid tumor
growth and metastasis. Curcumin has been shown to suppress the
formation of human vascular endothelial cells (Singh A K et al.
1996; Arbiser et al. 1998; Chen HW 1998; Folkman J 2001).
Infact various works going on mechanism of curing various types
of cancers and scientists are working on molecular level of mode
of action. Further Curcumin also checks metastasis and have
effect on some very important factors like TNF, chemokineases,
adhesion molecules cycloxygenase-2 and matrix mettoproteases
70
(Kuttan R et al. 1985; Slamon DJ 1987; Haung HC et al. 1992;
Kroutla L et al. 1994; Idaemaro MF et al. 1995; Kuo ML et al.
1996; Ohene-Abukawa Y & Pignatelli M 2000; Haddad JJ et al.
2001; Mukhopadhyaya A et al. 2001; Mukhopadhyaya A et al.
2002; Bharti AC et al. 2003). Turmeric contains Compounds that
blocks or suppresses proliferation of breast carcinoma cell lines in
culture (Mehta K et al. 1997; Ramchandra C 1999). It has been
proved that breast carcinoma cellslines BT 20, SKBR 3 MCF 7,
T47D and ZR 75 -1 are completely inhibited by Curcuma.
Recently, suppression of proliferation of multiple cells has been
demonstrated (Simon A et al. 1998; Perkins S 2003).
6. Curcumin suppresses the expression of MMP 9 and inducible Nitric
oxide synthase (iNOS) (Lin L et al. 1998; Kumar A 1999; Menon
LG et al. 1999; Pan MH et al. 2000; Nelson KK 2003; Jageti GC
2007).
7. Curcumin down regulates cyclin D1 expression. Cyclin D1, a
component subunit of cyclin dependent kinase Cdk 4 and Cdk 6, is
a rate limiting factor in progression of cells. Antiplroliferative
expression of Curcumin may be related to inhibition of CD
expression (Bartkova J et al. 1994; Nishida N et al. 1994; Adeliade
J et al. 1995; Caputi M 1999; Gumbiner LM et al. 1999; Drobnjak
M et al. 2000).
8. Curcumin inhibits proliferation of VSMCs. For cardiac ailments
Curcumin inhibits proliferation of peripheral blood monoclear cells
(PMBC) and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) (Huang H et al.
1992; Chen YR & Tan TH 1998).
9. Curcumin lowers serum level. Soudamini et al. (1992) suggested
that Curcumin significantly lowers the increased peroxidation of
lipids in tissues of liver, lungs, kidneys and brain. Thus Curcumin
helps in condition associated with peroxide-induced injury such as
71
liver damage and arterial disease (Punithavathi D et al. 2000;
Punithavathi D et al. 2003).
INHIBITION OF LDL OXIDATION
Curcumin inhibits oxidation of LDL. Curcumin have lipid lowering
potency in vivo, probably due to alterations in fatty acid metabolism
(Rao DS et al. 1970; Patil TN et al. 1971; Keshavarz K 1976; Quiles JL et
al. 1998; Naidu KA & Thippeyswamy NB 2000; Venketasan P and Rao
MN 2000; Asai 2001).
INHIBITION OF PLATELET AGGREGATION
Platlet aggregation contributes to the pathway resulting to
atherosclerosis. Reports suggest Curcumin inhibits platelet aggregation.
Srivastava et al. (1995) founded that curcumin increased the synthesis
of PGI2 thus could be preferable for patients prone to thrombosis and
requiring anti-arthritic therapy. Cucumin shows anti-coagulant activity by
inhibiting collagen and adrenaline induced platelet aggregation in vitro as
well as in vivo in rats. Curcumin inhibits collagen- and adrenaline-
induced aggregation of cyclin syntheis in rat throracic aorta (Srivastava
KC and Mustafa T 1993).
SUPRESSION OF DIABETES
Babu et al. (1995) found that Curcumin feeding improves the
metabolic status in diabetic conditions, despite no effect on
hyperglycemic status or body weight.
