chapter 2 minor millets: profile &...

Chapter 2

Minor Millets: Profile & Ethnobotany

2.1 Minor millets: Today and tomorrow

Millets are small-seeded grasses that are hardy and grow well in dry

zones as rain-fed crops, under marginal conditions of soil fertility and

moisture. Millets are one of the oldest foods known to humans and

possibly the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes.

Millets are also unique due to their short growing season. They can

develop from planted seeds to mature, ready to harvest plants in as

little as 65 days. This is important in heavily populated areas. When

properly stored, millets will keep for two or more years.

They are highly nutritious, non-glutinous and no acid forming foods.

Hence, they are soothing and easy to digest. They are considered to be

the least allergenic and most digestible grains available. Compared to

rice, especially polished rice, millets release lesser percentage of

glucose and over a longer period of time.

Millets are particularly high in minerals like iron, magnesium,

phosphorous and potassium. Barnyard millet is the richest in calcium

content, about 10 times that of rice or wheat.

Cereal grains are considered to be one of the most important sources

of dietary proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and fibre for

people all over the world. It is mentioned in the Bible, and was used

during those times to make bread. Millet has been used in Africa and

India as a staple food for thousands of years. It is suggested that

people were farming millet in India about 2500 B.C. India is the largest

producer of many kinds of millets called coarse cereals. India accounts

for 40% of global millet production, the total production as per year

2014 statistics, it is 12,000.00 thd. mt per annum [1]. Rajasthan, Uttar

Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Haryana are the major

States contribute the production. Based on a five-year average, India

ranks 1st and 11th place in top global consumption and per-capita

consumption of millets respectively.

in the production of millet

Today millet ranks as the

sustains 1/3 of the world’s population and is a significant part of the

diet in northern China, Japan, Manchuria and various areas of the

former Soviet Union, Africa, India, and Egypt.

minor millets, the minor millets include 6 main grain crops

Eleusine coracana (ragi

(varagu or kodo millet

Setaria italica (tenai or

or proso millet), and

millet). Name f millet in different languages are summarised in table

2.1.

Small millets in addition to nutritional benefits

phytochemicals, including

cholesterol, and phytate

coracana and Paspalum

antinutrient constituents such as trypsin inhibitors, phytates, phenols

and tannins. Dietary fiber

against oxidation stress by chelating iron involved in Fenton’s

Table 2.1 Name of millet

Minor Millets: profile and Ethnobotany

of millets respectively. An increasing trend is observed

in the production of millet since 1960 to 2014 in India.

Today millet ranks as the sixth most important grain in the world

world’s population and is a significant part of the


former Soviet Union, Africa, India, and Egypt. Among the major and

minor millets, the minor millets include 6 main grain crops

(ragi or finger millet), Paspalum scrobiculatum

kodo millet), Panicum sumatrense (samai or little millet

(tenai or foxtail millet), Panicum milliaceum (panivaragu

Echinochloa frumentacea (kudiraivali or

Name f millet in different languages are summarised in table

in addition to nutritional benefits are

phytochemicals, including phytic acid, which is believed to lower

cholesterol, and phytate, which is associated with cancer risk.

Paspalum scrobiculatum are well known for their


Dietary fiber protects against hyperglycemia, phytates

t oxidation stress by chelating iron involved in Fenton’s

Table 2.1 Name of millets in different languages


Page 4

is observed

sixth most important grain in the world,

world’s population and is a significant part of the


Among the major and

minor millets, the minor millets include 6 main grain crops, which are

scrobiculatum

little millet),

(panivaragu

(kudiraivali or barnyard

Name f millet in different languages are summarised in table

are rich in

, which is believed to lower

, which is associated with cancer risk. Eleusine

are well known for their


protects against hyperglycemia, phytates

t oxidation stress by chelating iron involved in Fenton’s

in different languages


Page 4

reaction, and some phenolics and tannins act as antioxidants. Higher

antioxidant activity in the phenolic extracts of Paspalum

scrobiculatum and Eleusine coracana than in other millets and cereals

has been reported. Small millets have potential benefits to mitigate or

delay the onset of complications associated with diabetes.

Phenolic acids are known to act as antioxidants by donating hydrogen

or electrons. In addition, their stable radical intermediates prevent the

oxidation of various food ingredients, particularly fatty acids and oils.

