chapter 11 the age of jefferson - davenport … 11 the age of jefferson: 1800–1815 359 repeal the...

1800–1804 1805–1809

354 UNIT 4 Early Years of the Republic: 1789–1830

1805 Modern-day Egypt is founded

United States

World1800 Napoleon Bonaparte becomes

ruler of France1804 Haiti becomes an indepen-

dent nation

SETTING THE SCENE

FocusThe election of 1800 was one of the turning points

in American history. For the first time in modern history, the political power of a country transferred peacefully from one political party to another. The presidency of Thomas Jefferson launched a new era, a time of far-reaching changeand rapid growth for the new nation.

Concepts to Understand★ How Jefferson’s policies affected the economic development of

the United States★ How the United States gained a respected role in world affairs

Read to Discover . . .★ the opportunities that the Louisiana Purchase brought the

United States.★ the events leading up

to and during theWar of 1812.

Journal NotesYoung Americans

had many chances for

adventure—at home,

at sea, and on the

frontier—in the years

between 1800 and

1815. As you read the

chapter, keep a record

of those opportunities

and the ways each of

them appeals to you.

� HUNTING SHIRT

Chapter OverviewVisit the American History: The Early Years to1877 Web site at ey.glencoe.com and click onChapter 11—Chapter Overviews to previewchapter information.

HISTORY

1807 Embargo Act goes into effect1808 James Madison elected President

The Age of Jefferson1800–1815

CHAPTER 11★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★

1801 Thomas Jefferson becomesPresident

1804 Lewis and Clark exploreLouisiana Territory

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/chapter11/overview.html

355CHAPTER 11 The Age of Jefferson: 1800–1815

1810–1814 1815–18191815 Napoleon defeated at Battle of

Waterloo

1815 Battle of New Orleans1815 Treaty of Ghent ratified

History

A R TAND

� GEORGE CLARK’SCOMPASS

Perry’s Victory on Lake Erie, 1813by William Birch

During the War of 1812, a young naval officer, OliverHazard Perry, led 10 small ships on an attack againstthe British. The victory on Lake Erie gave Americanshope of winning the war.

1812 Congress declares war on Great Britain

1814 War of 1812 ends

The tall, red-haired Virginian was gift-ed in many fields. One of the country’sbest architects, he designed the classicalred brick buildings of the University ofVirginia, the Virginia Capitol, and his ownhome at Monticello. He was a good musi-cian, too, and enjoyed playing the violin.

As an inventor—still another talent—he designed a special music stand for thefriends with whom he played chambermusic. He was a gardener, a linguist—aperson who speaks many languages—andan inspiring writer. With all those talents,it may be surprising that Thomas Jeffer-son is remembered mainly as a politicalthinker and the third President of theUnited States.

★ The Jeffersonian“Revolution”

Two days after his inauguration, ThomasJefferson wrote a letter to a fellow Repub-lican. (Originally called Democratic-Republicans, the Jeffersonians were nowcommonly called Republicans. They werenot, however, related to the present-dayRepublican party.) In the letter, he referredto his election victory as the “revolution of1800 . . . as real a revolution in the principlesof our government as that of 1776 was inform.” By using the word revolution, Jeffer-son meant that the American people hadvoted for changes as great as those they hadfought for in the Revolutionary War.

Jefferson Takes Control★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★


SECTION 1

GUIDE TO READING

Reading StrategySequencing Information As you readabout Jefferson’s presidency, use a diagramsimilar to the one shown here to list theevents in the struggle between the judicialbranch and the President.

Read to Learn . . .★ how Republican views on government

policies differed from Federalist views.★ how the Supreme Court increased its

power and influence.

Terms to Know★ democratic★ laissez-faire★ impeachment★ Marbury v. Madison★ judicial review★ precedent

Main IdeaThomas Jefferson, the nation’s thirdPresident, worked to simplify gov-ernment and give more power to the people.

� THOMAS JEFFERSON

event

event

event


The peaceful revolution of 1800 provedto the world that the young republic couldmake political changes without violence—something very unusual at the time. Eventhough the Federalists were in despair atlosing the presidency, they peacefullyturned over control of the federal govern-ment. This was the first time in modernhistory that the political control of a coun-try passed from one political party toanother through a democratic election.

Jefferson’s InaugurationOn March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson

became the first President to take the oathof office in the new capital of Washington,D.C. Jefferson was sworn in by Chief Jus-tice John Marshall, a Federalist who wasone of John Adams’s last appointees. Atthe time, the city was still unfinished. Itsstreets were unpaved, and few buildingswere completed.

If Washington was an odd sort of nation-al capital, Jefferson was in many ways anodd sort of man to be the founder of apolitical party and head of state. He hatedcrowds, avoided making speeches, andwas too thin-skinned to enjoy rough-and-tumble politics, that is, politics involvingmuch fighting between people and parties.

A Call for UnityThe change in leadership brought great

political and philosophical change to thepresidency. Jefferson believed the peoplewere the source of a government’s power.He wanted to make government moredemocratic, providing all people withequal rights. Pleading for national harmonyafter the bitter election, Jefferson encour-aged all citizens to work together, stating:“All, too, will bear in mind this sacred prin-ciple . . . that the minority possess theirequal rights, which equal law must protect,. . . Let us, then, fellow-citizens, unite withone heart and one mind. . . . We are allRepublicans, we are all Federalists.”

By this he meant that despite their dis-trust of democracy, Federalists recognizedthat problems are finally settled by the willof the people, and that despite their dis-trust of centralized power, the Republicansdid not propose to destroy the federal government.

★ Simplifying GovernmentFederalists supported a strong central

government and rule by an elite, or awealthier, better-educated small class ofpeople. Jefferson believed in states’ rights

� MONTICELLO Thomas Jefferson had many talents including being a skilled archi-tect. He designed buildings at the University of Virginia and his home at Monticello.What other talents did Jefferson have?istory

PicturingH


and rule by the majority. He thought stategovernments were closer to the peoplethan the national government. In contrastto Alexander Hamilton’s idea that the gov-ernment should actively promote banking,commerce, and industry, Jefferson advo-cated a hands-off policy called laissez-faire(LEH•SAY•FEHR). This French term meansgenerally, “let people do as they choose.”

