Chapter 15Chapter 15

Geology and Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Nonrenewable Mineral

ResourcesResources

Chapter Overview QuestionsChapter Overview Questions

What major geologic processes occur within What major geologic processes occur within the earth and on its surface?the earth and on its surface?

What are nonrenewable mineral resources What are nonrenewable mineral resources and where are they found?and where are they found?

What are rocks, and how are they recycled What are rocks, and how are they recycled by the rock cycle?by the rock cycle?

How do we find and extract mineral How do we find and extract mineral resources from the earth’s crust, and what resources from the earth’s crust, and what harmful environmental effects result from harmful environmental effects result from removing and using these minerals?removing and using these minerals?

Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)

Will there be enough nonrenewable mineral Will there be enough nonrenewable mineral resources for future generations?resources for future generations?

Can we find substitutes for scarce Can we find substitutes for scarce nonrenewable mineral resources?nonrenewable mineral resources?

How can we shift to more sustainable use of How can we shift to more sustainable use of nonrenewable mineral resources?nonrenewable mineral resources?

Updates OnlineUpdates Online

The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at the book companion website. Log in to the book’s e-resources page at the book companion website. Log in to the book’s e-resources page at www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles. www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.

InfoTrac: Residents discuss towns' deaths. InfoTrac: Residents discuss towns' deaths. Daily OklahomanDaily Oklahoman (Oklahoma (Oklahoma City, OK) August 2, 2006.City, OK) August 2, 2006.

InfoTrac: All that glitters: the demand for gold is soaring. Jane Perlez, InfoTrac: All that glitters: the demand for gold is soaring. Jane Perlez, Kirk Johnson. Kirk Johnson. New York TimesNew York Times, May 8, 2006 v138 i14 p12(6) ., May 8, 2006 v138 i14 p12(6) .

InfoTrac: In Old Mining Town, New Charges Over Asbestos. Kirk InfoTrac: In Old Mining Town, New Charges Over Asbestos. Kirk Johnson. Johnson. The New York Times,The New York Times, April 22, 2006 pA1(L). April 22, 2006 pA1(L).

Science Daily: Putting Coal Ash Back Into Mines A Viable Option For Science Daily: Putting Coal Ash Back Into Mines A Viable Option For Disposal, But Risks Must Be AddressedDisposal, But Risks Must Be Addressed

National Park Service: Mining Operations ManagementNational Park Service: Mining Operations Management Arizona Mining Association: From the Ground Up: Mining/Mineral Arizona Mining Association: From the Ground Up: Mining/Mineral

Resource Development Resource Development

Core Case Study: The Core Case Study: The Nanotechnology RevolutionNanotechnology Revolution

Nanotechnology uses science and Nanotechnology uses science and engineering to create materials out of engineering to create materials out of atoms and molecules at the scale of less atoms and molecules at the scale of less than 100 nanometers.than 100 nanometers. Little environmental harm:Little environmental harm:

• Does not use renewable resources.Does not use renewable resources. Potential biological concerns.Potential biological concerns.

• Can move through cell membranes:Can move through cell membranes:

Figure 15-1Figure 15-1

GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES The earth is made up of a core, mantle, and The earth is made up of a core, mantle, and

crust and is constantly changing as a result crust and is constantly changing as a result of processes taking place on and below its of processes taking place on and below its surface.surface.

The earth’s interior consists of:The earth’s interior consists of: CoreCore: innermost zone with solid inner core and : innermost zone with solid inner core and

molten outer core that is extremely hot.molten outer core that is extremely hot. MantleMantle: solid rock with a rigid outer part : solid rock with a rigid outer part

(asthenosphere) that is melted pliable rock.(asthenosphere) that is melted pliable rock. CrustCrust: Outermost zone which underlies the : Outermost zone which underlies the

continents.continents.

GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES

Major features of the earth’s crust and upper Major features of the earth’s crust and upper mantle.mantle.

Figure 15-2Figure 15-2

Fig. 15-2, p. 336

Volcanoes

Folded mountain belt

Abyssal floor

Oceanic ridge

Abyssal floor TrenchAbyssal hills

Craton

Abyssal plain

Oceanic crust (lithosphere)

Continental Continental shelfshelf

Aby

ssal

pla

in

Continental slope

Continental rise

Continental crust (lithosphere) Mantle (lithosphere)

Mantle (lithosphere)

Mantle (asthenosphere)

Fig. 15-3, p. 337

Spreading center Ocean

trench

Plate movement

Subduction zone

Oceanic crust

Continental crust

Continental crust

Material cools as it reaches

the outer mantle

Cold dense material falls back through

mantleHot

material rising

through the

mantle

Mantle convection

cell

Two plates move towards each other. One is subducted back into the mantle on a falling convection current.

