chapter 2-not final

8/10/2019 Chapter 2-Not Final

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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH PARADIGM

This chapter presents Review of Related Literature, Theoretical Framework,

Conceptual Framework, Statement of Hypothesis and Definition of Terms.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Inquiry-based learning stems from a wide range of research and has its roots in

constructivism. In constructivism, the key tenet is that an individual learner must actively

construct knowledge and skills (Bruner, 1990). Despite whether or not there is an

objective reality, it is the individual who constructs their own reality through their

experience and interaction with the environment. As an individual experiences

something new, he or she filters this information through mental structures (schemata)

that incorporate prior knowledge, beliefs and preconceptions to make sense of the

information (Prince & Felder, 2006). This theory of learning goes back many centuries,

but in more recent times the research of John Dewey, Jerome Bruner and Lev

Vygotsky, together with Jean Piagetswork on developmental psychology, has resulted

in the broad approach of constructivism. There are two main forms of constructivism:

cognitive and social. Cognitive constructivism draws mainly on Piagets theory of

cognitive development. Piaget proposed that individuals must construct their own

knowledge and that they build knowledge through experience. These experiences allow

creation of schemas or mental modes and thus lead to learning. In contrast to cognitive

constructivism, social constructivists place more emphasis on the social context of


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learning. Vygotsky is the main proponent of social constructivism and suggested that

cultural history, social context and language play an important role in the pattern and

rate of development of children. Vygotskys concept of the zone of proximal

development argues that individuals can, with the help of a more experienced peer,

master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own (Vygotsky, 1978).

(Add more related studies on this one, some are theories which could be

redundant or repeating in your Theoretical framework. Focus on related studies

here )

IBL DEFINITION, HISTORY

PBL DEFINITION, HISTORY

COMPARISON OF PBL AND IBL

Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL)

Inquiry-based learning is a pedagogy which best enables students to experience

the processes of knowledge creation (Spronken-Smith, 2008). The key attributes

include learning stimulated by inquiry, a student or learning centered approach in which

the role of the teacher is to act as a facilitator, a move to self-directed learning, and an

active approach to learning. This is also a process where students are involved in their

learning, formulate questions, investigate widely and then build new understandings,

meanings and knowledge (Alberta Education, 2004). That knowledge is new to the

students and may be used to answer a question, to develop a solution or to support a


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position or point of view. The knowledge is usually presented to others and may result in

some sort of action.

(Add more related studies on this one )

Constructivism

IBL and Constructivism

The power of an inquiry-based approach to teaching and learning is its potential

to increase intellectual engagement and foster deep understanding through the

development of a hands-on, minds-on and research-based disposition towards

teaching and learning. Inquiry honours the complex, interconnected nature of

knowledge construction, striving to provide opportunities for both teachers and students

to collaboratively build,test and reflect on their learning. According to the constructivist

theory of learning, effective teaching must offer experiences that: build on what students

already know so they can make connections to their existing knowledge structures;

encourage students to become active, self-directed learners; provide authentic learning

opportunities; involve students working together in small groups (i.e. in collaborative or

cooperative learning). Rather than being the sage on the stage in a transmission mode

of teaching, constructivist teachers should act as guides on the side, providing

opportunities to test the adequacy of students current understandings (Hoover, 1996).

Hoover also argues that because new knowledge has to be actively built, it takes time to

do so. This means that any constructivist courses should allow ample time for student

reflection about new experiences and how these fit or not with current understandings.


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IBL as an Inductive Approach

Inquiry-based learning falls under the realm of inductive approaches to teaching

and learning. Inductive approaches to teaching and learning begin with a set of

observations or data to interpret, or a complex real-world problem, and as the students

study the data or problem they generate a need for facts, procedures and guiding

principles. Inductive teaching encompasses a range of teaching methods including

inquiry-based learning (IBL), problem-based learning (PBL), project-based learning,

case-based teaching, and discovery learning(Prince and Felder, 2006). They classify

the teaching methods by considering the context for learning and other features, such

as the amount of student responsibility for their learning and the use of group work.