Jefferson and the Republicans believedthe federal government’s role should be tokeep people from injuring each other. Thecitizens should be “free to regulate theirown pursuits.”

“A Wise and Frugal Government”Besides limiting the power of the feder-

al government, Jefferson wanted to cutthe federal budget and lower taxes. Hesummed up his vision of government inhis Inaugural Address when he said,

A wise and frugal [economi-cal] Government, whichshall restrain [prevent] men

from injuring one another,shall leave them otherwisefree to regulate their ownpursuits of industry andimprovement, and shall nottake from the mouth of labor the bread it has earned.

When George Washington was Presi-dent, Jefferson had opposed many ofHamilton’s economic plans. As President,though, Jefferson did promise to pay off thenational debt, encourage agriculture andtrade, and preserve the country’s credit.

To help cut spending, he appointedAlbert Gallatin as secretary of the trea-sury. An immigrant from Switzerland,Gallatin was a brilliant financier who hadbeen an outstanding member of theHouse of Representatives.

Gallatin worked to simplify govern-ment and avoid the high costs of war anddefense. He and Jefferson greatly cut mil-itary spending. They cut the army from4,000 to 2,500 men and made similar cutsin the number of sailors and naval offi-cers. These actions reduced the UnitedStates’s naval fleet from 25 to 7 ships.

Gallatin also cut the staff of the execu-tive branch to reduce government spend-ing. These measures together helped cutthe national debt from $83 million toabout $45 million. Though Jefferson hadopposed the formation of a national bank,Gallatin convinced him to keep the Bankof the United States intact, or untouched.

No Internal TaxesWith these savings, Jefferson and the

Republican-controlled Congress could

”

“Footnotes to HistoryJefferson Walks to His Inauguration Historians often tell how Jeffersonwalked to his own inauguration wearing a simple gray homespun suit. The simplicity of the third President, though, was completely unintended. Jeffersonwalked to the inauguration and wore plain clothes only because bad weather had delayed the arrival of a new $6,000 carriage and an expensive velvet suit.

� JEFFERSON’S LAP DESK


repeal the unpopular excise taxes onwhiskey and other products. They actual-ly ended all internal taxes. The federalgovernment’s only sources of money werenow tariffs on imports and revenue fromthe sale of Western lands.

Proudly, Jefferson said that those rev-enues—without the addition of taxes—would be great enough to pay for roads,education, arts, and other public works.Beginning his second term, he pointed outthat it was

. . . the pride and pleasure ofan American to ask, whatfarmer, what mechanic, whatlaborer, ever sees a tax gath-erer of the United States?

Out With the Alien and Sedition Acts

The hated Alien and Sedition acts insti-tuted by the Federalists expired at the endof 1801. Jefferson did not renew them. In-stead, he pardoned those who had beenconvicted under the acts, even refundingthe fines that had been paid.

Congress passed a new naturalizationact. It went back to the 5-year residencyrequirement for citizenship, instead of the14 years required by the Alien Acts.

★ Conflict With theJudicial Branch

The Republicans had gained control ofCongress and the presidency in 1800.Between the election and Jefferson’s inau-guration, Federalists in Congress passedthe Judiciary Act of 1801. This actincreased the number of federal judges.Outgoing President John Adams thenfilled many positions with members of hisown party. These judges were known as“midnight judges” because Adams sup-posedly signed appointments for judgesuntil midnight on his last day in office.

Impeaching the JudgesRepublicans argued that this way of

packing the courts with Federalists wasunfair. One of the first acts of Congressafter Jefferson took office was to repeal theJudiciary Act. After doing away with themidnight judges by abolishing their posi-tions, the Republicans tried to removeother Federalist judges by impeachment.

Impeachment means bringing chargesof wrongdoing against a public official.According to the Constitution, a majorityof the House of Representatives can voteto bring such charges against any govern-ment official. The Senate then acts as acourt to put the impeached official on trial.If two-thirds of the Senate finds the officialguilty, he or she is dismissed from office.

In March 1804, Republicans in Con-gress managed to impeach and dismiss adistrict judge and critic of Republicans,John Pickering of New Hampshire. Theynext targeted Supreme Court JusticeSamuel Chase, a harsh critic of the Repub-licans. The House impeached Chase, butthere were not enough Senate votes to

”“

� CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MARSHALL


convict him. This ended the campaign toimpeach Federalist judges.

★ A StrongerSupreme Court

Jefferson soon clashed with Chief Jus-tice John Marshall, his distant cousin. Thecase, which became famous as Marbury v.Madison, involved one of Adams’s last-minute judicial appointments.

As one of his midnight judges, Adamshad named William Marbury as justice ofthe peace in the District of Columbia.Marbury’s official commission, however,was not delivered to him before Jeffersontook office. Because Marbury was a Feder-alist, Jefferson ordered the new secretaryof state, James Madison, not to send Mar-bury his papers.

Marbury then petitioned the SupremeCourt to order Madison to carry out hisduties and deliver the commission. TheJudiciary Act of 1789 gave the Court thepower to issue such an order. After all,said Marbury, a President had signed andsealed the commission.

The Supreme Court voted unanimouslyin the case of Marbury v. Madison. Theydecided that Marbury had the right to hiscommission but that the Court would not

force Madison to hand it over to him. Thereason, Chief Justice Marshall explained,was that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789was unconstitutional. Under the Constitu-tion, Congress could not give the SupremeCourt such power.

Judicial ReviewThe case of Marbury v. Madison was the

first time that the Supreme Court claimedthat it could declare that a law passed by Congress was unconstitutional. Thispower is called judicial review.

This Supreme Court ruling on Marburyv. Madison set a precedent—a model thatlater lawyers and judges would follow.From then on, the Supreme Court coulduse the power of judicial review as a checkagainst the other branches of government.This gave the Supreme Court more powerthan it had ever had.

