chapter 15: reaction and nationalism · section 2 > change bismarck’s german empire allows for...

Revolutionssweep Europe.

1848 Bismarck resigns.1890

Congress of Vienna creates German Confederation.

1815 Alexander IIfrees serfs in Russia.

1861 War breaksout in the Balkans.

1912

1915187518351795

15C h a p t e r

1815–1914

Reaction andNationalism

> Nationalism The rise of national-ism contributes to the unification ofItaly. Section 1

> Conflict Bismarck uses war anddiplomacy to bring unity to Germany. Section 2

> Change Bismarck’s GermanEmpire allows for economic growthbut limits political freedoms.Section 3

> Reaction Czars oppose the forcesof liberalism and nationalism in theRussian Empire. Section 4

> Diversity The empire of Austria-Hungary contains many nationali-ties seeking self-rule. Section 5

SThetoryteller

One Sunday in 1821, 16-year-old Giuseppe Mazzini

walked along a street in Genoa, Italy. Suddenly a tall, black-

bearded stranger approached him. With a piercing look, the

stranger held out his hand for money and said, “for the refugees

of Italy.” Everyone knew that the refugees were those who had

recently rebelled against the Austrians to win independence for

Italy.

Forty years later, Mazzini—now a leader of the Italian

nationalist movement—wrote of this incident: “That day was

the first in which … [I realized that] … we Italians could and

therefore ought to struggle for the liberty of our country.” Dur-

ing the early 1800s feelings of nationalism similar to Mazzini’s

began to stir all across Europe.

How has the force of nationalism repeatedly changedthe map of Europe? What impact has nationalism had onEuropean and world developments in the twentieth century?

Historical Significance

450

Chapter Themes

Chapter 15 Reaction and Nationalism 451

Write a report on a subtopic from“Powder Keg in the Balkans” in Section5 of this chapter. Suggested titles: Declineof the Ottoman Empire, The CrimeanWar, Russo-Turkish War, The Congressof Berlin, Russian Objectives in theBalkans, British Objectives in theBalkans.

Your History Journal

Meeting at Teano by Cesare Maccari. Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, ItalyA desire to unite Italy brought together Sardinia’s King Victor Emmanuel II (left) and the revolutionary leader Giuseppe Garibaldi (right).

Art&History

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web siteat worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 15—Chapter Overviewto preview the chapter.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter15/overview.html

From about the 1100s to the 1800s, centralEurope was made up of numerous king-doms, principalities, and free cities.

Stimulated by the desire for economic growth, bythe success of the American Revolution, and by theexperience of the Napoleonic Wars, a small butdedicated group of Italians and Germans worked tounify these territories into nations in the 1800s. Thedesire for national independence that inspiredthem, known as nationalism, became one of themost powerful forces at work in Europe during the1800s.

In 1815 the modern nation of Italy did not yetexist. At that time the Italian Peninsula was dividedinto a number of independent states, many ofwhich had foreign rulers. A French Bourbonmonarch ruled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,while Austria controlled Lombardy and Venetiaand the pope controlled the Papal States.

In addition to political divisions, cultural andeconomic differences divided the regions of theItalian Peninsula. Not only did people speak differ-ent dialects of the Italian language, but trade barri-ers and poor transportation discouraged the flow ofgoods and people. To move goods the 200 miles(322 km) from Florence to Milan often took 8weeks.

While cultural and economic divisions contin-ued into the 1900s, a growing unification move-ment eventually swept aside the political divisionson the Italian Peninsula. By the 1860s, Italy hadbecome a single country.

Early AttemptsThe name given to the movement for Italian

unity was Risorgimento (ree•ZAWR•jih•MEHN•toh), meaning the “resurgence” or “revival.”

> Terms to Definenationalism, nation-state, guerrilla warfare

> People to MeetGiuseppe Mazzini, Charles Albert, VictorEmmanuel II, Count Camillo di Cavour,Giuseppe Garibaldi

> Places to LocateFlorence, Genoa, Sicily, Sardinia, Rome

Giuseppe Mazzinifounds Young Italy.

1831 Victor Emmanuel II moves the capital from Florence to Rome.

1871 Italiansestablish a unitedkingdom.

1861

1820 19001860

As the crowd shouted “Viva Verdi!”,Giuseppe Verdi smiled. He understood thephrase’s double meaning. Although the throngappreciated his operas, they were actually demon-

strating for a unified Italy.The Risorgimento, thosewishing for a unified Italy,adopted Verdi’s music as arally-cry supporting VictorEmmanuel, the king ofSardinia. When people cheered“Viva Verdi,” the occupyingAustrians thought they werepraising the musician. But thewords meant Viva VittorioEmanuele, Re D’Italia—longlive Victor Emmanuel, king ofItaly.

—adapted from A History ofWestern Music, Donald J. Groutand Claude V. Palisca, 1988

S e c t i o n 1

The Unificationof Italy

The Musician GiuseppeVerdi by Boldini

452 Chapter 15 Reaction and Nationalism

Read to Find Out Main Idea Nationalism led to a unitedItaly in the 1860s.

SThetoryteller

Giuseppe Mazzini was its most effective speaker.A native of Genoa and a bold and active leader inthe fight for Italian independence, Mazzini found-ed in 1831 a secret society called Young Italy. Thegoal of this society was to transform Italy into anindependent sovereign nation. According toMazzini, the nation-state, a political organizationconsisting of one nationality rather than severalnationalities, was very important. Through it, peo-ple in one unified country with common idealscould best contribute their efforts to the well-beingof all its citizens.

In January 1848, Mazzini-inspired nationalistsled a republican revolution in Sicily. Some weekslater, news of larger revolutions in France andAustria sparked uprisings throughout the ItalianPeninsula. When fighting began against Austrianforces in Lombardy and Venetia, King CharlesAlbert of the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the warto expel the foreigners. Nationalists pressured therulers of Naples, Tuscany, and the Papal States tosend troops against the Austrians.

By April 1848 the united Italian forces hadalmost succeeded in driving the Austrians from thepeninsula. Then, saying that he opposed a war withanother Catholic country, Pope Pius IX suddenlywithdrew his troops. Naples followed suit. Theirwithdrawal enabled Austria to defeat the army ofCharles Albert and reestablish its control overLombardy and Venetia.

The pope’s decision infuriated Italian national-ists. In November 1848 angry mobs forced the popeto flee the city. Nationalists proclaimed Rome arepublic and summoned Mazzini to the capital tohead the government. The expulsion of the pope,however, aroused the Catholic governments ofNaples, Spain, and France. As a result, Louis-Napoleon sent a French army to Rome. His troopsoccupied the city and restored the pope to power.

The events of 1848 caused many Italians to losefaith in Mazzini’s revolutionary methods. Theybecame more conservative and turned to CharlesAlbert, who had earned their respect with his bravestand against the Austrians. Nationalists now lookedto Sardinia to lead the struggle for Italian unification.

Count Cavour’s DiplomacyIn 1849 Victor Emmanuel II, Charles Albert’s

son, became king of Sardinia. During the next fewyears Victor Emmanuel II toiled to keep popularsupport for the unity movement alive. He wasgreatly helped in his efforts by a shrewd and deter-mined adviser named Count Camillo di Cavour.

Physically, Cavour was not impressive, as thisdescription by a contemporary illustrates:

The squat … pot-bellied form; the small,stumpy legs; the short, round arms, withthe hands stuck constantly in thetrousers’ pockets … and the sharp greyeyes, covered by the goggle spectacles …The dress itself seemed a part and prop-erty of the man.

Cavour’s looks were deceptive, however.Hidden behind the rumpled clothes and strangeappearance was a bold, intelligent man of great per-sonal charm. By the time of the Crimean War in1854, Cavour dominated Sardinia’s council of min-isters. His major goals were the promotion of rapidindustrial growth, the reduction of the CatholicChurch’s influence, and the advancement ofSardinia’s national interests in foreign affairs.

The defeat of Sardinia in 1848 convincedCavour that the kingdom needed the aid of a for-eign power to expel Austria and achieve Italian


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unity. To win such aid, Cavour decided to supportFrance and Britain in the Crimean War. One histori-an later called this action “one of the most brilliantstrokes of statecraft in the nineteenth century.”

By sending an army to the Crimea in 1854,Sardinia established a claim to equality with theother warring nations. Participating in the war alsowon Sardinia admittance to the Congress of Paris,which settled treaty matters after the war.

War With AustriaNot long after the Crimean War, in the summer

of 1858, Cavour met secretly with Napoleon III atPlombiéres-les-Bains in France. There Napoleon IIIpromised to aid Sardinia in expelling Austria ifSardinia found itself at war. In return, Sardiniaagreed that it would give the provinces of Savoyand Nice to France in the event of an Italian-Frenchvictory over Austria. Cavour next forced Austria todeclare war against Sardinia. He did this by encour-aging nationalist groups in Lombardy to revolt.When Austria demanded that Sardinia withdraw

its support of the rebels, Sardinia refused. Austriadeclared war in April 1859. As he had promised,Napoleon III led a force of 120,000 French soldiersto aid Sardinia.