The mechanism by which Curcumin improves this situation is
probably by virtue of its hypo cholestrolemic influence and its antioxidant
properties (Babu PS et al. 1997).
MUSCLE REGENERATION
Curcumin mediated suppression of NF-kB and modulation of NF-kB
is beneficial for muscles repair (Thaloor D et al. 1999).
72
WOUND HEALING PROPERTIES
Pahn et al. (1999) concluded that curcumin possessed inhibitory
capacity against H2O2 induced damage in human keratinocytes and
fibroblasts and this protection may lead to wound healing (Liacini A et al.
2002).
CHECKS GALLSTONES FORMATION:
Curcumin reduces the biliary cholesterol concentration and
apotent antinucleating activity (Hussain MS & Chandrasekhara N 1992;
Hussain MS & Chandrasekhara N 1994).
PROTECTION AGAINST HIV:
Curcumin was a modest inhibitor of HIV-1(IC50=100 micro M) and
HIV-2(IC50= micro M) proteases. Curcumin regulates simple inhibition of
replication of HIV. Abraham SK & Sharma L found Curcumin to be a
potent and selective inhibitor of HIV-ILTR directed gene expression
modifications of the Curcumin structure raised the IC50 value but
complexes with boron lowered it (Sui Z et al. 1993; Mazumdar A et al.
1995; Mazumdar A et al. 1997; Bathelemy S et al. 1998; Kumar A et al.
1999).
PROTECTION
A number of studies have suggested that Curcumin, the
biologically active constituent in turmeric, protects against A
disease by turning on the gene that codes for the production of
antioxidant proteins. A study published in Italian journal of biochemistry
(December 2003) discussed Curcumin role in the induction of antioxidant
bilirubin, which protects the brain from oxidative free radical injury. Such
oxidation is responsible for aging and neurodegenerative disease like
. Curcumin strongly induces expression of the gene called
Hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) in astrocytes. Curcumin also inhibits amyloid
A aggregation in brain cells, thus preventing disease (Pengell
Andrew 2004; FaliaM et al. 2007). Lim et al. (2001) found that Curcumin
73
reduced oxidative change and
With low dosage insoluble beta amyloid and soluble beta amyloid and
plaque burden is significantly reduced.
PROTECTION AGAINST CATARACT FORMATION:
Oxidative stress has been suggested to be common underlying
mechanism of cataractogenesis, and augmentation of the antioxidant
defences of the ocular lens has been shown to prevent or delay
cataractogenesis. Curcumin may be effective protection agent against
cataratogenesis induced by lipid peroxidation (Awasthy et al. 1996).
PROTECTION AGAINST DRUG INDUCED MYOCARDIAL TOXICITY:
Curcumin treatment ameliorated the early manifestation of
cardiotoxicity and prevented the rise in serum creatin kinase (CK)
exerted by acute Adriamycin (ADR) (Venkatesan N 1998).
LIVER PROTECTION AGAINST ALCOHOL INDUCED TOXICITY:
Curcumin blocked endotoxin-mediated activation of NF-kB and
suppressed the expression of cytokines, COX-2 and iNOS in kupffer cells.
Thus Curcumin prevented alcoholic liver disease (Nanji AA et al. 2003).
Xu et al. (2003) found that Curcumin significantly inhibited the
proliferation of activated Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) and induced
apoptosis in vitro. The characteristic of Curcumin indcluding the
antioxidant potential, reduction of activated HSC growth, and no adverse
health effects, make it a potential cure for prevention and treatment of
hepatic fibrosis.
74
PROTECTION AGAINST DRUG INDUCED LUNG INJURY:
It is found that Curcumin is a potent anti-inflammatory and anti-
fibrotic agent bleomycin (BLM) induced pulmonary fibrosis (Venkatesan
N 1997; Punathavathi D 2000).