Mantle

Hot outer core Inner

core

Plate movement

Collision between two continents

Tect

onic

pl

ate

Oceanic tectonic

plate

Oceanic tectonic plate

Oceanic crust

GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES

Huge volumes of heated and molten rack Huge volumes of heated and molten rack moving around the earth’s interior form moving around the earth’s interior form massive solid plates that move extremely massive solid plates that move extremely slowly across the earth’s surface.slowly across the earth’s surface. Tectonic platesTectonic plates: huge rigid plates that are : huge rigid plates that are

moved with convection cells or currents by moved with convection cells or currents by floating on floating on magmamagma or molten rock. or molten rock.

The Earth’s Major Tectonic PlatesThe Earth’s Major Tectonic Plates

Figure 15-4Figure 15-4

The Earth’s Major Tectonic PlatesThe Earth’s Major Tectonic Plates

The extremely slow movements of these The extremely slow movements of these plates cause them to grind into one another plates cause them to grind into one another at convergent plate boundaries, move apart at convergent plate boundaries, move apart at divergent plate boundaries and slide past at divergent plate boundaries and slide past at transform plate boundaries.at transform plate boundaries.

Figure 15-4Figure 15-4

Fig. 15-4, p. 338

Fig. 15-4a, p. 338

EURASIAN PLATEEURASIAN PLATENORTH NORTH AMERICAN AMERICAN PLATEPLATE

ANATOLIAN ANATOLIAN PLATEPLATE

JUAN DE JUAN DE FUCA PLATEFUCA PLATE

CHINA CHINA SUBPLATESUBPLATE

CARIBBEAN CARIBBEAN PLATEPLATE

PHILIPPINE PHILIPPINE PLATEPLATE

ARABIAN ARABIAN PLATEPLATEAFRICAN AFRICAN

PLATEPLATEPACIFIC PACIFIC PLATEPLATE SOUTH SOUTH

AMERICAN AMERICAN PLATEPLATENAZCA NAZCA

PLATEPLATEINDIA-INDIA-

AUSTRALIAN AUSTRALIAN PLATEPLATE

SOMALIAN SOMALIAN SUBPLATESUBPLATE

ANTARCTIC PLATEANTARCTIC PLATE

Divergent plate boundaries

Convergent plate boundaries

Transform faults

Fig. 15-4b, p. 338

Trench Volcanic island arc Craton

Transform fault

LithosphereSubduction zone

Lithosphere Lithosphere

Asthenosphere Asthenosphere Asthenosphere

Divergent plate boundaries Convergent plate boundaries Transform faults

Rising magma

GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES

The San The San Andreas Fault is Andreas Fault is an example of a an example of a transform fault.transform fault.

Figure 15-5Figure 15-5

Wearing Down and Building Up the Wearing Down and Building Up the Earth’s SurfaceEarth’s Surface

Weathering is Weathering is an external an external process that process that wears the wears the earth’s earth’s surface surface down.down.

Figure 15-6Figure 15-6

Fig. 15-6, p. 340

Parent material (rock)

Biological weathering (tree roots and lichens)

Chemical weathering (water, acids, and gases)

Physical weathering (wind, rain, thermal expansion and contraction, water freezing)

Particles of parent material

MINERALS, ROCKS, AND THE MINERALS, ROCKS, AND THE ROCK CYCLEROCK CYCLE

The earth’s crust consists of solid inorganic The earth’s crust consists of solid inorganic elements and compounds called minerals elements and compounds called minerals that can sometimes be used as resources.that can sometimes be used as resources. Mineral resourceMineral resource: is a concentration of : is a concentration of

naturally occurring material in or on the earth’s naturally occurring material in or on the earth’s crust that can be extracted and processed into crust that can be extracted and processed into useful materials at an affordable cost.useful materials at an affordable cost.

General Classification of General Classification of Nonrenewable Mineral ResourcesNonrenewable Mineral Resources

The U.S. Geological Survey classifies The U.S. Geological Survey classifies mineral resources into four major categories:mineral resources into four major categories: IdentifiedIdentified: known location, quantity, and quality : known location, quantity, and quality

or existence known based on direct evidence and or existence known based on direct evidence and measurements.measurements.

UndiscoveredUndiscovered: potential supplies that are : potential supplies that are assumed to exist.assumed to exist.