The combined forces of France and Sardiniadefeated the Austrians at Magenta and Solferino inJune 1859. Austria was on the run. The French suf-fered heavy losses, however, and Napoleon IIIfeared the loss of public support at home if thefighting in Italy continued.

Without consulting Cavour, Napoleon III with-drew from the fighting in July and signed a treatywith Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. By theterms of the treaty, Austria gave Lombardy toSardinia but retained control of Venetia. WhenCavour read these terms, he became furious. Heinsisted that Victor Emmanuel II continue to fight.Believing that victory was impossible withoutFrance, the king refused.

The fighting, however, did not stop. People inTuscany, Parma, Modena, and the papal province ofRomagna overthrew their rulers in late 1859 and

of theof the

Uniting ItalyBefore 1860 Italy was made

up of many separate states. After1860 it became a united kingdombut remained culturally and eco-nomically divided. The deepestdivision was between northernand southern parts of the country.

Southern Italy remained aleading rural and agriculturalarea. Traditional customs werestrong, and artisans excelled invarious crafts.

454

early 1860. Their new governments demanded theright to unite with Sardinia. To gain Napoleon III’sconsent for this unification, Cavour gave Savoy andNice to France. In April 1860 Victor Emmanuel IIaccepted the territories into his kingdom.

Garibaldi Seizes the SouthSouthern Italy remained isolated from the rev-

olutionary fever sweeping the rest of the peninsula,but at the death of Ferdinand II, ruler of theKingdom of the Two Sicilies, Italian nationalistsprepared for a revolution. Their leader was charis-matic military commander Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Forced into exile after taking part in the 1830uprisings, Garibaldi went to South America. Therehe became an expert in guerrilla warfare, a methodof warfare using hit-and-run tactics. Garibaldireturned to Italy in 1848 and took part in Mazzini’sshort-lived Roman Republic. When that fell in 1849,Garibaldi fled to the United States.

Sensing that the people of the Kingdom of theTwo Sicilies were ready to revolt, Garibaldireturned to Italy in 1860. After collecting volunteersin Genoa, he set out for Sicily. When his troops fal-tered, Garibaldi rallied them to victory. In a fewweeks, he gained control of the island.

He then crossed to the mainland and advancedtoward Naples. The army of the Kingdom of theTwo Sicilies proved no match for Garibaldi’s RedShirts, named for the color of their uniforms.Naples fell, and the king of the Two Sicilies fled.

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. How was Italy organized politically before1860?

2. What economic and social differences distin-guished northern Italy from southern Italy?

455

Northern Italybecame a highlyurbanized and indus-trialized region. Thecity of Milan wasknown both for itseconomic prosperityand its festive out-door celebrations.

Tuscany, a region in north-central Italy,was known for its picturesque villagesand vineyards as well as the cultural cityof Florence.

Student Web Activity 15

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 15—Student Web Activities for an activityrelating to Giuseppe Garibaldi.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter15/webact.html

Garibaldi’s successes in the south made Cavournervous. To prevent Garibaldi from further victo-ries, Cavour sent an army into the Papal States. OnSeptember 18 the forces of Sardinia defeated thepapal army at Castelfidaro. Cavour kept control ofthe campaign for national unity.

When voters in southern Italy supported unionwith Sardinia in October 1860, Garibaldi surren-dered his conquests to Victor Emmanuel II. ByFebruary 1861 the whole peninsula, with the excep-tion of Rome and Venetia, was united under onegovernment. Victor Emmanuel II was now king ofthe newly created constitutional monarchy of Italy.

Building a New NationThree months after the unification of Italy,

Count Cavour died. His last words were “Italy is

made. All is safe.” However, many difficult prob-lems confronted the new nation. National unifica-tion had not erased the profound cultural and eco-nomic divisions that separated the south and north.The south was poor and agricultural, while thenorth had begun to industrialize. The gap in thestandards of living between the two regions fueleddiscontent and hampered unification efforts.

In the name of national unity, Sardinia oftentried to force its laws and customs onto the otherItalian states. This tactic only fanned resentment.Former rulers also encouraged discontent. Whensome of these rulers tried to regain their thrones,bloody civil wars erupted.

Gradually the government developed a unifiedmilitary and a national educational system. It builtrailroads, linking not only the south with the northbut also Italy with the rest of Europe. These wereimportant steps toward unification, but culturaland economic barriers remained.

Another problem concerned the location of thenation’s capital. Most Italians thought that Romeshould be the capital of the new nation. During the1860s, however, the pope still ruled the city. In addi-tion, the Austrians continued to control Venetia.

Italy again sought foreign help to solve a polit-ical problem. In 1866 Italy allied itself with Prussiain a war against Austria. In return, Prussiapromised to give Venetia to Italy. Although Austriadefeated Italian forces in the conflict, the Prussianvictory was so overwhelming that Prussia gaveVenetia to Italy anyway.

Foreign intervention also played a role in helping Italy win Rome. When war broke outbetween France and Prussia in 1870, Napoleon IIIwithdrew French troops that had been protectingthe pope. Italian troops then entered Rome andconquered the pope’s territory. In 1871 VictorEmmanuel II moved the national capital fromFlorence to Rome. The political unification of Italywas finally complete.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to show how nationalismled to a united Italy in the 1860s.

Recall2. Define nationalism, nation-

state, guerrilla warfare.3. Identify Giuseppe Mazzini,

Charles Albert, VictorEmmanuel II, Count Camillo diCavour, Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Critical Thinking4. Applying Information How

did one Italian nationalist fur-ther the movement’s aims?

Understanding Themes5. Nationalism How did

the papacy and the CatholicChurch respond to the rise ofItalian nationalism?

After gaining control of Sicily in1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi left for the

Italian mainland. What type of warfare did Garibaldi carryout on behalf of Italian national unity?

HistoryVisualizing

Nationalism

United Italy

➔➔

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT


Germany was the last of the greatEuropean powers to achieve completepolitical unity. In 1815, 39 independent

German states stretched north and south from theBaltic Sea to the Alps, and east and west from theRhine River to the Russian Empire. Political rivalsAustria and Prussia were the most powerful ofthese German states.

While Great Britain and France were develop-ing as strong industrial nations, Germany remaineddivided and economically disadvantaged. TheReformation and the Thirty Years’ War contributedto Germany’s social and political divisions.Antagonisms between Protestant and Catholicstates ran deep. By 1871, however, the Germanstates—excluding Austria and Switzerland—hadunited into a single nation.

Steps Toward UnityThe Congress of Vienna had created the

German Confederation in 1815 as a buffer againstpossible future French expansion. This first majorstep toward German unity established closer eco-nomic ties between the German states and helpedpave the way for greater political union.

The German Confederation loosely tied togeth-er the numerous German states with a diet, orassembly, sitting at Frankfurt. Austria dominatedthe confederation. Its position as head of the dieteventually brought it into conflict with Prussia.Neither Austria nor the smaller German stateswanted to see a united Germany. Austria feared theeconomic competition, while the smaller statesfeared domination by Prussia.

The largest of the German states, Prussia had awell-organized government and a strong economy.Political power in Prussia lay in the hands of

William Ibecomes emperorof a united Germany.

1871 Prussia and Austria fight SevenWeeks‘ War.

1866

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German states create the Zollverein.

1834

> Terms to Definerealpolitik, kaiser, chancellor

> People to MeetWilliam I, Otto von Bismarck

> Places to LocateFrankfurt, Austria, Prussia, Schleswig,Holstein

Klaus von Erlach was impressed by Otto vonBismarck’s message, although many of Klaus’s fel-low aristocrats disliked the Iron Chancellor, con-sidering him a traitor to his class. Who other thana great leader, Klaus wondered, would be able todefend a change of political opinion? As Bismarckstated, “The man who does not learn also fails toprogress and cannot keep abreast of his time.People are falling behind when they remain rootedin the position they occupied two years ago.” If

Germany was toprogress, the old sys-tems would have toadapt.

—adapted from“Professorial Politics,”Otto von Bismarck,reprinted in Sources ofWorld History, Mark A.Kishlansky, 1995

S e c t i o n 2

The Unificationof Germany

Otto von Bismarck

Read to Find Out Main Idea Bismarck used war anddiplomacy to unite the German states.

SThetoryteller

influential aristocratic landowners called Junkers(YUN•kuhrs), but members of the rising businessclass demanded a share of political power. Toreduce trade barriers, German states in 1834 formeda Zollverein, or economic union. This step towardunity strengthened the influence of Prussia, whileweakening that of Austria, in German affairs.