Curcumin inhibited the increase in lung myeloperoxidase activity,
lung hydroxyproline content, and c-junc protein in amiodarone treated
rats. Several researches also indicate that Curcumin is an important
therapeutic potential Praquat (PQ) lung injury (Venkatesan N 2000).
PROTECTION FROM INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE:
Curcumin exerts beneficial effects in experimental colitis and
therefore useful in IBD (Ukil A et al. 2003).
Curcumin attenuates experimental colitis through a mechanism
that also inhibits the activation of NF-k B (Sahl B et al. 2003).
PROTECTION AGAINST VARIOUS STRESSES:
Curcumin is found to be a potent inducer of Hemo-oxygenase 1
(HO-1) a redox-sensitive inducible protein that provides protection
against various forms of stress (Balogun E et al. 2003).
PROTECTION AGAINST ENDOTOXIN SHOCK:
Curcumin helps in endotoxin shock by improving survival and
reducing severity of endotoxin shock symptoms such as lethargy,
diarrhea and watery eyes following a challenge with lipopolysaccharides
(Madan B 2003).
PROTECTION AGAINST PANCREATITIS:
Curcumin markedly inhibited NF-k B, IL-6, TNF alpha & iNOS in
the pancreas. Based on several studies Gukovsky et al. (2003)
suggested that Curcumin may be useful for pancreatitis.
75
PROTECTION AGAINST MULTIDRUG RESISTANT:
Curcumin effects on apoptosis in multidrug resistant cell lines have
been reported (Piwockwa 2000). Mehta et al. (1997) examined the anti
proliferative effect of Curcumin against the multi drug resistant lines
(MDR). Curcumin prefentially arrested cell in the G2/S phase of the cell
cycle
ANTI-VENOM EFFECT:
Ar-termerone isolated from Curcuma longa neutralizes both
haemmorrahgic activity of bothrops venom and 70% leathal effect of
crotalus venom in mice. It acts as an enzymatic inhibitor of venom
enzymes with proteolytic activity (Araujo CAC & Leon LL 2001).
ANTI-FERTILITY EFFECT:
Curcumin has a strong anti-fertility impact. It inhabits 5- alpha
reductatse which converts testosterone to 5 - dihydrotestosterone and
inhabits growth of flank organ (Garg SK 1974; Garg SK et al. 1978;
Shukla Y et al. 2002; Shukla Y and Arora A 2003).
ANTI BACTERIAL ACTIVITY:
Both Curcumin and the oil fraction suppress growth of several
bacteria like Streptococcus, Lactobacillus etc. Bhavani Sankar &
Srinivasan Murthy (1979) states that Curcumin prevents growth of many
bacteria like Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Helicobacter and Lacto
bacillus etc. Even the aqueous extracts prevent bacterial multiplication.
ANTI-FUNGAL ACTIVITY:
Ethanol extract of Curcuma longa shows anti-fungal effect
against fungi like Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium moniliforme etc
(Apisariyakul A et al. 1995; Wuthi M et al. 2000; Jaypraksha GK et al.
2004).
76
ANTI-SCHISTOSOMAL EFFECT:
In Chloroform extract Anti-Schistosomal activity of Curcuma longa
is seen. It was lethal to schistosomal masoni worms after a 24 hour
incubation period in a culture medium at concentration upto 100 g/ml
(Deshpande UR et al. 2003).
ANTI-VIRAL EFFECT:
Curcumin act as a potent antiviral agent. It also shows anti-HIV
(Human Immuno deficiency virus) activity by inhibiting the HIV-1
integrase needed for viral replication (Aarujo CAC et al. 2001).
RADIO-PROTECTIVE AGENT:
The hepatobiliary clearance of 99mTC-Mebrofenin
radiopharmaceutical in D-galactosamine induced hepatic rats was
studied. The turmeric extract treatment increased the hepatic uptake of
radioactivity and thus showed an improved liver function by
detoxification. Chaudhary D et al. (1998) found that the treatment of
Curcumin prior to irradiation restored the specific activity of glyoxalase
system to almost the control level which was suggestive of the radio
protective ability of Curcumin.