The presence of phenolic acids in cereal grains has been confirmed in

several studies. The polyphenolic contents in cereals is usually less

than 1% of dry matter, except for some sorghum cultivars and finger

millet varieties. Fortification of diet with food components rich in

phenolic acids has been shown to impart antimutagenic, antiglycemic

and antioxidative properties, and this has been exploited for the

development of healthy food formulations. In addition, phenolic acids

such as caffeic, coumaric, ferulic and proto-catechuic acids are also

shown to exert an antifungal effect. Polyphenols are also used as a

source of potentially beneficial phytochemicals in the food and

pharmaceutical industries [2].

The consumption pattern for minor millets varies from region to

region. In Southern Karnataka, 100% of the rural population and 94%

of the urban population consume Eleusine coracana as a traditional

food called ‘Mudde’ or ‘Thick porridge’. Paspalum scrobiculatum is an

important food crop for vast sections of the tribal community in

Central India. The people in Himalayan foot-hills use millet as a cereal,

in soups, and for making dense, whole grain bread called ‘Chapatti’. In

India flat thin cakes called ‘Roti’ are often made from millet flour and

used as the basis for meals. Eleusine coracana is the cereal of choice

for the preparation of porridges for children and for the sick and old

in India. Germinated Eleusine coracana is used to make weaning foods

for infants. Eleusine coracana can be used for the preparation of

popped products in India. Some rural and tribal populations of South

India consume Setaria italica. The tribal people in Kumaon hills,


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Northern India consumes weaning food containing malted Setaria

italica flour and malted Echinochloa crusgalli flour. Mostly minor

millets consumed by the economically weaker section of the

populations in India. However, all communities of people should be

aware of importance and health benefits of small millets.

2.2 Plant morphology [phytomorphology]

Millet morphology is the general term for the study of the physical

form and external structure of plants. This is usually considered

distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the internal

structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level. Plant

morphology is useful in the identification of millet seeds. We carried

out morphological study of Echinochloa crus-galli, Panicum miliaceum

L. and Panicum sumatrense [3]. Table 2.2 summarized the plant

classification of Echinochloa crus-galli.

2.2.1 Echinochloa crus-galli (Barnyard Millet):

2.2.1.1 General Information of Echinochloa crus-galli

Basic information of Echinochloa crus-galli is summarised in table 2.4

Sr. No. Classification Scientific Name

1 Botanical name Echinochloa crus-galli

2 Kingdom: Plantae

[unranked]: Angiosperms

[unranked]: Monocots

[unranked]: Commelinids

3 Order: Poales

4 Family: Poaceae

5 Subfamily: Panicoideae

6 Tribe: Paniceae

7 Genus: Echinochloa

8 Species: P.Beauv.

Table 2.2 Preliminary information about Echinochloa crus-galli


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Origin and geographic distribution

Echinochloa crus-galli (Barnyard millet) is an old crop, grown since

5000 B.C. in India and 3000 B.C. in China. It probably evolved from the

wild Echinochloa crus-galli P. Beauv. (Green Setaria italica (L.), and it

was most probably first domesticated in the highlands of central

China, from where it was spreaded to China and Europe soon

thereafter. Its domestication may have taken place anywhere in the

area extending from Europe to Japan, perhaps even several times

independently [4]. Echinochloa crus-galli was the ‘panicum’ of the

Romans. At present, Echinochloa crus-galli is cultivated all over the

world. In tropical Africa, it is cultivated to a limited extent in upland

areas in East Africa and occasionally recorded elsewhere, e.g. in

Cameroon and southern Africa (Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique)[5, 6].

2.2.1.2 Botanical description

Echinochloa crus-galli is an annual with rather stiff and erect stems,

ordinarily from two to four feet high, but sometimes reaching a height

of six feet or more. The leaves arc is broad and somewhat similar in

size and texture to those of Echinochloa crus-galli. From the latter,

however, this plant is easily distinguished, even when very young, by

its lack of hairiness. Figure 2.1 depicted here indicates the various part

of Echinochloa crus-galli. The inflorescence is a contracted panicle,

often nodding at the top; on account of its short branches it resembles

a spike. Its lower branches, as a rule, are not so close together as the

upper ones. The spikelet are crowded and mixed with stiff bristles, the

latter representing branches on which no spikelet are developed [7, 8].

Echinochloa species are the dominant weed species in direct seeded

rice-based cropping systems. They are also an example of crop

mimicry as they resemble the rice crop at the seedling stage. By the

time weeds are easily distinguished by farmers, crop yield losses have

already occurred. Echinochloa crus-galli was reported to reduce yield

of direct-seeded rice by more than 75% [9].

2.2.2.4 Composition

The table 2.3 shows

100 g edible.