In 1848, as revolutions swept Europe, power inthe German states shifted to the liberals. From allparts of Germany, delegates met in the FrankfurtAssembly to unite the country under a liberal constitution. Internal feuding, however, weakenedthis effort, allowing the conservatives to regain control. In 1849 the Prussian military forced theAssembly’s closure and later put down streetrevolts. Many liberal and radical Germans fledabroad, especially to the United States. During the1850s, in Germany as in other parts of Europe, con-servatives in many cases came to control nationalistcauses.

Rise of BismarckGerman conservatives looked to Prussia for

help in uniting Germany. In 1861 William I becameking of Prussia. Opposed to liberal ideas, Williambelieved in a strong military and took steps toexpand the Prussian army. Liberal German nation-alists, however, saw no use for a strong militaryexcept to control the Prussian people. They wantedthe king to adopt democratic policies to gain support from the other German states. As a result, liberal deputies in the Prussian assembly over-whelmingly defeated new taxes to support a largerarmy.

Frustrated by the defeat, the king appointed ashis new prime minister a man who shared hisviews on army reconstruction. That man was Ottovon Bismarck. A Junker himself, Bismarck hadserved in the Prussian assembly and as ambassadorto Russia and France. He shared the king’s viewthat Prussia needed a strong government and armyto achieve German unity. A brilliant negotiator,Bismarck embraced the policy of realpolitik, theright of the nation-state to pursue its own advan-tage by any means, including war and the repudia-tion of treaties.

In September 1862 Bismarck defied thefinance committee of the Prussian assembly. Hedeclared that the great issues of the times wouldnot be decided “by speeches and majority deci-sions … but by blood and iron.” When the lowerhouse again refused to approve the new armybudget, Bismarck pushed the program through bysimply collecting the necessary taxes withoutauthorization.

Three WarsBismarck once said, “Show me an objective

worthy of war and I will go along with you.” Asprime minister, he found several worthy objectives.His initial goal was to raise money for army expansion. Then he wanted Prussia to use its mili-tary and economic power to reduce Austrian influ-ence among the German states. Finally, he plannedto arrange the unification of all German statesexcept Austria and Switzerland under Prussiandomination. To accomplish these objectives,Bismarck went to war three times.

War Against DenmarkBy inheritance, the king of Denmark ruled

the territories of Schleswig and Holstein.Schleswig’s population was part German and partDanish; Holstein’s population was entirelyGerman. When King Christian IX proclaimedSchleswig a Danish province in 1863, Germans inboth territories appealed to the larger Germanstates for support.


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To prevent Danish annexation of Schleswig,Bismarck persuaded Austria to join Prussia indeclaring war against Denmark in 1864. Prussiaand Austria soon won this war and forcedDenmark out of the disputed provinces. By mutualagreement, Prussia took control of Schleswig, andAustria took over the administration of Holstein.This arrangement strained the relationship betweenthese rival powers.

The war accomplished two of Bismarck’s objec-tives. First, it made Europe aware of Prussia’s mili-tary might and influence. Second, the tensionresulting from the war settlement gave Bismarckthe excuse he wanted for going to war with Austria.

Seven Weeks’ WarOne month before the invasion of Schleswig,

Bismarck wrote to his envoy in Paris:

You do not trust Austria. Neither do I.But I consider it the correct policy at pre-sent to have Austria with us. Whether themoment of parting will come, and onwhose initiative, we shall see.… I am notin the least afraid of war, on the contrary… you may very soon be able to convince

yourself that war also is included in myprogram.

Bismarck prepared for war by stripping Austriaof possible allies. He gained Russia’s goodwill byoffering the czar aid against Polish rebels in 1863.He offered France possible “compensations” for itsneutrality in case of an Austro-Prussian war. Healso forged an alliance with Italy by supporting itsclaim to Venetia in return for military supportagainst Austria.

Bismarck gained public support for his actionswhen Austria sided with the duke ofAugustenburg, who claimed title to Schleswig andHolstein. To prevent an alliance between Austriaand the duke, Bismarck ordered Prussian troopsinto Austrian-occupied Holstein. When Austriathen asked the German Confederation to take mili-tary action against Prussia for this invasion,Bismarck responded by declaring war againstAustria.

The war between Austria and Prussia began onJune 15, 1866, and ended in a Prussian victory justseven weeks later. For Bismarck, the conflict hadbeen a limited war with limited objectives. Its pur-pose was to separate Austria from Germany and


MAKING THE CONNECTION

1. What geographical factors con-tributed most to the growth ofregionalism in Germany?

2. How did physical barriers delay thegrowth of nationalism in Germany?

A Divided Land

Germany’s geography has made it acountry of distinct regions. Throughout Ger-

man history, rivers havedrawn people in differ-ent directions. Thenorth-flowing Rhine,Weser, and Oder Rivershave linked the peoplesof these river valleys tothe northern plains. Insouthern Germany, theDanube River has orient-ed people of that regionto the southeast.

Mountains andhighland areas—especially the Alps and theCentral Highlands—have isolated populations

and strengthened local dialects and traditions.In the past, political and religious con-

flict heightened divisions; Swabians consid-ered Westphalians as foreigners, andBavarians regarded Prussians as archrivals.This regionalism led Germans to resist politi-cal unity until the late 1800s. In the 1900s,the German defeat in World War II and therivalry between the United States and theSoviet Union caused Germany’s division intoeastern and western parts. With commu-nism’s fall, Germany finally reunited in 1990.

A divided Berlin

Discuss the geographical and historical factors contributing to Ger-man regionalism. What has been therelationship between regionalism andnational unity in the United States?

end the chance for a united Germany underAustrian control. In the end, Bismarck did not wantto destroy Austria with a harsh peace settlement.He knew that he would probably need an alliancewith Austria in the future.

The treaty ending the war was negotiated inthe city of Prague. The settlement dissolved theGerman Confederation and gave Holstein to Prussiaand Venetia to Italy. The treaty also called for “anew organization of Germany without the partici-pation of Austria.”

This “new organization” became the NorthGerman Confederation in 1867. It embraced all theGerman states north of the Main (MYN) River. TheConfederation’s constitution gave each state theright to manage its domestic affairs, but put foreignpolicy and national defense in the hands of Prussia.Legislative authority was vested in a federal coun-cil composed of representatives from the variousgovernments and a diet, or assembly, elected byuniversal male suffrage.

The establishment of a strong confederation byPrussia made Bismarck a hero among Germannationalists. Bismarck’s work of uniting Germany,however, was not finished.

The Franco-Prussian WarThe southern German states, which were large-

ly Catholic, remained outside the new German con-federation. Most of them feared Protestant Prussia’smilitary strength and its control of Germany. Thekingdoms of Bavaria and Württenberg (WUHR•

tehm•BUHRG), in particular, steadfastly opposedGerman unification under Prussian rule. Theywould accept German unification only if Prussiagave up some of its authority in a united govern-ment. Prussia would not agree to this, however.

France posed the most serious obstacle to aunited Germany. Napoleon III would not acceptGerman unification unless France received someterritory—its compensation for not joining Austriain the Seven Weeks’ War. To resolve the situation,Bismarck again chose war.

Some historians believe that Bismarck wasresponsible for the Franco-Prussian War. In hismemoirs, Bismarck had written that “a Franco-German [Prussian] war must take place before theconstruction of a united Germany could be real-ized.” If Napoleon III had not wanted war as muchas Bismarck, however, the war may never havetaken place. Bismarck knew that he could notinvade France without public support. Instead, hehad to lure France into war, taking advantage ofNapoleon III’s weakness in foreign policy and of the French public’s current anti-Prussian feeling.

Bismarck’s chance came in 1870 in connection withthe Hohenzollern candidacy for the Spanish throne.

A revolution in 1868 had deposed QueenIsabella of Spain. The Spanish government offeredthe throne to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, aCatholic cousin of William I of Prussia. Fearing aSpanish-German alliance against France, NapoleonIII protested the offer. William brushed aside thisprotest, but Leopold later voluntarily declined thethrone.

In July 1870, France demanded a promise fromWilliam that a Hohenzollern would never sit on theSpanish throne. William, who was vacationing atthe German resort of Ems, refused. In a telegram toBismarck, he described the details of his meetingwith the French ambassador. To make it appear thatWilliam had deliberately insulted the French envoy,Bismarck altered the Ems telegram and released itto the press. Newspaper coverage of the supposedinsult enraged the French, leading Napoleon todeclare war on Prussia.

The fighting began on July 19, 1870. More anti-French than anti-Prussian, the southern Germanstates allied with Prussia. With highly efficient mil-itary forces, the Prussians easily defeated the French.



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German Unification 1871

Bismarck succeeded in unifying Germany in just 15 years. Location Why do you think it was

important to Prussia to add northern Germany to its territory?