Jefferson and the Republicans dislikedthe decision because Federalists still con-trolled the Supreme Court. In addition, Jef-ferson believed in a strict construction ofthe Constitution—limiting the authority ofthe federal government to the powersspecifically granted to it by the Constitu-tion. He pointed out that the Constitutionsays nothing about judicial review of fed-eral laws. Nevertheless, Jefferson and theCongress accepted the ruling.

Checking for Understanding1. Define democratic, laissez-faire, impeachment,

Marbury v. Madison, judicial review, precedent.2. What did Jefferson and Gallatin do to cut

government spending? Where did thegovernment get its revenue?

3. What precedent did the Supreme Courtestablish in the case of Marbury v. Madison?

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Issues Re-create the diagram

shown here, and list Thomas Jefferson’s

principles of government and the actions hetook to carry out those principles.

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY

★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★Section 1 ★ Assessment★ SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT ★

5. The Arts Draw a picture of what you thinkthe city of Washington, D.C., looked likeon the day of Jefferson’s inauguration.

ActionJefferson

Principles

The Louisiana Purchase★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★


SECTION 2

GUIDE TO READING

Although Americans moved west-ward even before the American Revolu-tion, in the 1790s most of the populationof the United States still clung close to theAtlantic coast. To people at this time, theWest was the land west of the Appalachi-an Mountains, extending to the Mississip-pi River.

In the early 1800s, this notion began tochange as settlers moved west of the Mis-sissippi River in search of new land andnew opportunities. The United States wasbeginning to grow rapidly.

★ Making a DealWith Napoleon

In 1800 the western border of the Unit-ed States was the Mississippi River. Spaincontrolled both the lower Mississippi andthe important port city of New Orleans.Spanish control often caused problems for Americans west of the AppalachianMountains. Americans depended on theriver to ship their flour, pork, apples, andother products downriver for export tothe East and to the West Indies.

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readabout the Louisiana Purchase, use a chartsimilar to the one shown here to list Jeffer-son’s main reasons for seeking control ofthe Mississippi River and New Orleans.

Read to Learn . . .★ why President Jefferson wanted control

of the Mississippi River and New Orleans.

★ how the United States doubled in size in the early 1800s.

★ how explorations of the West helped the United States to grow.

Terms to Know★ cede

Main IdeaThomas Jefferson arranged to pur-chase western land known as theLouisiana Territory from France, near-ly doubling the size of the nation.

� THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE TREATY

Reasons for Purchase


Despite treaties, Spanish officials madetrouble for American shippers. They occa-sionally stopped them from using thelower Mississippi River or imposed a taxon goods sent through New Orleans.

The Louisiana TerritoryThe land from the Mississippi River

west to the Rocky Mountains—theLouisiana Territory—had changed handsbetween France and Spain several timesin the past 100 years. In a secret treaty in1800, Spain ceded, or granted, theLouisiana Territory to France.

When Jefferson learned of this treaty in1801, he recognized that it held possibledangers for the United States. France’sambitious general, Napoleon Bonaparte,now a dictator, had plans to conquerEurope. Jefferson feared that Napoleonwould also want to build an empire inNorth America. Spain might give himeven more of its American colonies,including the Floridas.

Jefferson also feared that French ruleover the Louisiana Territory would beeven more of a threat to American tradeand travel along the Mississippi River andthrough New Orleans. This would disruptthe growth and development of the west-ern United States.

Jefferson was unwilling to see moreland in North America in Europeanhands. He authorized Robert Livingston,ambassador to France, to offer to buyNew Orleans and West Florida. He sentJames Monroe, a diplomat and formerVirginia governor, as a special envoy, oragent, to negotiate the purchase. TheHouse of Representatives voted $2 millionfor the purchase, but Jefferson authorizedMonroe to offer up to $10 million.

A Revolution in the CaribbeanWhile French and American officials

were negotiating, the French were distract-ed by events in the Caribbean. Inspired bythe ideals of the French Revolution, in 1791enslaved Africans and other laborers in theFrench colony of Saint Domingue hadrevolted against French plantation owners.After fierce and bitter fighting, the rebels,led by Toussaint-Louverture (TOO•SAN

LOO•vuhr•TUR), declared the colony anindependent republic. Toussaint set up anew government.

In 1801 Napoleon sent an army torecapture it. Toussaint was captured andimprisoned in France. Only a few yearslater, however, England and France onceagain were at war. Napoleon needed hisarmy elsewhere. In 1804 the rebelsregained their freedom and set up therepublic of Haiti.

★ The Louisiana PurchaseThe rebellion in Saint Domingue, com-

bined with his war with Britain, endedNapoleon’s interest in a French empire inNorth America. Instead of sending troopsto Louisiana, Napoleon needed his troopsto fight wars in Europe.

Napoleon preferred to sell the Lou-isiana Territory to the United Statesrather than see the British obtain it.Besides, he could use money from thesale to pay for the war with Britain. He

� NAPOLEON

BONAPARTE


ordered his foreign minister, Talleyrand,to ask Livingston how much the UnitedStates was willing to pay for all of theLouisiana Territory.

Surprised by the offer, Livingstonreplied that he had the authority to buyNew Orleans and Florida, not all theLouisiana Territory. How could he makesuch a decision? Luckily, Monroe arrivedthe next day. After discussing the matter,he and Livingston agreed to purchase theLouisiana Territory.

The United States and France signed atreaty in May of 1803. It gave the UnitedStates the Louisiana Territory for $15 mil-lion. The addition almost doubled the sizeof the United States.

★ Controversy Over the Purchase

Considering the territory to be gained,it may be hard to see why anyone wouldhesitate. Yet, Jefferson faced a difficultdecision. The Louisiana Purchase soonbecame the center of debate.

Jefferson and other Republicans werestrict constructionists. That is, theybelieved that the federal government cando only what the Constitution says—andnothing more. Yet the Constitution doesnot specifically give the federal govern-ment the power to purchase territory fromanother country.