No Ingredients

1 Water

2 Protein

3 Fat

4 Carbohydrate

5 Crude fibre

6 Calcium

7 Iron

8 Thiamine

9 Riboflavin

10 Niacin

11 Tryptophan

12 Lysine

13 Methionine

14 Phenylalanine

15 Threonine

16 Valine

17 Leucine

18 Isoleucine

19 Energy

Figure 2.1 Various part of

Table 2.3 shows composition of

per 100 g edible.


Composition

shows composition of Echinochloa crus-galli

Ingredients Quantity /100g

Water 12 g

Protein 11.2 g

4.0 g

Carbohydrate 63.2 g

Crude fibre 6.7 g

Calcium 31 mg,

Iron 2.8 mg

Thiamine 0.6 mg

Riboflavin 0.1 mg

Niacin 3.2 mg

Tryptophan 103 mg

Lysine 233 mg

Methionine 296 mg

Phenylalanine 708 mg

Threonine 328 mg

Valine 728 mg

Leucine 1764 mg

Isoleucine 803 mg

Energy 1470 kJ (351 kcal)

Various part of Echinochloa crus-galli (Barnyard Mille)

shows composition of Echinochloa crus-galli


Page 2

galli grain per

1470 kJ (351 kcal)

Barnyard Mille)

grain


Page

2.2.1.5 Edible Uses

Seed – cooked. It can be eaten as a sweet or savoury food in all the

ways that rice is used, or ground into flour and made into porridge,

cakes, puddings etc. The seed can also be sprouted before it is used,

when it will become somewhat sweeter.

2.2.1.6 Medicinal Uses

The germinated seed of yellow-seeded cultivars is astringent, digestive,

emollient and stomachic. It is used in the treatment of dyspepsia, poor

digestion and food stagnancy in the abdomen. White seeds are

refrigerant and used in the treatment of cholera and fever. Green

seeds are diuretic and strengthening to virility [10, 11].

2.2.2 Panicum miliaceum L. (Proso Millet) :

2.2.2.1 General Information of Panicum miliaceum L.

Basic information of Panicum miliaceum L. is summarised in table 2.4

2.2.2.2 Origin and geographic description

Panicum miliaceum L. Is an old crop, grown since 5500 B.C. in India

and China. It was most probably first domesticated in China, from


1 Botanical name Panicum miliaceum (L.)

2 Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Monocots

(unranked): Commelinids

3 Order: Poales

4 Family: Poaceae


6 Tribe: Paniceae

7 Genus: Panicum

8 Species: P. miliaceum

Table 2.4 Preliminary information about Panicum miliaceum L.


where it spread to Europe and Africa thereafter

may have taken place anywhere in the area extending from Europe to

Japan, perhaps even several times independently.

L. has remained a gra

Argentina. It is occasionally grown as a grai

Africa. At present, Panicum miliaceum

world [13].

Panicum miliaceum

plant in the general

which originated in China, has been cultivated for over 7,000 years

and currently planted mainly in the northern part of China, including

the northwest and northeast regions. Broomcorn millet is a type of

short-day C4 plant with thermophilic an

it can be adapted to various types of soils particularly sandy soils with

low fertility. As the resistance of broomcorn millet to salt, alkali, and

drought stress, as well as its shorter growth cycle, it is usually grown

for exploration of new wastelands and deserts, or as a remediation

crop in the event of natural disasters.


Panicum miliaceum L

culms stout, erect, glabrous, somewhat bulbous at a base, sheaths 7 to

14 cm long, glabrous or with sparse hairs at the collar, compressed,

basal ones often purplish; ligule very short, but with a dense row

hairs just behind it; blades flat, 12 to 40 cm long, 3 to 12 mm wide,

acute, scabrous, glaucous on an upper

racemes, these 2 to 4 cm long, alternate, distant, their axis 4 to 9 cm

long, villous at base, sometimes pilose

herewith indicates various parts of


Various part of Panicum miliaceum L. (Proso Millet)

where it spread to Europe and Africa thereafter. [12] Its domestication


Japan, perhaps even several times independently. Panicum miliaceum

has remained a grain crop in Asia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and

Argentina. It is occasionally grown as a grain crop in Europe and

Panicum miliaceum L. is cultivated all over

Panicum miliaceum L. (Broomcorn millet) is an annual herbaceous

Panicum L. of the family Gramineae.




day C4 plant with thermophilic and photophilic responses, and




ploration of new wastelands and deserts, or as a remediation

crop in the event of natural disasters.