Common to all these inductive methods of teaching are (a) a student- or learner-

centered approach (Kember, 1997) in which the focus of the teaching is on student

learning rather than on communicating defined bodies of content or knowledge; (b)

active learning is about learning by doing (Gibbs, 1988, Healey & Roberts, 2004) and

may involve, for example, students discussing questions and solving problems (Prince

& Felder, 2006); (c) the development of self-directed learning skills in which students

take more responsibility for their own learning; (d) a constructivist theoretical basis

which proposes that students construct their own meaning of reality; it is the students

who create knowledge rather than knowledge being imposed or transmitted by direct

instruction.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)


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Problem-based learning is based on research in the cognitive sciences on how

we learn. PBL improves learning (Spence, 2010).Problem-based approaches to

learning have a long history. They are one of many instructional approaches that situate

learning in a meaningful task, such as case-based instruction and project-based

learning. In the traditions of Kilpatrick and Dewey, these approaches argue for the

importance of practical experience in learning. Problem-based learning is part of this

tradition of meaningful, experiential learning.In PBL, students learn by solving problems

and reflecting on their experiences(Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980). PBL is well suited to

helping students become active learners because it situates learning in real-world

problems and makes students responsible for their learning. It has a dual emphasis on

helping learners develop strategies and construct knowledge (Cognition and

Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1997; Collins et al., 1989; Hmelo and Ferrari, 1997;

Kolodneret al., 1996).PBL is focused, experiential learning organized around the

investigation, explanation, and resolution of meaningful problems (Barrows, 2000;Torp

and Sage, 2002).

The focus of PBL is in organizing thecurricular content around problem scenarios

rather than subjects or disciplines.Students work in groups or teams to solve or manage

these situationsbut they are not expected to acquire a predetermined series of

rightanswers. Instead they are expected to engage with the complex

situationpresented to them and decide what information they need to learn andwhat

skills they need to gain in order to manage the situation effectively (Savin-Baden,

2000).There are many different ways of implementing problem-based learningbut the

underlying philosophies associated with it as an approach are broadlymore student-


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centred than those underpinning problem-solving learning.This is because students are

offered opportunities, through problem-basedlearning, to explore a wide range of

information, to link the learning withtheir own needs as learners and to develop

independence in inquiry. Problem-based learning is thus an approach to learning that is

characterized byflexibility and diversity in the sense that it can be implemented in a

varietyof ways in and across different subjects and disciplines in diverse contexts.As

such it can therefore look very different to different people at differenttimes depending

on the staff and students involved in the programmesutilizing it. However, what will be

similar will be the focus of learningaround problem scenarios rather than discrete

subjects.

The notion of learning through solving or managing problems is not new.

However, the emergence of problem-based learningas a specific concept and approach

emanated from the work of Barrows,who discovered through his research into medical

education that medicalstudents and residents for the most part did not seem to think at

all.Some gathered data ritualistically and then tried to add it up afterwards,while others

came up with a diagnosis based on some symptom or sign,never considering possible

alternatives (Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980).Problem-based learning was developed at

McMaster University in Canadawhere Barrows set out to design a medical school

curriculum based solelyon small group, student-centred learning. The rationale for

problem-basedlearning stemmed from years of observing experts engaged in clinical

reasoning,resulting in Barrows and Tamblyn (1980) claiming that problem-

basedlearning was based on two assumptions. The first was that learningthrough

problem situations was much more effective than memory-basedlearning for creating a


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usable body of knowledge. The second was that themedical skills that were most

important for treating patients were problem-solvingskills, rather than memorization. Yet,

what was important about theapproach adopted at McMaster was that the focus was not

on problem-solvinglearning whereby individual students were expected to answer

aseries of questions from information supplied by a lecturer. Instead theywere asked, in

small teams, to explore a problem situation. Through suchan exploration students were

expected to examine the gaps in their ownknowledge and skills in order to decide what

information they needed toacquire in order to resolve or manage the situation with

which they werepresented.