On the other hand, the huge territory,much of it unexplored, was an unexpect-ed prize. Owning it would end all theproblems with using the MississippiRiver. Jefferson himself had always beeninterested in the West and had sent outexpeditions to map parts of it. He hadstudied Native American cultures.

One way out of the dilemma was topass a constitutional amendment thatauthorized the purchase of the LouisianaTerritory. Jefferson’s advisers, however,worried that waiting to act on the treatymight give Napoleon time to change his

mind. They pointed out that the Presidentdid have the power to make treaties.

Jefferson, therefore, sent the treaty tothe Senate for ratification in October of1803. In his message to Congress, heexplained its importance:

While the property and sov-ereignty of the Mississippiand its waters secure anindependent outlet for theproduce of the westernStates . . . the fertility of thecountry, its climate, andextent, promise in due sea-son important aids to ourtreasury. . . . ”

“

� TRANSFER OF LOUISIANA The French flag waslowered and the United States flag was raisedover the Louisiana Territory. How much didthe United States pay for the territory?

istoryPicturingH


Federalist OppositionFor the unhappy Federalists, the

Louisiana Purchase was just one more Jef-fersonian action to dislike. They fearedthat this would increase the power of theSouth by adding more states to the Unionthat supported slavery and favoredSouthern policies.

Federalist newspapers also cried outagainst the cost. They wrote that if the $15million purchase price were stacked up insilver dollars, the stack would be threemiles high! Twenty-five ships would beneeded to transport this money to France.

The idea of so much new, open land,however, appealed to most Americans asmuch as it did to Jefferson. The Federalists’opposition harmed their own cause morethan it endangered passage of the treaty.

The Senate quickly approved thetreaty, thus doubling the size of the Unit-ed States and opening the way for west-ward expansion.

★ The Lewis and ClarkExpedition

Much of the land west of the Mississip-pi River was unknown to Americans. Jef-ferson eagerly organized an expedition tolearn more about the area. To lead it, heappointed Meriwether Lewis andWilliam Clark, a fellow Virginian. Bothmen were knowledgeable amateur scien-tists, and had done business with Native

Kentucky

SPANISH

SPANISH

BRITISH

Disputed betweenU.S. and Spain

1803-1819

Tennessee

LakeSuperior

PACIFIC OCEAN

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St. Louis

Fort Clatsop

Fort Mandan

Pike capturedby Spanish

New Orleans

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85° W

50° N

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40° N

35° N

30° N

25° N

100° W105° W 90° W95° W115° W120° W125° W130° W 110° W

MichiganTerritory

IndianaTerritory

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LouisianaTerritory

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LEWIS AND CLARK, 1805

CLARK, 1806

LEWIS, 1806

LEWIS

ANDCLARK, 1804

PIKE,1805-1806

PIKE, 1806

PIKE, 1807

LakeMichigan

PIKES PEAK

LakeHuron

0

0 200 400 kilometers

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Lewis and Clark

Return trip

Pike

The Louisiana Purchase and Western Exploration

Location The purchase of the Louisiana Territory doubled the size of theUnited States. Americans quickly set out to explore the region and landsfarther west. What natural feature is named after Zebulon Pike?

Geography


Americans. Lewis was a captain in thearmy. Clark reenlisted in the army withthe rank of lieutenant.

The expedition was the first scientificproject in the nation’s history to receivefederal money. Jefferson gave Lewis andClark specific instructions. He told themto find the sources of the Missouri River,to try to find a usable route across theRocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean,and to observe the customs of the NativeAmericans they met.

They were also to note carefully the fea-tures of the land, the weather, and theplants and animals they saw. Jeffersonasked for detailed maps of the area.

Starting OutIn the spring of 1804, the Lewis and

Clark expedition set out from St. Louis,Missouri, following the Missouri River.Three boats carried the four dozen mem-bers of the expedition and extensive sup-plies, including gifts for the NativeAmericans such as plumed hats, beads,paints, and knives.

Lewis and Clark recorded their data ingreat detail. They even sent packages backto Jefferson with samples of items fromthe Louisiana Territory. One package con-tained a stuffed antelope, a weasel, threesquirrels, a prairie dog, the horns of amountain goat, elk horns, a buffalo skin,and a number of Native American items.

Shortly before winter, the expeditionreached the homeland of the Mandans, aNative American nation located in what isnow North Dakota. The explorers builtFort Mandan and settled in for the winter.

Crossing the Rocky MountainsThe next spring, April 1805, the expedi-

tion organized their equipment and sup-plies and set out for the Rocky Mountains.They had a new guide and interpreter, aShoshone woman named Sacajawea(SA•kuh•juh•WEE•uh) who had married

a French trader. Sacajawea had lived in theRocky Mountains, so she became aninvaluable addition to the expedition team.

When they reached an area known asthe Black Hills, the landscape changedfrom flatland to hills, to “large irregularmasses of rocks and stones.” From the topof these hills, Lewis glimpsed the RockyMountains, “the object of all our hopes,and the reward of all our ambition.”

Sacajawea guided the expedition toShoshone country in Idaho where she hadbeen born and raised. As the terrainbecame more rugged, the explorers lostmany horses loaded with supplies. Saca-jawea and her people helped Lewis andClark get more horses to continue theirjourney across the Rocky Mountains.

To the Pacific CoastSacajawea and six other Shoshone

guides led the expedition through therugged Rocky Mountains and down intothe valley of the great Columbia River.They reached the Pacific Ocean in the lateautumn of 1805 and spent the winter inthe Oregon Country. The next spring theystarted back toward St. Louis. On Septem-ber 23, 1806, the Lewis and Clark expedi-tion reached St. Louis two years and fourmonths and almost 8,000 miles (12,900km) after the start of their journey.

The expedition fully satisfied Jefferson’shopes. It did not find an all-water routeacross North America, for there was none.

� WILLIAM CLARK’S JOURNAL


Lewis and Clark did, however, find andmap several passes through the Rockies.

They established friendly relations withmany Native American nations andbrought back a wealth of informationabout the Louisiana Territory and itswildlife and resources. The expeditionstrengthened the United States’s claim tothe Oregon Country.