Botanical description

L. is a tufted perennial grass; 120 to 150 cm tall;



basal ones often purplish; ligule very short, but with a dense row


acute, scabrous, glaucous on an upper surface; inflorescence of 4 to 6


long, villous at base, sometimes pilose in the axils. Figure 2.2

herewith indicates various parts of Panicum miliaceum L.


Page 4 Proso Millet)

Its domestication


Panicum miliaceum

in crop in Asia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and

n crop in Europe and

is cultivated all over the

) is an annual herbaceous

This crop,




d photophilic responses, and




ploration of new wastelands and deserts, or as a remediation

is a tufted perennial grass; 120 to 150 cm tall;



basal ones often purplish; ligule very short, but with a dense row of


surface; inflorescence of 4 to 6


Figure 2.2 show


Page

2.2.2.4 Composition

The table 2.5 shows composition of Panicum miliaceum L. grain per

100 g edible.

No Ingredients Quantity /100g

1 Water 8.3 g

2 Protein 11.7 g

3 Fat 6.3 g

4 Carbohydrate 70.2 g

5 Crude fibre 14.2 g

6 Calcium 113 mg

7 Magnesium 366 mg

8 Phosphorus 405 mg

9 Iron 8.2 mg

10 Zinc 4.2 mg

11 Thiamine 0.09 mg

12 Riboflavin 0.32 mg

13 Niacin 2.09 mg

14 Vitamin B6 0.52 mg

15 Folate 49 μg

16 Ascorbic acid 3.7 mg

17 Tryptophan 178 mg

18 Lysine 807 mg

19 Methionine 302 mg

20 Phenylalanine 592 mg

21 Threonine 658 mg

22 Valine 739 mg

23 Leucine 769 mg

24 Isoleucine 582 mg

25 Linoleic acid 1937 mg

26 Oleic acid 2433 mg

27 Palmitic acid 1084 mg

Table 2.5 shows composition of Panicum miliaceum L. grain

per 100 g edible.


Page 6

28 Stearic acid 308 mg

29 Energy 1255 (299.75 kcal)

2.2.2.5 Edible uses

Edible parts: Leaves, Seed.

Panicum miliaceum L. Is economically important. Its uses include:

human food (cereal), animal f eed (fodder, forage) and medicine. It is

harvested as a wild cereal in West Africa and in India.

2.2.2.6 Medicinal use

The grains are astringent, cooling, constipating, diuretic, sedative,

alexeteric and tonic. They are useful in ulcer, flatulence, straguary,

diarrhoea, inflammation, and burning sensation. The stem is useful for

corneal opacity [14, 15]. Table 2.6 summarized the classification of

Panicum miliaceum L.

2.2.3 Panicum sumatrense (Little Millet):

2.2.3.1 General Information of Panicum sumatrense

Some basic information about Panicum sumatrense is summarised in

table2.6


1 Botanical name Panicum sumatrense

2 Kingdom: Plantae

[unranked]: Angiosperms

[unranked]: Monocots

[unranked]: Commelinids

3 Order: Poales

4 Family: Poaceae


6 Tribe: Paniceae

7 Genus: Panicum

8 Species: P. sumatrense

Table 2.6 Preliminary information about Panicum sumatrense


Page 7

2.2.3.2 Origin and geographic distribution

Panicum sumatrense is not known from the wild. It originated in the

Andes, possibly as a hybrid between the wild Panicum sumatrense L.

subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Costea & Carretero and the cultivated

Panicum sumatrense. (Originating from Asia) [16]. Panicum

sumatrense has long been grown as a food crop in the Andes. The

earliest archaeological evidence of its cultivation dates from 2000-

year-old tombs in north-western Argentina. The cultivated area has

notably decreased over the years, but Panicum sumatrense has

remained a grain crop in Asia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. It

is occasionally grown as a grain crop in Europe and Africa. It is grown

in Ethiopia and Eritrea for its grain and as an ornamental; it has also

been grown in Uganda and Kenya and has been recorded from several

other countries in Central, East and Southern Africa, and the

Mascarene Islands, where it may also be found as a weed escaped from

cultivation.

Panicum sumatrense (Little millet) is one of the important minor

cereals grown extensively in the tropics and a staple food for the low

income groups in some countries of the world. Little millet is

comparable with other cereals, such as rice and wheat as a source of

protein, fat, carbohydrates and crude fibre, apart from minerals and

vitamins. It also contains phytochemicals, such as phenolic acids,

flavonoids, tannins and phytate [17].

Much attention has been given in investigation of the nutraceutical

and antioxidant properties of major millets like sorghum, finger

millet, pearl millet and foxtail millet [18].