As Barrows and Tamblyns model was being developed during the early1970s

there was also increasing interest in the medical world in studentsability to develop

problem-solving skills. Other research indicated that medicalstudents were lacking in

problem-solving skills (McGuire,1972, 1985). In parallel, there was interest in

understanding studentsapproaches to problem-solving activities and with it came

criticism of theunnaturalness of much laboratory research in cognitive psychology

(Neisser,1982). This resulted in wide-ranging studies of students problem-

solvingabilities with a growing emphasis on the use of qualitative methods(Laurillard,

1979, 1984). This early research into problem-solving and clinicaldecision making

prompted interest and research within professionsallied to medicine (Higgs, 1990; Terry

and Higgs, 1993). Therewas, however, a shift away from focusing on the generation

and testing ofhypotheses as a means of arriving at a major clinical decision, and a

greateremphasis on clinical reasoning as a process occurring throughout

clinicalpractice. This work in part stemmed from some of the early studiesinto problem-


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based learning where it was increasingly seen that learningproblem-solving abilities in

situations isolated from a relevant context didnot facilitate effective transference to the

clinical environment. What becameincreasingly apparent was that although problem-

solving skills were a usefulacquisition for students, it was the application of such skills to

a clinicalsituation that was vital. This was because problem-solving learning tendedin

the main to be seen as a step by step approach to solving a problem thatdenied the

complexities and difficulties of a clinical situation. In contrast,problem-based learning

confronts students with the challenge to manage aclinical situation, which requires them

to incorporate diverse resources suchas existing knowledge, data collection,

interpersonal skills, reflection andreasoning ability in order to meet that challenge.

The bulk of the literature in the late 1970 s and 1980s argued for the useof

problem-based learning for four key reasons. These were,first, to develop students

reasoning skills; second, to enable learning to takeplace within a context that was

relevant to the students; third, to ensurethat learning was attuned to the world of work;

and finally to promotestudents self-directed learning abilities, that is, learning that

fostered independent inquiry. A number of articles at that time cited lists of

advantagesof problem-based learning over more traditional ways of learning

(Neame,1982; Coles, 1985) and others suggested that problem-based learning

wasfound to be more enjoyable and stimulating by staff and students involvedin such

programmes (Olson, 1987). However, few seemed to tackle manyof the underlying

assumptions of problem-based learning or relate suchassumptions to current trends in

the broader context of changes withinhigher and professional education.


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equipped to undertake tasks, to carry outinstructions, and to work with others, but they

are not necessarily able to analyze or critique the situation in which they find

themselves or the informationwith which they have been presented. Yet what is on offer

throughproblem-based learning are opportunities for students to develop the

requiredkey skills but in a context where they are also encouraged to developthe ability

to critique issues and information, and to take up a positiontowards the situation with

which they have been presented.

PBL and the Learning Cycle

In PBL, students work in small collaborative groupsand learn what they need to

know in order to solve a problem. The teacher acts as a facilitator to guide student

learning through the learning cycle. In this cycle, also known as the PBL tutorial

process, the students are presented with a problem scenario. They formulate and

analyze the problem by identifying the relevant facts from the scenario. This fact-

identification step helps students represent the problem. As students understand the

problem better, they generate hypotheses about possible solutions. An important part of

this cycle is identifying knowledge deficiencies relative to the problem. These

knowledge deficiencies become what are known as the learning issues that students

research during their self-directed learning (SDL). Following SDL, students apply their

new knowledge and evaluate their hypotheses in light of what they have learned. At the

completion of each problem, students reflect on the abstract knowledge gained. The

teacher helps students learn the cognitive skills needed for problem solving and

collaboration. Because students are self-directed, managing their learning goals and


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strategies to solve PBLs ill-structured problems (those without a single correct solution),

they also acquire the skills needed for lifelong learning.

IBL versus PBL

Defining the relationship between IBL and PBL has been fraught with difficulty.

Most researchers acknowledge an overlap in the approaches but there are conceptual

differences in distinguishing the two. Prince and Felder (2006) suggest that the major

difference between IBL and PBL lies in the type of question with PBL by definition

involving complex, ill-structured open-ended real world problems, while IBL may

possibly use such problems. This distinction is in contrast to many researchers such

asPlowright& Watkins (2004), Elton (2006); McMaster University (2007) who suggest

that PBL usually focuses on questions to which answers already exist, while IBL often

involves open-ended questions. A further difference postulated by McMaster University

is that PBL has a shorter timescale, while IBL can be for a sustained period. Kahn and

ORourke (2004) suggested that PBL was a subset of IBL, along with other pedagogies

such as project work and small scale investigations. Spronken-Smith, et al. (2008) used

the notion of collaboration to distinguish. While IBL can be done in collaborative groups,

PBL is usually done this way. In considering the debate Spronken-Smith, et al. (2007)

concluded that as a guide, it appears that PBL is a more prescriptive form of IBL, and

thus PBL is seen to be a subset of IBL, and both IBL and PBL are subsets of active

learning.