★ The Discoveryof Pikes Peak

At the same time Lewis and Clark wereexploring the Louisiana Territory, Lieu-tenant Zebulon Pike was leading a smallerexpedition to the upper Mississippi River.

Pike did not find the source of the Mis-sissippi, although he did learn muchabout the land and about British tradethere. Later, in 1806–1807, Pike exploredthe Colorado region and sighted the tallmountain now known as Pikes Peak.

★ The Election of 1804At the end of Jefferson’s first term, the

United States was prosperous and at

peace. Its size had just doubled as a resultof the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson easilywon reelection in 1804. In this election,though, Jefferson had a new running mate.George Clinton replaced Aaron Burr as theVice President.

The Burr ConspiracyIn 1804 Burr left the Republican party

to run for governor of New York as anindependent. He sought Federalist sup-port for his candidacy, but AlexanderHamilton, still a Federalist leader, force-fully campaigned against him. Even afterBurr lost the race by a large margin,Hamilton continued to criticize Burr’sintegrity, or moral values.

Burr angrily challenged Hamilton to aduel, a gunfight. Hamilton reluctantlyagreed. On a July morning in 1804, Burrand Hamilton met. At the signal, Burrfired and shot a bullet into Hamilton’sbody. Hamilton died the next day. Burrbecame a political outcast. Later the Unit-ed States government tried him for trea-son for attempting to establish an empirefor himself on the Western frontier.Although Burr was acquitted, he soon leftthe country.

Checking for Understanding1. Define cede.2. Why were the Mississippi River and New

Orleans important to the United States?

Critical Thinking3. Cause and Effect How do you think the

Lewis and Clark expedition encouraged people to move west in the early 1800s?

4. Analyzing Issues Re-create the diagramshown here to list Jefferson’s dilemma in

buying the Louisiana Territory and to showhow he resolved it.



5. Economics Create a want ad for peopleto join the Lewis and Clark expedition.Your ad should include the skills and abili-ties that the people would need for theexpedition and what the job would entail.

Dilemma Solution

As the Lewis and Clark expedition set offfrom St. Louis on May 14, 1804, its goals wereboth scientific and political. Captains Meri-wether Lewis and William Clark, along withabout 40 experienced soldiers, hunters, andlumberers, set out to explore the vastLouisiana Territory—its plants, animals,geology, climate, and terrain. Their tripwould also establish a claim to the rich Ore-gon Territory.

With a flat-bottomed keelboat and twodugouts, they traveled up the Missouri River,crossed the Rocky Mountains, then paddleddown the Columbia River to the Pacific coast.The two explorers carefully mapped theentire trip, which covered about 8,000 miles(12,900 km). As Jefferson had asked, theynoted the latitude and longitude of naturalfeatures such as rapids and islands. Theypacked their journals with descriptions andsketches of all they saw. One amazing sightwas huge herds of buffalo on the prairies. “Ido not think I exaggerate,” Lewis wrote, say-ing he could see 3,000 animals at one time.

Many of the local plants and animals werenew to Lewis and Clark. They collected andpreserved specimens, such as a prairie dog,jackrabbit, black-tailed deer, pronghorn, andmountain sheep. Huge grizzly bears were afrequent threat to the party. The annoyedexplorers gave the bear its scientific name:Ursus arctos horribilis, or “terrible bear.” Theyalso found some huge bones that may havebeen those of a dinosaur.

By the time the team returned to St. Louisin 1806, they had filled many journals withfascinating information about the new terri-tory. A narrative of the journey published in1814 tempted other adventurous Americansto pack up and go west to settle and live.

Making the Science Connection1. What were the purposes of Lewis and

Clark’s expedition?

2. How did the explorers study plantsand animals in Louisiana Territory?

3. How did they record details about theland and climate?

367

ACTIVITY4. Accurate descriptions and drawings

made Lewis and Clark’s observationsvaluable. Look out the window now andchoose an example of flora (plants) orfauna (animals). Draw and describe it soexactly that someone who had neverseen it would be able to recognize it.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition—A New Frontier

G E O G R A P H Y E C O N O M I C S M A T H T H E A R T S

HistoryAND

S C I E N C E

� MERIWETHER

LEWIS

� WILLIAM

CLARK

Troubles With France and Britain★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★


SECTION 3

GUIDE TO READING

� AMERICAN SAILORS

Reading StrategySequencing Information As you readabout the nation’s troubles with France andBritain, create a time line such as the oneshown, and use it to list key events regard-ing the nation’s difficulty in remaining neutral. Use the dates provided as a guide.

Read to Learn . . .★ how Barbary pirates interfered with

American trade.★ how France and Great Britain chal-

lenged the United States’s neutrality.★ what steps President Jefferson took to

avoid war with France and Britain.

Terms to Know★ blockade★ impressment★ deserter★ embargo

Main IdeaThe United States struggled to stayneutral in the fighting between GreatBritain and France.

1805

June 1807 1809

Dec. 1807

Thomas Jefferson had entered thepresidency committed to Washington’spolicy of neutrality. When Great Britainand France each tried to manipulate tradewith the United States as a weaponagainst the other, the United States soughtways to fight back.

★ Mediterranean PiracyIn the early 1800s, trade between the

United States, the West Indies, andEurope grew. American traders foundnew ports as well, trading as far away asChina, Africa, and Argentina. An oldproblem, however, threatened trade—thepirates of the Barbary Coast States.

For years pirates from the BarbaryCoast states of North Africa—Morocco,Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli—hadharassed ships in the Mediterranean Sea.They captured crews and cargoes,demanding tribute, or payment for pro-tection. Between 1789 and 1801, the Unit-ed States paid several million dollars insuch tributes.

War With TripoliIn 1801 the pasha, or ruler, of Tripoli

(part of present-day Libya) increased theamount of tribute he wanted from theUnited States. When Jefferson refused topay this tribute, Tripoli declared war onthe United States.