Bismarck then gained support from all the Germanstates for the unification of Germany under Prussia.

Formation of an EmpireOn January 18, 1871, William I assumed the

title of kaiser, or emperor, of a united Germany. Heruled over a domain that stretched from the BalticSea in the north to the Alps in the south. Bismarckbecame the German chancellor, or chief minister.

The new empire united 25 German states intoone federal union. Although each state had its own

ruler, and some had their own armies anddiplomatic staffs, the kaiser headed thenational government. He had authority tomake appointments, command the military

in time of war, and determine foreign policy.Prussian Junkers now shared power with wealthyindustrialists. Unification did not make Germany amodel democratic state.

William’s son, Crown Prince Frederick ofPrussia, was a liberal and a supporter of reform. Hedeplored the means Bismarck used to bring aboutthe unification of Germany. In his diary, he wrote ofhis despair: “We are no longer looked upon as theinnocent victims of wrong, but rather as arrogantvictors.” While he foresaw many of the conse-quences of Bismarck’s policies, Frederick did noth-ing to change them.


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to show the steps Bismarcktook to unite the Germanstates.

Recall2. Define realpolitik, kaiser,

chancellor.3. Identify William I, Otto von

Bismarck.Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

Imagine that you are a memberof the Prussian assemblyopposed to Otto von Bismarck’s

policy for German unification.What alternative policy wouldyou have suggested to William I?

Understanding Themes5. Conflict Compare Bismarck’s

methods for achieving the unification of Germany withCavour’s methods for bringingabout the unification of Italy.

Otto von Bismarck by Franz vonLenbach, Art History Museum,

Vienna, Austria Otto von Bismarck poses inmilitary uniform with a Prussian helmet. Hecame from the Junker class of Prussia and sup-ported a strong monarchy. What does Bismarck’sstyle of dress reveal about the German Empire formedin 1871?

Art&History

How Bismarck United the German States

1.2.3.4.


Victory on the battlefield brought aboutGermany’s political unity, but theGermans were not united as a people.

Religious, economic, social, and political divisionsremained. German leaders now had to encourage asense of common purpose in the population.

Bismarck became the key figure in earlyGerman nation building. With the support of KaiserWilliam I, Bismarck took charge of policy in theGerman Empire. Over the years, he faced severaldirect challenges to the German nation-state andhis own political authority.

Bismarck and the ChurchOne of the first challenges Bismarck faced was

with the Catholic Church in the so-calledKulturkampf (kul•TUR•KAHMF), or cultural strug-gle, between Church and state. After German unifi-cation, Catholics in Germany organized the Centerparty to represent their interests in opposition tothe predominantly Protestant Prussians.

Bismarck viewed Catholicism as an antination-alist force and consequently supported theProtestants in political affairs. In part, he wasannoyed at the popularity of the Center party. Hewas also worried about an 1870 proclamation byCatholic bishops in Rome declaring papal infalli-bility—the doctrine that the pope, when speakingon matters of faith and morals, is infallible, or freefrom error.

Since the Jesuits, in Bismarck’s eyes, were papalagents working to destroy the German Empire, thechancellor launched his campaign against theChurch by expelling the Jesuits from Germany in1872. One year later, the German legislature beganpassing a series of laws aimed at destroyingCatholic influence in Germany. These so-calledMay Laws deprived Catholic bishops of much oftheir authority and even required that weddings be performed by secular officials. In response,


> Terms to Definepapal infallibility, militarism

> People to MeetPope Pius IX, Ferdinand Lassalle, William II

Germany‘s standing army numbers more than 800,000 soldiers.

1913 Bismarck expelsJesuits from Germany. 1872 German

government provideshealth insurance toworkers.

1883 William II becomes emperorof Germany.

1888

1870 1885 1915 1900

Erich Klein’s Uncle Karl enjoyed talking poli-tics and was eager to explain the German politicalsystem to his American nephew. “Germany con-

sists of twenty-six dif-ferent states that wereonce independent butnow are united. Eachstate has its own gov-ernmental officials andhereditary princes, butthey are all subject toKaiser [William] I.”Erich remarked, “Thisgovernment soundssimilar to the UnitedStates.” Uncle Karlagreed, but mentionedan important difference:“The Kaiser was notelected. He wasacclaimed by the vari-ous princes who were

willing to concede their power so that aristocracyby birth would remain within the German gov-ernment.”

—adapted from Im Vaterland [In theFatherland], Paul V. Bacon, 1910

S e c t i o n 3

Bismarck’s Realm

Kaiser William I

Read to Find Out Main Idea Bismarck’s policies greatlyaffected the German Empire.

SThetoryteller

Pope Pius IX declared the laws invalid and brokediplomatic ties with Germany.

Bismarck soon realized that he was fighting alosing battle. Instead of weakening the Centerparty, Bismarck’s repressive measures strengthenedit. In the legislative elections of 1877, the Centerparty gained even more seats. Even the Junker-con-trolled Conservative party began to opposeBismarck’s policies. Knowing that he needed thesupport of the Center party to defeat a serious chal-lenge from the Socialists, Bismarck sought to makepeace with the Catholics.

When Pope Pius IX died in 1878, his successor,Leo XIII, made an effort to heal the rift withGermany. Eventually, the German legislaturerepealed most laws directed against Catholics. By1881 the Kulturkampf was over.

Germany’s Industrial Growth Prior to unification, Germany was not a great

industrial nation. Primarily agricultural, theGerman states lagged far behind Great Britain inthe production of textiles, coal, iron, and steel.Knowing that Germany’s position as a major polit-ical and military power depended on a strong econ-omy, German political and business leaders workedto expand the nation’s industry. By the mid-1800s,advances in many areas began to transformGermany’s economy. The establishment of theZollverein had already encouraged economicgrowth and spurred efforts to improve transporta-tion. After unification, investment capital fromGreat Britain, France, and Belgium helped to mod-ernize industrial production and establish a mecha-nized factory system.

The development of deep-pit coal mining in theprovinces along the Rhine and the opening of newcoal mines in the Saar made available large reservesof cheap fuel for the new plants. Cities grew rapid-ly. Many young men and women streamed in fromthe villages to work in the new factories. As a result,at the end of the 1800s, Germany finally became amajor industrial power.

The economic changes sweeping Germany con-ferred on at least some of its people the higheststandard of living in Europe. The middle class andthe business leaders benefited enormously from therapid industrialization of the country. Everyimprovement in factory machinery, however,resulted in lower wages and higher unemploymentfor many German workers. They lived in crowded,filthy tenements and toiled long hours under dan-gerous working conditions.

Workers and SocialismPoor wages, long workdays, and job uncertain-

ty made German workers receptive to a more hope-ful vision of the future. They looked forward to ademocratic social order in which they would nolonger be exploited. To help bring about this neworder in Germany, Ferdinand Lassalle, a writer andlabor leader, founded the Universal GermanWorkingmen’s Association in 1863. Although hecalled himself a Socialist and a disciple of KarlMarx, Lassalle did not preach revolution. WhereasMarx called for the workers of the world to revoltagainst capitalism, Lassalle advocated mass politi-cal action to change the system.

Lassalle was a national celebrity who knewBismarck and lectured him on the workers’ plight.He did not live long enough, however, to finish thefight, for he was killed in a duel in 1864. The partyhe founded grew slowly until it merged with theSocial Democratic party in 1875 and became amajor political force.


Pope Leo XIII took a more conciliatoryapproach to new forms of secular

government than did earlier popes. What effect did Leo’spapacy have on church relations with Bismarck’s Germany?

HistoryVisualizing


Ludwig II, King of Bavaria, ruled the indepen-dent German kingdom of Bavaria until 1871and built for himself the storybookNeuschwanstein castle. He came to the

throne unprepared to rule but enthusiastic aboutindulging his two passions: opera and palaces.Ludwig’s castles were based on his romantic vision ofthe past. In each new mansion, rooms were decoratedto look like scenes from the famous operas of nine-teenth-century composer Richard Wagner. Ludwig’sdreamy castles glorified and enshrined a bygone

Germany. Ludwig’s ministers, who had to find thecash to pay for his follies, finally had him declaredinsane and removed from power. Today his castle isone of Germany’s leading tourist attractions.

While Ludwig dreamed and listened to romanticoperas, Count Otto von Bismarck set about unitingthe German Confederation and creating a modernGerman nation through military strength. “The greatquestions of the age,” Bismarck once remarked, “arenot settled by speeches and majority votes … but byiron and blood.” �

Mad Ludwig’s Castle�

PICTURING HISTORY

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Bismarck and the SocialistsDespite his association with Lassalle, Bismarck

believed that any Socialist party was out to changethe government and that it therefore posed a seri-ous threat to the German Empire. To destroy theSocialist movement in Germany, he set out to crushits organization. In 1878 the German legislaturepassed an anti-Socialist bill introduced by Bismarck.Although the bill did not outlaw the party itself, itbanned all Socialist meetings and publications.