ReservesReserves: identified resources that can be : identified resources that can be extracted profitably.extracted profitably.

Other: undiscovered or identified resources not Other: undiscovered or identified resources not classified as reservesclassified as reserves

General Classification of General Classification of Nonrenewable Mineral ResourcesNonrenewable Mineral Resources

Examples are Examples are fossil fuels (coal, fossil fuels (coal, oil), metallic oil), metallic minerals (copper, minerals (copper, iron), and iron), and nonmetallic nonmetallic minerals (sand, minerals (sand, gravel).gravel).

Figure 15-7Figure 15-7

Fig. 15-7, p. 341

Undiscovered Identified

Reserves

Eco

no

mic

al

Other resources

Dec

reas

ing

co

st o

f ex

trac

tio

n

No

t ec

on

om

ical

Decreasing certainty Known

Existence

GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES

Deposits of nonrenewable mineral resources Deposits of nonrenewable mineral resources in the earth’s crust vary in their abundance in the earth’s crust vary in their abundance and distribution.and distribution.

A very slow chemical cycle recycles three A very slow chemical cycle recycles three types of rock found in the earth’s crust:types of rock found in the earth’s crust: Sedimentary rock (sandstone, limestone).Sedimentary rock (sandstone, limestone). Metamorphic rock (slate, marble, quartzite).Metamorphic rock (slate, marble, quartzite). Igneous rock (granite, pumice, basalt).Igneous rock (granite, pumice, basalt).

Rock CycleRock Cycle

Figure 15-8Figure 15-8

Fig. 15-8, p. 343

Erosion

Transportation

Weathering

Deposition

Igneous rock Granite, pumice, basalt

Sedimentary rock Sandstone, limestone

Heat, pressure

Cooling

Heat, pressure, stress

Magma (molten rock)

Melting

Metamorphic rock Slate, marble, gneiss, quartzite

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF USING MINERAL RESOURCESUSING MINERAL RESOURCES

The extraction, processing, and use of The extraction, processing, and use of mineral resources has a large environmental mineral resources has a large environmental impact.impact.

Figure 15-9Figure 15-9

Fig. 15-9, p. 344

Surface mining

Metal ore Separation of ore from gangue

Smelting Melting metal

Conversion to product

Discarding of product (scattered in environment)

Recycling

Fig. 15-10, p. 344

Natural Capital Degradation

Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources

StepsSteps Environmental effectsEnvironmental effects

Mining Disturbed land; mining accidents; health hazards, mine waste dumping, oil spills and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat

Exploration, extraction

Processing

Solid wastes; radioactive material; air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; ugliness; heat

Transportation, purification, manufacturing

Use

Noise; ugliness; thermal water pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil; solid and radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat

Transportation or transmission to individual user, eventual use, and discarding

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF USING MINERAL RESOURCESUSING MINERAL RESOURCES

Minerals are removed through a variety of Minerals are removed through a variety of methods that vary widely in their costs, safety methods that vary widely in their costs, safety factors, and levels of environmental harm.factors, and levels of environmental harm.

A variety of methods are used based on A variety of methods are used based on mineral depth.mineral depth. Surface miningSurface mining: shallow deposits are removed.: shallow deposits are removed. Subsurface miningSubsurface mining: deep deposits are removed.: deep deposits are removed.

Open-pit MiningOpen-pit Mining

Machines dig Machines dig holes and holes and remove ores, remove ores, sand, gravel, sand, gravel, and stone.and stone.

Toxic Toxic groundwater can groundwater can accumulate at accumulate at the bottom.the bottom.

Figure 15-11Figure 15-11

Area Strip MiningArea Strip Mining

Earth movers Earth movers strips away strips away overburden, and overburden, and giant shovels giant shovels removes mineral removes mineral deposit.deposit.

Often leaves highly Often leaves highly erodible hills of erodible hills of rubble called rubble called spoil spoil banksbanks..

Figure 15-12Figure 15-12

Contour Strip MiningContour Strip Mining

Used on hilly or Used on hilly or mountainous mountainous terrain.terrain.

Unless the land is Unless the land is restored, a wall of restored, a wall of dirt is left in front dirt is left in front of a highly of a highly erodible bank erodible bank called a called a highwallhighwall..

Figure 15-13Figure 15-13

Fig. 15-13, p. 346

Undisturbed land

Overburden

Highwall Coal seam Overburden Pit

Bench

Coal seam

Spoil banks

Mountaintop RemovalMountaintop Removal

Machinery Machinery removes the tops removes the tops of mountains to of mountains to expose coal.expose coal.