369CHAPTER 11 The Age of Jefferson: 1800–1815 369

Jefferson hesitated to declare warbecause the Constitution did not specifi-cally allow it. Instead, he quickly receivedfrom Congress the authority to send war-ships to the Mediterranean Sea. Heordered the navy to blockade, or close off,the port of Tripoli.

One American ship, the Philadelphia,ran aground off Tripoli. Pirates capturedits captain and crew. To keep the pashafrom using the ship, Commodore EdwardPreble ordered the Philadelphia destroyed.

A daring young American officer, Lieu-tenant Stephen Decatur, led a raidingparty into the harbor of Tripoli at night,boarded the ship, and set it on fire.

The war with Tripoli ended in 1805when the pasha signed a peace agreementending the payment of tribute. Even so, allpayments to the Barbary Coast States didnot end until 1815 when the United Statessigned a treaty with Algiers.

The war against the Barbary pirates waspopular at home. It demonstrated the needfor the nation to maintain a navy. It alsoproved to other countries that the UnitedStates would fight to protect its interests.

★ American NeutralityChallenged

Since coming to power in France,Napoleon Bonaparte had been steadilyexpanding his empire. He was a threat toBritish trade and sea power, and in 1803France and Great Britain were at waragain. Other European nations joined thefight against Napoleon, but it was the con-flict between France and Britain thataffected the United States.

Jefferson declared the United States’sneutrality in the Napoleonic Wars, just asWashington and Adams had in earlierEuropean wars. Both France and Britain,however, announced that they would stopAmerican ships headed for the otherside’s ports. Each hoped to hurt the other

country’s trade and deprive it of neededfood and supplies.

French and British warships did seizesome American trade ships. Althoughhundreds of American ships were seizedbetween 1805 and 1807, neutrality wasprofitable for American traders. Ships thatmaneuvered through the blockades estab-lished by France and Great Britain madegreat profits—making it worth the risks ofbeing caught.

Seizing American SailorsThe British also continued to take

sailors from American ships and forcethem to serve on British ships. This prac-tice, called impressment, was common inGreat Britain. The British navy claimedthat the American sailors were the king’s

SPAIN

AFRICA

MOROCCO

ALGIERS

TRIPOLI

TUNISATLANTIC

OCEAN Mediterranean Sea

BlackSea

Tripoli Derna

Tunis

Alexandria

Algiers

10° W 20° E0° 10° E

40° N

30° N

BARBARY COAST STATES

EUROPE

0


250 500 miles

The Barbary Coast Statesof North Africa, 1801

Location To protect United States ships,the American government paid a yearlybribe to the rulers of the Barbary States.What bodies of water bordered theBarbary Coast States?

Student Web ActivityVisit the American History: The Early Years to 1877 Web site at ey.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 11—Student Web Activities for an activity about pirates.

HISTORY

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/chapter11/webact.html


subjects. Some were in fact deserters fromthe British navy, sailors who had leftBritish warships to sail on American ships.

The British, however, seized even British-born sailors who had become Americancitizens (which British law did not recog-nize). Despite the government’s protests,the British continued impressment.

The Chesapeake-Leopard AffairIn June 1807, the American warship

Chesapeake had just left its base in Virginia.British sailors on the Leopard ordered it tostop so they could search for British desert-ers. When the commander of the Chesapeakerefused, the Leopard’s guns opened fire.

Taken by surprise, three of the crew ofthe Chesapeake were killed and otherswounded. The ship was badly damaged.The British boarded the ship and tookfour suspected deserters, three of whomwere Americans.

The damaged Chesapeake limped backto its home port. Americans in both par-ties were outraged and demanded warwith Great Britain. President Jeffersonremarked, “This country has never beenin such a state of excitement since the bat-tle of Lexington.”

Jefferson, however, knew that the Unit-ed States was not ready for war with thegreatest sea power in the world. Helooked for other ways to stop the interfer-ence with America’s trade and end theinsults to America’s pride.

★ A Ban on Foreign TradeJefferson’s decision was to place an

embargo, an official government ban, ontrade with both Great Britain and France.He hoped to hurt their war efforts enoughto force them to stop seizing Americanships and sailors.

★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★

★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★

The American DietMost Americans eat a lot.

But do they eat well? Appar-ently not much has changedin nearly 200 years.

ThenToo Much Fat

French visitors to the UnitedStates in 1807 complained thatAmericans ate too much but-ter, lard, salt pork, and greasypuddings. Indeed, one visitorsaid that American eatinghabits were so bad that a daydidn’t pass in this countrywithout “heaping indigestionsupon one another” from onemeal to the next.

NowToo Much Fat!

In July 1988 the surgeon gen-eral of the United States report-ed that most nutritional healthproblems are caused by pooreating habits. Americans, thereport said, eat too many foodsthat are high in fat, salt, andsugar.

Linking Past and Present

� EARLY AMERICAN MARKET

� MAJOR FOOD GROUPS

Checking for Understanding1. Define blockade, impressment, deserter,

embargo.

2. How did President Jefferson respond toTripoli’s declaration of war?

3. Why was British interference with Americanships more serious than that by the French?

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Issues Re-create the diagram

shown here to describe the Embargo Act andthe problems it created for the United States.


The Embargo ActCongress passed the Embargo Act in

December of 1807, prohibiting all Ameri-can ships and their cargo from leaving theUnited States for foreign ports. The actwas a disaster for American trade and forJefferson’s own popularity. Great Britainwas hurt only a little, whereas France washardly hurt at all by the act.

American harbors were crowded withships and cargo with no place to go. It isestimated that as many as 50,000 sailorswere out of work, and as many as 100,000other workers lost their jobs. Businessesfailed, and many people were imprisonedfor debt. Prices of goods dropped becausethere was a surplus. Even the govern-ment, which depended on import tariffs,lost millions of dollars. Smuggling goodsacross the Canadian border to get aroundthe embargo became common.

The Embargo Act caused the greatesthardship for merchants and shipownersin the Northeast—mostly Federalists.Some of these Federalists suggested thatJefferson had acted unconstitutionally.Farmers and planters also sufferedbecause they lost markets in other coun-tries for their surplus crops.