Bismarck’s efforts to suppress the Socialists metwith only temporary success. Consequently,Bismarck changed his tactics. He tried to show theworkers that the government, and not theSocialists, had their true interests at heart. Hedirected the passage of several bills that gave work-ers some measure of comfort and security. In 1883,for example, the Sickness Insurance Law gave lim-ited compensation to those who missed workbecause of illness. In 1889 the Old Age InsuranceLaw protected industrial workers in retirement.

Bismarck’s reform efforts, however, did not gofar enough to end the popularity of the Socialists. In1890 the Social Democratic party won 35 seats inthe legislature, which then refused to renewBismarck’s anti-Socialist law.

The Fall of BismarckIn 1888 Kaiser William I died at the age of 91.

Crown Prince Frederick, his liberal-minded son,succeeded him. Frederick III, however, died about100 days after his coronation. William II, his son,succeeded him as emperor in 1888.

Only 29 years old at the time of his coronation,William II was a man of great energy and strong con-servative opinions. Like his grandfather, William I, hefavored militarism, or support for a powerful mili-tary prepared for war. His belief in the absolute

authority of the emperor immediately brought himinto conflict with Bismarck.

Under William I, Bismarck often got his way bythreatening to resign. When Bismarck offered hisresignation in 1890, the kaiser accepted it. Much toBismarck’s surprise, William II “sent the veteranpilot over the side,” as a popular cartoon of the timeillustrated Bismarck’s dismissal.

Bismarck’s policies had left Germany strong,but his strict rule prevented the development of aparliamentary democracy. With Bismarck gone,William II was free to pursue his own policies.During his reign Germany became one of theworld’s major industrial and military powers.




below to list ways in which Bis-marck’s policies affected theGerman Empire.

Recall2. Define papal infallibility,

militarism.3. Identify Kulturkampf, Pope

Pius IX, Ferdinand Lassalle,William II.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Information Pre-

dict what might have happened

if Frederick III had not died sosoon after becoming kaiser of a united Germany.

Understanding Themes5. Change What tactics did

Bismarck use in his attempt to block challenges fromCatholicism and the Socialistmovement?

After governing the German Empirefor almost 30 years, Bismarck

resigned in 1890, when this cartoon was published.What is the cartoon saying about Bismarck’s relationshipwith Kaiser William II?

HistoryVisualizing

Cause Effects

German Empire

Bismarck’sPolicies

In the early 1800s the Russian Empirestretched from Europe to the PacificOcean. More than 60 nationalities, speak-

ing over 100 different languages, populated thisvast territory. Although Slavs, including Russians,comprised nearly two-thirds of the population,many other European, Middle Eastern, and Asiaticpeoples lived within the empire.

The agricultural economy of the RussianEmpire was more oppressive but not much moreeffective than it had been during the Middle Ages.Serfdom, long in decline in western Europe, stillbound the peasants living and working in ruralareas. As a result of this entrenched agriculturalsystem, Russia’s level of industrialization remainedlower than that of western Europe.

As an autocracy, a government in which oneperson rules with unlimited authority, the politicalstructure of the Russian Empire had also remainedmuch as it was in the days of Peter the Great. The forces of reform, already at work in westernEurope in the early 1800s, soon threatened this tra-ditional economic and political order of the RussianEmpire.

Autocracy on the DefensiveAlexander I, who ruled from 1801 to 1825,

dreamed of improving Russia’s system of govern-ment and even granted a constitution to Russian-ruled Poland for a brief period of time. Convincedby the Napoleonic Wars that he was the savior ofEurope, Alexander soon lost his desire to improvesocial, political, and economic conditions within hiscountry.

The Russian officers who fought in theNapoleonic Wars were impressed by the reformsthey saw in western Europe. Many of these officersjoined secret societies to discuss the need in theircountry for economic reform, for a constitutionalgovernment, and for freeing the serfs. In December


> Terms to Defineautocracy, emancipation, zemstvo, anarchy, nihilist, Russification, pogrom,soviet, duma

> People to MeetAlexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander II,Nicholas II, Empress Alexandra, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks, Lenin

> Places to LocatePoland, St. Petersburg

Nicholas II issuesthe October Manifesto. 1905 The Decembrist

uprising fails. 1825 Nicholas I dies. 1855 Populist movement

reaches out to peasants. c. 1870

1815 1845 1905 1875

Prince Peter Kropotkin, a student in theCorps of Pages for the sons of the aristocracy,went to the opera with his friends the eveningafter Czar Alexander proclaimed an end to serf-dom. The students planned to sing the hymn

“God Save the Czar,” andexpected that everyone wouldjoin them. When they arrivedthey found the band of theopera was already playing thehymn, which was drownedimmediately in enthusiasticcheers from all parts of the hall.This night, Prince Kropotkinthought, was undoubtedly theczar’s finest hour.

—adapted from A Source Bookfor Russian History from EarlyTimes to 1917, reprinted inSources of World History, MarkA. Kishlansky, 1995

S e c t i o n 4

Empire of the Czars

Czar Alexander II

Read to Find Out Main Idea A number of factors caused revolutionary movements to develop in Russia.

SThetoryteller

1825, some of these officers took advantage of theuncertainty about the transfer of power afterAlexander I’s death and staged a military revolt.

Although the government quickly crushed theso-called Decembrist Revolt, the uprising had twovery different effects. Its leaders were seen as mar-tyrs and inspired later generations of revolutionar-ies. In the short term, however, the uprising hard-ened the determination of Alexander I’s successor,Nicholas I, to strengthen the autocracy and sup-press all opposition.

Under Nicholas I, the secret police had unlimitedpower to arrest and imprison people without trialand to censor the press. Despite Nicholas I’s efforts toresist change, demands for reform persisted duringthe 1830s and 1840s. Russian losses in the CrimeanWar underscored the fact that the Russian Empirewas in serious trouble. Nicholas, however, was too illto begin any reforms. Following Nicholas I’s deathin 1855, his son Alexander II undertook the task ofsaving the autocracy and preventing a revolution.

Alexander II and ReformsRussia’s humiliating defeat in the Crimean War

revealed the extent to which the nation laggedbehind the other European powers militarily andeconomically. One major reason for Russia’s back-wardness was its system of serf labor. To progress,Russia needed to industrialize, but to industrialize,the factories needed a steady source of cheap labor.Only the serfs could provide this labor force, butthey were not free to leave the land.

On March 3, 1861, Alexander II decreed theemancipation, or freeing, of the serfs. Although theserfs attained legal freedom, they received no landindividually. Their village communities, calledmirs, were granted varying amounts of the land-lords’ holdings, for which they had to undertake a50-year mortgage. Peasants could not leave themirs without paying their share, so they were stillbound to the worst land and had an additional taxto pay. The landlords kept the best land and


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Railroads in 1914

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Russian Expansion 1801–1914

Russia expanded its borders in every direction between 1801 and 1914. Region How many different languages and nationalities were a part of Russia‘svast territory?

MapMapStudyStudy

received compensation from the government fortheir losses.

Many peasants gave up farming rather thanreturn to bondage. Landless peasants moved fromthe farms to the cities, adding to the growing num-bers of unskilled urban workers. Their discontentrevealed itself in occasional minor uprisings andproduced new stirrings of revolutionary activity inthe Russian Empire.

Because the emancipation decree took controlof the provinces away from the landowners, it alsocreated the need for a new system of local govern-ment. An 1864 law created this new system. Locallyelected assemblies called zemstvos took charge ofprovincial matters such as schools and health care.Three groups could vote in zemstvo elections: thenobility, the wealthy townspeople, and the peas-ants. The vote was weighted, however, so thatnoblemen and rich taxpayers dominated the localassemblies.

Czar Alexander II became known as the CzarLiberator for freeing the serfs and for his manyreforms. In addition to those already mentioned, helimited the use and authority of the secret police,eased restrictions on the press, modernized thejudicial system, and expanded the educational sys-tem. Alexander also reorganized the Russian army,reducing the period of active military service from25 years to 6 years.

Unfortunately, the reforms of Alexander II satis-fied few Russians. The landowners had lost both landand power. The peasantry had made few economicgains. Conservatives feared weakening of the autoc-racy, while reformers pushed for even greaterchanges. Designed to stem discontent, the reformsfailed to halt the growth of revolutionary movements.

Terror and ReactionAmong the most vocal critics of the Russian

government during Alexander II’s reign were intel-lectuals and students from the upper and middleclasses. Although these reformers had strongideals, they had little practical political experienceand almost no direct contact with the Russian peo-ple, especially the peasants.