Theoretical Framework of the Study


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Figure 1 shows different theories from various philosophers. The diagram

illustrates several theories that date back to the 18 thcentury. Kilpatrick (1918, 1921) and

Dewey (1938) theorized that students learn through experience which becomes a

theoretical basis in the development of problem-based learning. Furthermore, due to the

emergence of experiential learning theory which was also strongly supported by

Deweys learning theory, Jerome Bruner (1990) worked on constructivism in which

individual learner must actively construct knowledge and skills. This resulted to the two

forms of constructivism: Lev Vygotskys Social Constructivism and Jean Piagets

Cognitive Development.Piaget proposed that individuals must construct their own

knowledge and that they build knowledge through experience. These experiences allow

creation of schemas or mental modes and thus lead to learning. Meanwhile,

Vygotskysuggested that cultural history, social context and language play an important

role in the pattern and rate of development of children. Moreover, his concept of the

zone of proximal development argues that individuals can, with the help of a more

experienced peer, master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own.

These two approaches lead to the development of inquiry-based learning. Finally,

inquiry-based learning and problem-based learning are just subsets of active learning.

(Spronken-Smith, et al., 2007)

(Discuss thoroughly, you can add the items in the RRL which focus on theories. Placeyour diagram in such a way, that you have to introduce theories then diagram thenadditional discussion, so that the diagram will not be placed at the last part of theTheoretical framework)

PBL

KilpatricksExperiential Learning

Theory

ActiveLearning


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Figure 1.Theoretical Framework of the Study

Research Paradigm

Figure 2 shows the paradigm of the study which includes the dependent and

independent variables as well as the moderating and intervening variables. The

independent variables or the causal variables in the study are the two approaches to be

tested: the IBL and PBL. The dependent variables of the study are the students level of

performance and their level of interest towards science. The teachers competence in

employing the two approaches is considered as the moderating variable because it

modifies the dependent and independent variables. On the other hand, the availability of

resources which will greatly help in the utilization of IBL and PBL is considered as the

intervening variable because this may surface upon the utilization of the two

approaches and therefore influence the dependent variable.

John DeweysTheory of Learning

Lev VygotskysSocial

ConstructivismBruners Theory of

Constructivism Jean PiagetsCognitive

Development

IBL

Level of StudentsPerformance in

Science

Inquiry-basedLearning


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Figure 2.Research Paradigm

(Do the same also, introduce the variables then the diagram to be followed bythorough discussion. What is the role of Resourse availability? And what is thesupposed to be output of our study? Remember that Research paradigm is Input-Process-Output. Include your desired output, may it be seminar, training, actionplan, monitoring device, etc)

Statement of Hypothesis

Ho1:There is no significant difference between the students performanceusing inquiry-

based learning (IBL) and problem-based learning (PBL) after the exposure of these

approaches.

Ho2: There is no significant difference between the students level of interest after

exposure of inquiry-based learning (IBL) and problem-based learning (PBL).

Definition of Terms

Students Level ofInterest towards

Science

Problem-basedLearning

Resource Availability

TeachersCompetence in

Employing IBL andPBL


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In order to have further understanding of this study, the following terms are

conceptually and operationally defined:

Students Performance. This is defined as the student achievement in relation to a

prescribed learning outcome (Mendoza, 2008). This also refers to students

achievement which is measured in terms of the results in the pre-test and post-test after

the exposure of IBL and PBL.

Students

Interest. This refers to the students motivation in learning. This is also

defined as the students eagerness in learning science and is measured using the

Modified Attitudes towards Science Inventory (mATSI) by Weinburgh and Steele.

Resource Availability.This refers to the extent to which resources are made available

to achieve the aims and to implement something. (AMLR, 2013) This is also defined as

the extent to which resources necessary for teaching are made available in employing

IBL and PBL.

(Add more for the definition of terms, can we have it to atleast 8 or 10 terms to be

defined)

chapter 2-not final

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