On the one-year anniversary of theEmbargo Act, sailors and shipbuilders inport towns of the Northeast protested the

act by marching to funeral music. Ships inthe harbors flew their flags at half-mast toprotest the act.

Softening the Embargo ActLike George Washington before him,

Thomas Jefferson had decided not to runfor a third term. In the election of 1808, Jefferson’s secretary of state and fellowRepublican, James Madison, won the pres-idency. Although Madison easily defeatedthe Federalist candidate, Charles C. Pinck-ney, the Federalists finished stronger thanthey had in the last election.

A few days before Jefferson left office,Congress repealed, or canceled, the Embar-go Act. Jefferson approved a replacementact—the Non-Intercourse Act.

The Non-Intercourse Act allowedAmericans to trade with any nationexcept France and Great Britain. Althoughless harmful to American trade than theEmbargo Act, the Non-Intercourse Actwas no more successful in forcing Franceand Great Britain to respect the rights ofthe United States. In 1810 Congressreplaced it with Macon’s Bill No. 2, whichstated that if either France or Great Britainagreed to respect neutral rights, the Unit-ed States would cut off trade with theother nation.


INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY5. Economics Use Historical Statistics of

the United States to find the value of theUnited States’s imports and exports from1800 to 1810. Make a double line graphshowing this information.

Problem Problem

Embargo Act

Problem

The War Hawks★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★


SECTION 4

GUIDE TO READING

� NEWSPAPER CONDEMNING

BRITISH PIRACY

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readabout the war hawks, use a diagram simi-lar to the one shown here to explain whyWesterners and Southerners supported war.

Read to Learn . . .★ why President Madison stopped

American trade with Great Britain.★ how conflicts grew between

Native Americans and settlers onthe frontier.

★ which Americans wanted war withGreat Britain.

Terms to Know★ shaman★ war hawk

Main IdeaAs tensions with Britain increased, anumber of American leaders calledfor war against the British.

Westerners SouthernersSupportfor War

After two terms as President,Thomas Jefferson retired to his belovedhome at Monticello. In a letter to PierreDu Pont de Nemours, a friend, Jeffersonwrote how happy he was to retire to “myfamily, my books and farms. . . . Never dida prisoner, released from his chains, feelsuch relief as I shall on shaking off theshackles of power.”

In writing the epitaph for his owntombstone, Jefferson chose to be remem-bered for accomplishments other than forbeing President. The short epitaph reads:

Author of the Declaration of Independence, of theStatute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, andFather of the University of Virginia. ”

“

★ James Madison Takes Over

Jefferson’s handpicked successor asPresident was his political ally, friend, fel-low Virginian, and secretary of state—James Madison. Madison’s running matewas George Clinton, a former governor ofNew York. The Federalist candidates werethe same as in 1804, Charles C. Pinckneyand Rufus King.

In spite of Americans’ anger over theEmbargo Act, the Republicans won theelection of 1808 decisively. Madison owedhis victory mainly to support in the Southand the West. All the New England statesexcept Vermont voted Federalist.

Madison, a man known for his brilliantmind, had played a large part in writingthe Constitution and passing the Bill ofRights. He and Jefferson shared the sameideas about government. Madisonplanned to follow Jefferson’s policy ofneutrality, but events forced him tochange those plans.

More Trouble With BritainWith the Non-Intercourse Act, the

United States’s economy began to recov-er somewhat from the Embargo Act. Yetthe law did little to force France andBritain to respect the neutral rights of theUnited States.

In 1810 Congress passed a new law thatreopened trade with all nations. It alsoallowed the President to reinstate theembargo if France or Britain again inter-fered with American ships. Finally, ifeither country lifted its restrictions onAmerican trade, the United States wouldcut off trade with the other one.

Napoleon saw a chance to hurt Britainand so agreed that France would end itsrestrictions on American trade. Madisongave Britain a last chance to do the same,but British ships continued to attack Amer-ican merchant ships and seize Americansailors. In March 1811, President Madisoncut off trade with Great Britain. The twocountries moved closer to war.

★ Native AmericanResistance

The British-American struggle on theseas was linked to continuing conflicts inthe Ohio Valley and the Northwest Terri-tory. As more Americans moved west ofthe Appalachians, they displaced theNative Americans who lived there.

As Native Americans realized that theywere losing their way of life, they foughtback. Often the British helped. Settlers onthe frontier knew that it was the British in

Canada who supplied the Native Ameri-cans with guns. They resented the Britishand the Native Americans equally.

New Native American LeadersDuring these difficult times, a remark-

able Native American leader emerged to lead the resistance. In about 1808, a Shawnee chief named Tecumseh(tuh•KUHM•suh) began to form a con-federation of all the Native Americanseast of the Mississippi River. Tecumsehknew that a united front was necessary foreffective resistance. He rejected the ideathat any one tribe could sell land thatbelonged to all the Native Americans. Hepointed out that the Treaty of Greenvillesigned after the Battle of Fallen Timbersgranted the victorious white settlers onlya limited territory.

Tecumseh worked with his brother, ashaman, or religious leader. Tecumseh’s


� JAMES MADISON During theelection of 1808, Thomas Jef-ferson endorsed his secretaryof state, James Madison, for

the presidency. Who was Madison’s runningmate in 1808?

istoryPicturingH


brother, Tenskwatawa, was known asThe Prophet. They founded a settlementin the Indiana Territory, where theTippecanoe River and the Wabash Rivermeet (near present-day Lafayette, Indi-ana). Known as Prophetstown, it becamethe center of the confederation.

Biography ★★★★

Tecumseh Seeks UnityThe name Tecumseh, or Tikamthi, means

“Shooting Star.” This name suited theShawnee leader born in Ohio in 1768. Hestressed to the Native American nationsthat there was strength through unity. Heurged them to think of themselves first as“red people” and second as members of acertain nation. He tried to give them afeeling of pride and an identity beyondloyalties to their nations.

His brother, The Prophet, called on thepeople to retain their own ways and rejectthose of white settlers. He impressed hisfollowers with dreams, chants, and an ac-curate prediction of an eclipse of the sun.