Radical Movements Some radical reformers, such as Michael

Bakunin, advocated anarchy, or the absence of gov-ernment, and called for the complete destruction ofthe state, the family, law, property, and other insti-tutions. Nihilists (from the Latin nihil, meaning“nothing”) also rejected all traditions, believingthat Russia would have to destroy the czarist autoc-racy and build a completely new society.

Beginning in the early 1870s, many reformersbecame active in a new movement known as pop-ulism. The populists believed that the peasantswould eventually lead a revolution, overthrow theczar, and establish a socialist society. To furthertheir cause, groups of students and intellectualswent to the villages to prepare the peasants for rev-olution. The peasants, however, often grew suspi-cious of the young revolutionaries and sometimeseven turned them over to the police. Frustrated bytheir lack of success, many populists turned to vio-lent tactics.

The most radical faction of the revolutionariesplotted the assassinations of key officials in order tofrighten the government into making radicalreforms. Beginning in 1866, revolutionaries madeseveral attempts to assassinate Alexander II.Although Alexander insisted that these radicals becrushed, he eventually responded to popular pres-sure by drafting a plan to establish a nationalassembly. Before the plan could be enacted, howev-er, a young revolutionary killed the czar with abomb in 1881.

Alexander IIIAlexander III, who succeeded his father, vowed

to maintain the old order and crush revolutionaries.He warned that he would not tolerate a constitutionand reduced the powers of the zemstvos. Reversinghis father’s reforms, he abolished autonomy in theschools, restored censorship of the press, andextended the powers of the secret police.

To protect the autocracy, Alexander III used aresurgence of nationalism to promote a policy ofRussification. Designed as an attempt to unite theempire’s many peoples, Russification instead


A Sickly PrinceIn 1904 Czar Nicholas IIand Empress Alexandra

finally had a son—an heir to the throne— afterfour girls. Tragically, Alexis suffered from hemo-philia, an inherited disease preventing the normalclotting of blood. To ease her son’s agonies,Alexandra relied on a mystic healer namedGrigori Rasputin (ra•SPYOO•tuhn). Rasputin’sapparent success in helping Alexis gave him greatpolitical influence over the czar. This in turnincreased Nicholas’s isolation from his people andthe forces of change sweeping his empire.

became an official policy of intolerance and perse-cution of non-Russian peoples. Anyone who ques-tioned the czar’s authority, who spoke a languageother than Russian, or who followed a religionother than Eastern Orthodoxy risked prosecution.

Russification singled out the Jews in particularfor persecution. Government decrees deprivedJews of the right to own land and forced them tolive in a certain area of the empire called the Pale.The government also encouraged bloody pogroms,or organized massacres of a minority group, inJewish communities.

The Revolution of 1905After Alexander III’s death in 1894, many

Russians were disappointed when his son Nicholas IIstated he would also rule as an autocrat. The newczar, however, lacked the strong will to make abso-lute rule effective. He was easily influenced by thosearound him, particularly his wife, Empress Alexandra,who wanted their son to inherit an autocracy.

During the reign of Nicholas II, a revolutionarymood swept over Russia. Peasants grew increasing-ly dissatisfied; national minorities called for an endto persecution; and middle-class reformers pushedfor a constitutional monarchy. At the same time, theemancipation of the serfs and rapid industrializa-tion had resulted in a marked increase in the size ofthe urban working class. Russian factories at theturn of the century lacked proper lighting, ventila-tion, and sanitation. Workers toiled long hours forlittle pay and lived in terrible, overcrowded hous-ing. Not surprisingly, then, urban workers joinedthe ranks of the dissatisfied.

Russian Marxists By the early 1900s several revolutionary groups

in Russia followed the teachings of Karl Marx.Their members believed that the working class, notthe peasants, would lead the revolution. TheMensheviks believed that Russia needed to devel-op into an industrial state with a sizable workingclass before a socialist revolution could occur. Themore radical Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir IlyichUlyanov—commonly known as Lenin—believedthat a small party of professional revolutionaries


Moscow workers, students, and intellectuals fought czaristtroops during the 1905 Revolution. How did the czarist government

under Alexander III and Nicholas II deal with its opponents?

HistoryVisualizing

could use force to bring about a socialist society inthe near future.

UpheavalsWar between Russia and Japan in 1904 over

control of Manchuria furthered the Socialists’cause. Russian land forces suffered major setbacks,and a Russian fleet attempting to deliver supplieslost many ships in a Japanese attack. With themediation of the United States, the war-exhaustedempires finally concluded a peace agreement in 1905.

Russia’s humiliating military performanceheightened opposition to the czar’s government byurban workers, middle-class thinkers, and peas-ants. The war had strained the Russian economy,raising food prices while keeping wages low.

Spontaneous strikes began to break out inmany cities throughout the empire. On Sunday,January 22, 1905, about 200,000 workers marched in a peaceful procession to the czar’s palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition for reform. Palacesoldiers opened fire on the crowd, killing hundredsof workers. Bloody Sunday, as the demonstrationwas called, set off a wave of political protests.

Middle-class organizations drew up programsfor political reform. The zemstvos issued lists ofdemands. In the spring of 1905, the first soviets, orworkers’ councils, formed to voice workers’ griev-ances. From all reformist and revolutionary groupscame the cry for the establishment of a representa-tive government elected by universal suffrage.

In October 1905, angry workers seized controlof the major cities in a general strike. As disorderand violence in the cities and rural areas continued,Nicholas II announced a law providing for the elec-tion of a national duma, or legislature. The czar,however, proposed that the Duma serve as an advi-sory council rather than a genuine legislative body.Instead of appeasing the Russian people, the mea-sure set off more nationwide strikes.

The events of October forced Nicholas to yieldreluctantly to the demands of his people. The czarissued the October Manifesto, granting civil rightsto citizens and allowing the Duma to make laws. Intheory, Russia became a constitutional monarchy;in practice, Nicholas kept his powers. Stern mea-sures to restore order, including pogroms againstthe Jews and the arrests of peasant and labor lead-ers, took place. When the Duma tried to act inde-pendently, Nicholas dissolved it.

Nicholas II’s ability to silence opposition wasonly temporary. Russia’s many serious troubles hadnot been resolved. On the eve of World War I, grow-ing numbers of peasants, workers, national minori-ties, and middle-class reformers supported an imme-diate end to the autocracy. Their demands and thestress of war would soon bring revolution to theRussian Empire.



below to list reasons why Rus-sian revolutionary movementsdeveloped.

Recall2. Define autocracy,

emancipation, zemstvo, anarchy, nihilist, Russification,pogrom, soviet, duma.

3. Identify Alexander I, Nicholas I,Alexander II, Nicholas II,Empress Alexandra, Mensheviks,Bolsheviks, Lenin.

Critical Thinking4. Applying Information Select

one of the Russian czars andtell how his policies affectedthe Russian Empire.

Understanding Themes5. Reaction Why was effective

reform difficult to achieve inRussia during the reign ofNicholas II?

�

Washington, D.C., 1863During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation that eventually led to the end of slavery in the United States. This historic document declared freedom for all enslaved people in the Confederacy—the states that were in rebellion against the Union. The Emancipation Proclamation strengthened the Union’s war effort and made the war a fight against slavery. It also weakened the Confederacy by discouragingFrance and England from entering the war.

AROUND THE

Why RussianRevolutionaryMovementsDeveloped



In the early 1800s, in addition to Russia andthe Ottoman Empire, there was a thirddominant power in eastern Europe:

Austria. The Austrian Empire at this time containedmore than 11 different national groups, including theGermans of Austria and the Magyars of Hungary.

Like Russia, Austria lacked national and geo-graphical unity. Also as in Russia, life in Austriaremained almost feudal at the beginning of the1800s. A powerful landed nobility controlled a largepeasant population and resisted any change in theold agricultural system. Through strict censorshipand the arrest and intimidation of protesters, thegovernment sought to stem the forces of national-ism and revolution sweeping through Europe.

The Revolution of 1848As you learned in Chapter 22, the principal

political figure in Austria during the early 1800swas Prince Klemens von Metternich, who held theoffice of minister of foreign affairs from 1809 to1848. Metternich believed that democratic andnationalist movements would destroy the AustrianEmpire and threaten peace in Europe. As a result,Metternich worked to crush all revolutionary activ-ity, both within and outside the empire.

Despite Metternich’s conservative policies,however, the revolutionary movement that hadbegun in France in 1848 spread to Austria the sameyear. Throughout the empire, nationalist groupsdemanded freedom of speech and press, peasantrelief from feudal dues, and a representative gov-ernment. The Austrian Empire seemed on the vergeof collapse.

The tide of revolutionary activity was to turnonce more, however. Infighting among nationalistgroups and within radical factions with different

Treaty of Bucharestends Balkan conflict. 1913 Austria and Hungary

form a dual monarchy. 1867

1855 1875 1915 1895

Congress of Berlinsettles Russo-Turkish War.