The resulting The resulting waste rock and dirt waste rock and dirt are dumped into are dumped into the streams and the streams and valleys below.valleys below.

Figure 15-14Figure 15-14

Mining ImpactsMining Impacts

Metal ores are Metal ores are smelted or treated smelted or treated with (potentially toxic) with (potentially toxic) chemicals to extract chemicals to extract the desired metal.the desired metal.

Figure 15-15Figure 15-15

SUPPLIES OF MINERAL SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCESRESOURCES

The future supply of a resource depends on The future supply of a resource depends on its affordable supply and how rapidly that its affordable supply and how rapidly that supply is used.supply is used.

A rising price for a scarce mineral resource A rising price for a scarce mineral resource can increase supplies and encourage more can increase supplies and encourage more efficient use.efficient use.

SUPPLIES OF MINERAL SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCESRESOURCES

Depletion curves Depletion curves for a renewable for a renewable resource using resource using three sets of three sets of assumptions. assumptions. Dashed vertical Dashed vertical

lines represent lines represent times when 80% times when 80% depletion occurs.depletion occurs.

Figure 15-16Figure 15-16

Fig. 15-16, p. 348

A Mine, use, throw away; no new discoveries; rising prices

Recycle; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveriesB

Pro

du

ctio

n

Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveriesC

Present Depletion time A

Depletion time B

Depletion time C

Time

SUPPLIES OF MINERAL SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCESRESOURCES

New technologies can increase the mining of New technologies can increase the mining of low-grade ores at affordable prices, but low-grade ores at affordable prices, but harmful environmental effects can limit this harmful environmental effects can limit this approach.approach.

Most minerals in seawater and on the deep Most minerals in seawater and on the deep ocean floor cost too much to extract, and ocean floor cost too much to extract, and there are squabbles over who owns them.there are squabbles over who owns them.

Getting More Minerals from the Getting More Minerals from the OceanOcean

Hydrothermal Hydrothermal deposits form when deposits form when mineral-rich mineral-rich superheated water superheated water shoots out of vents shoots out of vents in solidified magma in solidified magma on the ocean floor.on the ocean floor.

Figure 15-17Figure 15-17

Fig. 15-17, p. 350

Black smoker

White smoker

Sulfide deposits

Magma

White clamWhite crab Tube

worms

USING MINERAL RESOURCES USING MINERAL RESOURCES MORE SUSTAINABLYMORE SUSTAINABLY

Scientists and engineers are developing new Scientists and engineers are developing new types of materials as substitutes for many types of materials as substitutes for many metals.metals.

Recycling valuable and scarce metals saves Recycling valuable and scarce metals saves money and has a lower environmental impact money and has a lower environmental impact then mining and extracting them from their then mining and extracting them from their ores.ores.

Fig. 15-18, p. 351

Solutions

Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals

• Do not waste mineral resources.

• Recycle and reuse 60–80% of mineral resources.

• Include the harmful environmental costs of mining and processing minerals in the prices of items (full-cost pricing).

• Reduce subsidies for mining mineral resources.

• Increase subsidies for recycling, reuse, and finding less environmentally harmful substitutes.

• Redesign manufacturing processes to use less mineral resources and to produce less pollution and waste.

• Have the mineral-based wastes of one manufacturing process become the raw materials for other processes.

• Sell services instead of things.

• Slow population growth.

Case Study: Case Study: The Ecoindustrial RevolutionThe Ecoindustrial Revolution

Growing signs point to an ecoindustrial Growing signs point to an ecoindustrial revolution taking place over the next 50 revolution taking place over the next 50 years.years.

The goal is to redesign industrial The goal is to redesign industrial manufacturing processes to mimic how manufacturing processes to mimic how nature deals with wastes.nature deals with wastes. Industries can interact in complex resource Industries can interact in complex resource

exchange webs in which wastes from exchange webs in which wastes from manufacturer become raw materials for another.manufacturer become raw materials for another.

Case Study: Case Study: The Ecoindustrial RevolutionThe Ecoindustrial Revolution

Figure 15-19Figure 15-19

Fig. 15-19, p. 352

Sludge

Pharmaceutical plant Local farmers

SludgeGreenhouses W

aste heat

Waste heat

Waste heat

Waste heat Fish farming

Oil refinery Surplus natural gas

Electric power plant

Fly ash

Surplus sulfur

Surplus natural gas

Waste calcium sulfate

Waste heat

Cement manufacturer

Sulfuric acid producer

Wallboard factory Area homes