ANTI-DEPRESSANT:
Aqueous extracts of Curcuma longa had shown Anti-depressant
effects in vivo, in immobility reduction in the tail suspension test and the
forced swimming test in mice. It works by inhibiting the brain
monoamine oxidase A at the dose of 140 mg/kg & monoamine oxidase B
at dose of 560 mg/kg. Kulkarni and Dhir (2010) demonstrated the
protective action of curcumin in unpredictable chronic stress model.
Anmal challenged with chronic unpredictable stress demonstrates llower
levels of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine in the brain. Chronic
administration of curcumin did not affect depleted norepinephrine but
restored levels of serotonin and dopamine (Kirtikar KR and Basu BD
1991).
77
COMMERICIAL PRODUCTS OF TURMERIC:
Value-added products from turmeric include curcuminoids,
dehydrated turmeric powder, oils and oleoresin.
Dried Rhizome:
Turmeric is mostly imported as Rhizome and then it is processed
by industries which powder it. Rhizomes come as bulbs, splits and
fingers. Fingers are the secondary branches of the mother rhizome
(bulbs). Bulbs are further broken to splits which are easier to grind
fingers are more fibrous and this gross good price.
Turmeric Powder:
Turmeric powder is released in retail markets. Ground Turmeric is
used in food industry as color, flower and preservative. Since,
Curcuminoids the colouring agent of Curcuma get deterred by light and
oxidative conditions, thus the uv proof packaging is necessary.
Oleoresin:
Turmeric extractives, or, oleoresins, are obtained by solvent
extraction of the powdered rhizome. This process yields 12 percent of an
orange viscous liquid, which depending on the solvent used and on the
turmeric type and cultivar, contains various proportions of the colouring
matter, i.e. the curcuminoids, the volatile oils which impart the flower to
the products and non-volatile fatty and resinous materials. The
compounds of interest in turmeric oleoresin are the curcuminoids (40 to
55 percent). The curcuminoids, which consists mostly of Curcumin, can
be further purified to a crystalline material, and are used preferably in
products where the turmeric flavour is undesirable. The advantage of
spray-dried turmeric oleoresin over ground turmeric is that it is devoid of
starch, the predominant component in dried rhizome and also proteins
and other forces (Kaufman B Peter et al. 1999).
78
Essential Oil:
Essential Oil is of less importance in western food industry but
possess a place for its medicinal value, quite a lot literature is present to
prove its medicinal value. The essential oil of turmeric is extracted from
steam distillation or super critical fluid extraction of powdered rhizome.
It is also a product of curcuminoid purification from oleoresins. Turmeric
oil comes from the plant Curcuma longa, a green plant Rhizome has a
tough brown skin and an orange flesh (Gujral ML et al. 1953).
79
COMMON TURMERIC VARIETIES:
Ground turmeric comes from finger which extend from roots
turmeric as dry other plant have several varieties. Nearly 60 varieties of
turmeric are known. Famous varieties of turmeric are-
Local Haldi
China Scented
Thodopuza
Red Streaked
Alleyppe etc.
Common commercial forms (varieties) of turmeric in India-
Erode and Salem turmeric
Rajapore and Sangli turmeric
Nizamabad bulb
Other important varieties in Tamil Nadu are Erode local, BSR-1,
PTS-10, Roma, Suguna, Sudarsana and Salem local.
Alleyppe finger turmeric, Rajapuri, Madras, Erode, Sangli
turmeric and Nizamabad bulb are most accepted exported
varieties.
Varieties like Vayama, Sonia Rajinder, Suvarna, Kedaram,
Prabha, Vallabh Priya are grown these days.
Various phytoclones like CL-68, CLS-16, CEL-324, CL-72,
CLS16, NH-5, and NDH-18 are used by pharmaceutical
companies.