1878

> Terms to Definedual monarchy, jingoism

> People to MeetFrancis Joseph, Francis Deak

> Places to LocateAustria, Vienna, Hungary, Bohemia,Moravia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania,Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Josef Heismann knew that the army wasedgy. Once a powerful force, Austria was nowregarded as second-rate. Inflammatory newspaperarticles called for Austria to annex Bosnia, Serbia,and other Slav republics. Josef read an army

newspaper article calling foran immediate invasion: “Onus depends the future of ourEmpire. If we return victori-ous, we shall not only haveconquered a foreign land: weshall have won back Austrianself-respect, given new life tothe Imperial idea and van-quished … the enemy in ourmidst.”

—adapted from The Origins ofWorld War I, Roger Parkinson,1970

S e c t i o n 5

Austria-Hungary’sDecline

Austrian soldiersof the 1860s

Read to Find Out Main Idea The growth of nationalisticfeelings strongly affected the empire ofAustria-Hungary.

SThetoryteller

political ideas enabled conservative forces to strikeback. In Vienna, for example, conflict between mid-dle-class moderates who wanted to reform thepolitical system and radical workers who wanted tooverthrow it weakened the revolutionary move-ment. By October 1848, the government once moreoccupied the capital. When Emperor FrancisFerdinand resigned his throne, his nephew, FrancisJoseph, became emperor at the age of 18.

Francis Joseph moved quickly to restore theconservative order. He dissolved the revolutionaryassembly and rejected the new constitution.Although threatened, the old regime had managedto withstand revolutionary change by playing onenationalist faction against another.

Throughout his 68-year reign, Francis Josephstruggled to maintain a unified empire. Neitherrepressive measures nor reforms, however, helpedease the nationalist tensions that threatenedAustria. At the same time, a series of foreign crisesfurther weakened the empire. In 1859 Austria wasforced to give up the Italian province of Lombardy.Then in 1866, during the Seven Weeks’ War withPrussia, Austria lost its influence over its Germanstates as well.

The Dual MonarchyFrancis Joseph’s efforts to strengthen his

authority were most effectively challenged by the


Francis Joseph ruled theAustrian Empire for 68

years. When he came to the throne in1848, Europe was in the midst of revolu-tions. When he died in 1916, Europe wasin the midst of World War I. What changedid Francis Joseph agree to in 1867 in order tosave his empire?

HistoryVisualizing

Magyars of Hungary. In 1848 Hungarian nationalistsled by Louis Kossuth declared Hungary an inde-pendent republic, but this achievement was short-lived. With Russian help, Austrian forces defeatedthe Hungarian nationalists, and Hungary wasrestored to the Austrian Empire. After Austria’sdefeat in the Seven Weeks’ War (1866), however,Francis Joseph realized that his empire’s stabilitydepended on better relations with the Hungarians.He met with Hungarian leader Francis Deak to seeif a compromise could be worked out.

After months of negotiations, Austria andHungary finally reached an agreement in 1867. TheAusgleich (OWS•glyk), or Compromise, restoredHungary’s independence and divided the AustrianEmpire into a dual monarchy: the empire ofAustria and the kingdom of Hungary. FrancisJoseph remained ruler of both areas. He kept histitle as emperor of Austria, and the Hungarianscrowned him king of Hungary.

In addition to sharing a monarch, the two stateshad common ministries of foreign affairs, war, andfinance. A system of committees handled other mat-ters of mutual concern. In internal affairs, however,Austria and Hungary were completely indepen-dent of each other. Each had its own constitution,prime minister, and parliament.

While Austria and Hungary were independentpolitically, they were dependent on each other economically. Industrialized Austria supplied manufactured goods for the peoples of the dual

monarchy. AgriculturalHungary supplied foodproducts. Their coopera-tion, however, was notwithout conflict. Dis-putes inevitably devel-oped between Austriaand Hungary over for-eign trade, tariffs, andcurrency.

During the mid-1800s, Austrian industri-al growth had been slow. After the creationof the dual monarchy,however, the empire’sproduction of coal, iron,steel, and manufacturedgoods grew rapidly. Theterritories of Bohemiaand Moravia became theempire’s leading indus-trial centers, producingmachine tools, textiles,armaments, shoes, andchemicals. The concen-tration of industry inBohemia and Moraviacaused a more rapidurbanization in thoseareas.

The dual monarchywas satisfactory to boththe Austrian-Germans,who maintained powerin Austria, and the Magyars, who controlledHungary. Other nationalities remained discontent-ed. Three-fifths of the population of Austria-Hungary were Slavs—Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs,and Bosnians— who had no voice in the govern-ment. Many Slavic nationalist groups dreamed ofbreaking free from the Austro-Hungarian Empireand forming a large Slav kingdom. Their discontentbecame a threat to the empire’s unity.

Powder Keg in the BalkansBy the mid-1800s, the Ottoman Empire had

declined to a weakened and diminished state. In1829 Greece won its independence. By 1850 theOttomans had lost the provinces of Moldavia andWallachia to Russia and Algeria to France. In addi-tion, Egypt, Arabia, and several Balkan territorieshad gained their autonomy.

Foreign powers watched the decline of theOttoman Empire closely. Austria hoped to expandinto the Balkan region. France sought to protectpersecuted Catholics within the empire. GreatBritain feared disruption of its Mediterraneantrade. The primary objective of these foreign pow-ers, though, was to prevent Russian expansion intothe region. “We have a sick man on our hands,”declared Czar Nicholas I, referring to Turkey, andRussia stood ready to contribute to its final collapse.

During the Crimean War, from 1854 to 1856,France, Great Britain, and Sardinia helped defendthe Ottoman Empire against Russia’s advances.Although the Ottoman allies defeated Russia in thiswar, the empire continued to lose power and terri-tory. In 1875 nationalists in the Balkan states ofSerbia, Bulgaria, and Romania rose up in revolt,demanding immediate independence from Turkey.The Turks brutally suppressed these revolts withwidespread massacres.


GERMANY

AUSTRIA

HUNGARY

RUSSIA

ROMANIASERBIA

SWITZER-LAND

Bohemia

Moravia

Galicia

Transylvania

Slavonia

BosniaD

almatia

Croatia

Tyrol

Montenegro

Prague

Budapest

Vienna

N

E

S

W

Germans

Magyars

Italians

Romanians

Slavic Groups Czechs Serbs Croatians Slovaks Poles Slovenes Ukrainians Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 100

100

200 mi.

0 200 km

Adr ia t ic Sea

Danube River

12°E 20°E

48°E

44°E

Peoples of Austria-Hungary 1914

Although Germans held the dominant position in Austria-Hungary in 1914, they still made up less than one-half of the total population. Place What was the social and political status of the many Slavic peoples who lived in Austria-Hungary?

MapMapStudyStudy

The Congress of BerlinIn 1877 Russia went to war on behalf of the

Slavic people in the Balkan Peninsula. Publiclyembracing the Slavic nationalist movement becauseit suited the government’s imperial ambitions,Russia used the conflict known as the Russo-Turkish War to justify its expansion into Balkan ter-ritory. The Treaty of San Stefano (1878), whichended the war, created a large Russian-controlledBulgarian state.

As news of Russian victories reached GreatBritain, the public cried out for war. A popular slogan at the time captured the sentiment: “Wedon’t want to fight, but by jingo, if we do, we’ve gotthe men, we’ve got the ships, we’ve got the money,too.” From this slogan came the term jingoism,describing extreme patriotism, usually provokedby a perceived foreign threat.

The great European powers protested theTreaty of San Stefano. In the end a congress ofEuropean leaders met in Berlin, Germany, to reviseit. At the meeting, which began in June 1878, repre-sentatives of the European powers dividedBulgaria into three parts, one of which remainedunder Ottoman rule. Neighboring Serbia,Montenegro, and Romania, on the other hand, wontheir complete independence. Britain gained con-trol of Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary won theBalkan provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Congress of Berlin satisfied few. Russia lostits war gains, and the Ottoman Empire lost much ofits European territory. In addition, the congressdealt with the Balkan states inequitably, grantingindependence for some, but not all, of the people ofany given nationality.

Balkan ConflictBy 1912 the Balkan states had joined forces and

moved to free members of their respective national-ities from Ottoman rule. Encouraged by Italy’s easy

victory over the Turks in North Africa, the BalkanLeague—consisting of Bulgaria, Greece, Monte-negro, and Serbia—declared war on Turkey in 1912.As a result of the war, the Ottomans lost all of theirEuropean territory with the exception of Istanbuland a small surrounding area.

Unity among members of the Balkan Leaguewas short-lived. No sooner had the Balkan stateswon the war than they began to fight among them-selves over the lands they had gained. Before thewar, Serbia and Bulgaria had secretly arranged forland distribution in case of victory. After the war,Bulgaria refused to go along with the plan, notwanting to give up territory won directly in battle.