Annual erect herb upto 1.5 (–2.5) m tall, commonly reddish or purplish

throughout; stem rather stout, not or sparingly branched, glabrous or

thinly furnished with rather long hairs. Figure 2.4 show herewith

indicates various parts of Panicum sumatrense

Leaves arranged spirally, simple and entire; stipules absent; petiole

upto 8 cm long, but never longer than the blade; blade broadly ovate

to rhomboid-ovate or ovate

cuneate to attenuate, apex obtuse to acute, glabrous or sparsely hairy

on main veins below, pinnately veined. Inflorescence large (upto 1.5 m)

and complex, consisting of numerous agglomerated cymes a

axillary and terminal spikes, the terminal one pendant to erect; bracts

3–4 mm long, membranous, pale, with a long awn. Flowers unisexual,

sessile; with 5 mucronate tepals 2

stamens c. 1 mm long; female flowers

crowned by 3 stigmas. Fruit an ovoid

long, circumscissile, almost smooth or slightly furrowed, abruptly

narrowed to a short thick beak, 1

indicates various parts of

2.2.3.4 Composition

The table 2.7 shows composition of

g edible.

No Ingredients

1 Water

2 Protein

3 Fat

4 Carbohydrate

5 Crude fibre

6 Calcium


Table 2.7 shows composition of

100 g edible.


vate or ovate-elliptical, 2.5–15 (–20) cm × 1–



and complex, consisting of numerous agglomerated cymes a


4 mm long, membranous, pale, with a long awn. Flowers unisexual,

sessile; with 5 mucronate tepals 2–3 mm long; male flowers with 5

stamens c. 1 mm long; female flowers with superior, 1-celled ovary

crowned by 3 stigmas. Fruit an ovoid-globose capsule 1. 5


narrowed to a short thick beak, 1-seeded. Figure 2.3 show herewith

indicates various parts of Panicum sumatrense.

composition of Panicum sumatrense grain per 100

Ingredients Quantity /100g

Water 9.8 g

Protein 14.5 g

Fat 6.5 g

Carbohydrate 66.2 g

Crude fibre 15.2 g

Calcium 153 mg

Figure 2.3 Various part of Panicum sumatrense (Little Millet)

shows composition of Panicum sumatrense grain per


Page

–8 cm, base



and complex, consisting of numerous agglomerated cymes arranged in


4 mm long, membranous, pale, with a long awn. Flowers unisexual,

flowers with 5

celled ovary

globose capsule 1. 5–2.5 mm


seeded. Figure 2.3 show herewith

grain per 100

Little Millet)

grain per


Page

7 Magnesium 266 mg

8 Phosphorus 455 mg

9 Iron 7.6 mg

10 Zinc 3.2 mg

11 Thiamine 0.08 mg

12 Riboflavin 0.21 mg

13 Niacin 1.29 mg

14 Vitamin B6 0.22 mg

15 Folate 49 μg

16 Ascorbic acid 3.7 mg

17 Tryptophan 181 mg

18 Lysine 747 mg

19 Methionine 226 mg

20 Phenylalanine 542 mg

21 Threonine 558 mg

22 Valine 679 mg

23 Leucine 879 mg

24 Isoleucine 582 mg

25 Linoleic acid 2834 mg

26 Oleic acid 1433 mg

27 Palmitic acid 1284 mg

28 Stearic acid 220 mg

29 Energy 1565 kJ (374 kcal)

2.2.3.5 Edible uses

Seeds of these millets are very small but easy to harvest and very

nutritious. They are eaten cooked or ground into a powder and used

for making cakes etc. They can also be sprouted and used in salads.

The seed can be cooked whole, and becomes very gelatinous, but it is

rather difficult to crush all of the small seeds in the mouth and thus,

some of the seed will pass right through the digestive system without

being assimilated. The flowers are used as a food colouring in

ceremonial maize bread.


Page 6

2.2.3.6 Medicinal Use

In South America grain amaranths are traditionally used in medicine,

folk festivals, and as dye sources. In Ethiopia the root is used as a

laxative, and the seed for expelling tapeworms and for treating eye

diseases, amoebic dysentery, and breast complaints. In India the plant

is taken as a diuretic and it is applied to sores [19, 20]. Table 2.3

summarized the classification of Panicum sumatrense.


Page 6

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[3] http://millets.wordpress.com/millets/

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Page 62

[13] http://www.pestweb.co.nz/view_species.php?sp=Panicum+miliace

um.

[14] D. J. Rosea, & D. K. Santrab, Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)

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[20] S. Sivakumar, O. L. Franco, B. Thayumanavan, A. Murad,

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