To keep their land, the Bulgarians in June 1913attacked Greek and Serb forces in the disputed area.In this second Balkan War, Montenegro and Greecesided with Serbia against Bulgaria. Romania joinedthe fighting when it saw the opportunity to winland from Bulgaria. The Balkan conflict broughtnew hope to the Ottomans. Seeing the chance torecover its own lost European territory, theOttoman Empire attacked Bulgaria.

The fighting ended in 1913 with the Treaty ofBucharest, and the disputed land was redistributed.Bulgaria, which lost the war, surrendered much ofthe land it had previously won from the Ottomans.

The Treaty of Bucharest did not bring lastingpeace to the Balkans. Serbia’s increased powerencouraged nationalism among Slavs and threat-ened Austria-Hungary. Russia, in supporting thepan-Slavic movement, sought to extend its owninfluence in the Balkans. The French, British, andGerman governments tried to preserve the existingbalance of power to prevent either Austria-Hungary or Russia from gaining greater influencein the area. Writers of the time called the Balkans“the powder keg of Europe” because it seemedinevitable that events there would sooner or laterexplode into a major European war.



below to list effects of national-ism on Austria-Hungary.

Recall2. Define dual monarchy,

jingoism.3. Identify Francis Joseph, Francis

Deak, the Congress of Berlin.Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

How did the empires of Austria-Hungary and Russia differ from the Balkan countries

in their reasons for interveningin the Ottoman Empire’s problems?

Understanding Themes5. Diversity Explain how ethnic

diversity and rising nationalismcontributed to the decline ofAustria-Hungary. Could thisdecline have been avoided?Why or why not?

Cause Effects

Nationalism inAustria-Hungary



You have to write a report, so you head tothe library. There you are surrounded byshelves of books. Where do you begin?

Learning the SkillLibraries contain many kinds of research

sources. Understanding the content and purposeof each type will help you find relevant informa-tion more efficiently. Here are brief descriptionsof important sources:Reference Books Reference books include ency-clopedias, biographical dictionaries, atlases, andalmanacs.

An encyclopedia is a set of books with shortarticles on many subjects arranged alphabetically.General encyclopedias present a wide range oftopics, while specialized encyclopedias have arti-cles on a theme—e.g., an encyclopedia of music.

A biographical dictionary provides briefbiographies listed alphabetically by last names.Each biography gives data such as place and dateof birth, occupation, and achievements.

An atlas is a collection of maps and charts forlocating geographical features and places. Anatlas can be general or thematic. An atlas containsan alphabetical index of place names that directsyou to the map(s) where that place appears.

An almanac is an annually updated referencethat provides current statistics together with his-torical information on a wide range of subjects.Card Catalog The library’s catalog, on computeror cards, lists every book in the library. Each list-ing gives the book’s author, title, subject, callnumber, and location. Computer catalogs alsoshow whether the book is available.

Many libraries have joined networks. Alibrary network usually has a single computercatalog listing all the books in the network. Apatron can borrow any book in the system.Periodical Guides A periodical guide is a set ofbooks listing topics covered in magazine andnewspaper articles.Computer Databases Computer databases pro-vide collections of information organized for

rapid search and retrieval.If you have trouble finding the needed infor-

mation, ask the librarian for help.

Practicing the SkillSuppose you are going to Germany and want

to learn more about the country before you go.Read the research questions below. Then decidewhich of the following sources you would use toanswer each question and why.

a. encyclopediab. atlasc. historical atlasd. almanace. biographical dictionaryf. catalog entry: Germany—travelg. catalog entry: Germany—modern historyh. periodical guide

1. Locate each city on the trip itinerary.2. What are the places of interest in each city?3. What have been the major events in German

history since 1800?4. What political issues face Germany today?

Applying the SkillUse research resources from your school or

local library to research the following topic: What medical treatment was given to

Czarevitch Alexis, son of Nicholas II andAlexandra? How has medical care of hemophili-acs improved since 1910? List your sources.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 477.

Selecting and Using Research Sources

Study and WritingStudy and Writing

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

Reviewing Facts1. History Use a time line like the one below to

show key events in the Balkan conflicts between1815 and 1914.

2. Government Explain how Sardinia gained con-trol of the Italian struggle for unification.

3. Government Identify the leaders of Italy’s unifi-cation movement.

4. Economics Describe the Zollverein. How did ithelp Prussia lead the German Confederation?

5. Government List the challenges that faced thenew German state.

6. Government Explain why the reforms ofAlexander II satisfied few Russians.

7. History State the effects of the 1905 Revolutionon Russian government and society.

Critical Thinking1. Apply How did foreign powers help Italians

achieve independence?2. Contrast How did the problems that Italy faced

after unification differ from the problems thatGermany faced?

3. Synthesize Why do you think Austria agreed tothe compromise with Hungary that establishedthe dual monarchy?

4. Evaluate What do you think might have hap-pened if Russia’s Czar Nicholas II had given theDuma full legislative power?

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence.Then write a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. anarchy g. dual monarchyb. duma h. nihilistsc. jingoism i. kaiserd. nationalism j. pogromse. Russification k. emancipationf. autocracy l. zemstvo

1. In the 1800s some radical reformers in Russiacalled for __________, the complete destructionof the government, the family, law, property,and other institutions.

2. In 1867 Austria and Hungary reached an agree-ment to transform the Austrian Empire into a____________, consisting of two separate butinterrelated kingdoms.

3. During the 1800s the Russian Empire was an__________, a government in which one personrules with unlimited authority.

4. Among Russian revolutionaries, the _________rejected all traditions, believing that Russiawould have to completely build a new society.

5. The Russian government encouraged bloody______, or organized massacres, in Jewish com-munities of the Russian Empire.


Read two or three recent news maga-zine reports on Bosnia and Herzegovina.Write an essay about how to achieve last-ing peace in the Balkans.

Using Your History Journal

CHAPTER 15 ASSESSMENT

18151914

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Modern EraWeb site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 15—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Using a Word ProcessorSearch the Internet oryour local library for sourcesabout the history of Russian czars. Using a wordprocessor or software, create a genealogy chartof the Romanov dynasty. Include a short reportexplaining why the empire of the czars endedand how it impacted Russian culture.

Technology Activity

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=005&CHAPTER=15&TITLE=Reaction+and+Nationalism

Geography in History1. Place Refer to the map below. In what two

areas was most of the fighting during theRusso-Japanese War?

2. Movement Across what two bodies of waterwere Japanese troops transported to the warzone?

3. Movement What railway helped in movingJapanese forces north?

4. Region What effect did Russia’s setback in thisregion have on the czar’s government?

Understanding Themes1. Nationalism How did the rise of nationalism

spur the unification movement in Italy?2. Conflict How did Bismarck promote his goal

of German unification? 3. Change What changes came to Germany’s

economy after unification? 4. Reaction How did the policies of Alexander III

affect the Jews and other non-Russian groupswithin the Russian Empire?

5. Diversity How did the great diversity of nationalities in the Austrian Empire lead to theestablishment of the dual monarchy in the mid-1800s?

1. Bismarck had the difficult task of forging astrong, united German nation. What prob-lems did he face? What problems haveconfronted German leaders since the early1990s in reuniting Germany today afternearly 50 years of division into Communistand democratic areas?

2. Alexander III carried out a policy of Russifi-cation that led to intolerance and persecu-tion of non-Russian groups in the RussianEmpire. Are similar policies carried out to-day in Russia and the other countries of theformer Soviet Union? Explain your answer.

Skill PracticeFor each research question below, decide which of thesesources would provide relevant information.

a. encyclopediab. atlasc. historical atlasd. almanace. biographical dictionaryf. catalog entry: European history 19th century g. catalog entry: nationalismh. periodical guide

1. How have the borders of the countries dis-cussed in Chapter 15 changed since World War I?

2. What are the latest population statistics forGermany, Italy, Austria, Hungary, and Russia?

3. What were Otto von Bismarck’s greatest accom-plishments?

4. What nationalist struggles have occurred inEurope in the last decade?


Movement of Japanese forces, 1904–1905

Railways in 1918

KOREA

CHINA

Manchuria

Harbin

Vladivostok

Kirin

Changchun

LiaoyangAnshan

PyongyangWonsan

Seoul

Mokpo Masampo Pusan

Shimonoseki

Sasebo

DairenPortArthur

Kiaochow Tsingtao

Shanhaikuan

Kirin(occupied by Russia

1897 to 1905)

C hinese Eastern Railway

South

Man

chur

ianRail

way

Antung

RUSSIA

JAPAN

Seaof

Japan

Yellow Sea

Russo–Japanese War

CHAPTER 15 ASSESSMENT

chapter 15: reaction and nationalism · section 2 > change bismarck’s german empire allows for...

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