In August 1810 Tecumseh asked for ameeting with William Henry Harrison,the governor and military commander inthe Indian territory. Tecumseh urged thatthe United States give up some recently“purchased” territory on the grounds thatthe chiefs who signed the treaty had noauthority to do so. Harrison replied thatonly the President could answer such arequest. Tecumseh answered:

Well, as the great chief is todecide the matter, I hope theGreat Spirit will put senseenough into his head toinduce him to give up thisland. It is true, he is so faroff he will not be injured bythe war; he may sit still inhis town . . . while you and I will have to fight it out.

Tecumseh had threatened the Ameri-cans with war, but he hoped to delay untilhis forces were stronger. In the fall of 1811,he left Prophetstown to seek allianceswith the Creek Nation and others in theSoutheast. He told The Prophet to avoidany confrontations with the army.

Harrison feared the growing strengthof the Indian confederation. Aware thatTecumseh was away, he decided toattack Prophetstown. When he andabout 1,000 soldiers arrived at the settle-ment, The Prophet panicked and led hiswarriors into what is known as the Bat-tle of Tippecanoe, near present-dayWest Lafayette, Indiana. Many soldiersand warriors died, and Prophetstownwas burned. In revenge, some NativeAmericans raided frontier settlements.The Battle of Tippecanoe was only thebeginning of a long, deadly war betweenNative Americans and white settlers onthe frontier.

Tecumseh died in 1813. His deathdestroyed the dream of a Native Ameri-can confederation. Afterward, severalNative American nations made peacewith Harrison. ★★★”

“

� TECUMSEH


★ A Call for WarAmericans now had two reasons to be

angry at Britain. The continuing trouble atsea insulted American pride and hurttrade. The conflicts on the frontier, withthe British supporting Native Americans,hurt westward expansion.

People who urged war with Britainbecame known as war hawks. As troubleson the frontier and at sea continued, thenumber of war hawks increased.

Anti-British feelings were strongest inthe West and South. Members of Congressfrom the West said there could be nopeace on the frontier until the British werepushed out of North America. They want-ed to conquer British Canada as well assafeguard the frontier.

Members of Congress from the Southjoined in the calls for a strong stand againstGreat Britain. Many Southerners wanted toobtain Florida from Spain, Britain’s ally. Itwas a haven for runaway slaves andNative American raiding parties. Acquir-ing Florida also appealed to those whowanted to add more land to the UnitedStates.

War Is DeclaredThe harsh winter of 1811–1812, along

with the American embargo, caused great

hardship for the British. Food was scarce,and British-made factory goods piled upon docks and in warehouses. Britain’s warwith Napoleon continued. The British,desperate for help, repealed the orders forinterference in American shipping.

Before President Madison learned thatthe British government had changed itspolicy, he gave in to the demands of thewar hawks. On June 18, 1812, he askedCongress to declare war against GreatBritain.

Checking for Understanding1. Define shaman, war hawk.2. What events led to the failure of Tecumseh’s

confederation?

Critical Thinking3. Identifying Cause and Effect What effect

did frontier battles with Native Americanshave on Americans’ feelings about declaringwar on Great Britain?

4. Analyzing Issues Re-create the diagramshown here, and list the two main reasons Americans were angry at Britain.

� BATTLE OF TIPPECANOE The Battle of Tippecanoe began a series of battles between Native Americans and white settlers. Who led the Native Americans at the Battle of Tippecanoe?

istoryPicturingH



5. The Arts Choose a side in the argumentabout war with Great Britain. Then draw a cartoon supporting your point of view.

Anger at Britain

Comparing Points of View

Learning the SkillMuch of history is the story of opposing

viewpoints and how the differences betweenthem were resolved. To really understandhistory, you must learn to compare points ofview on an issue. To do so, first look for thebasic differences between the viewpoints.Also, identify what aspect of the issue eachviewpoint stresses.

One issue that divided Americans in theearly 1800s was the acquisition of theLouisiana Territory. Read these excerpts andanswer the questions.

A. “. . . [T]he fertility of the country, its cli-mate and extent, promise in due seasonimportant aids to our treasury, an ampleprovision for our posterity, and a wide-spread field for the blessings of free-dom and equal laws. . . . With thewisdom of Congress it will rest to takethose . . . measures which may be neces-sary for the immediate occupation andtemporary government of the country;for its incorporation into our Union. . . .”

—President Thomas Jefferson (1803)

B. “But as to Louisiana, this new, immense,unbounded world, if it should ever beincorporated into this Union . . . I believeit will be the greatest curse that could atpresent befall us. . . . Gentlemen on allsides, with very few exceptions, agreethat the settlement of this country willbe highly injurious and dangerous to theUnited States. . . . Thus our citizens willbe removed to the immense distance oftwo or three thousand miles from thecapital of the Union, where they willscarcely ever feel the rays of the GeneralGovernment. . . .”

—Senator Samuel White (1803)

376

Critical Thinking SkillsBUILDING SKILLSBUILDING SKILLS

Practicing the Skill1. Who are the writers of each passage?

2. What does Jefferson think about thefuture importance of Louisiana?

3. What is Senator White’s point of viewon the issue of acquiring Louisiana?

4. What can you conclude is eachwriter’s general attitude toward theexpansion of the United States?

APPLYING THE SKILL5. On the editorial page of your local

newspaper, find two letters to the editorthat express different viewpoints on thesame issue or topic. Read the lettersand identify the main differencesbetween their points of view.

� PRESIDENT

JEFFERSON

� SENATOR

WHITE

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook, Level 1 provides in-struction and practice in key socialstudies skills.

The War of 1812★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★

377

SECTION 5

GUIDE TO READING

and unprepared. The reg-ular army had a smallforce of soldiers led byinexperienced officers. Ithad to depend on help from state militias.

To challenge the powerful British navy,the United States navy in 1812 had fewerthan 20 oceangoing ships. In the first yearof the war, Congress failed to authorizethe building of more warships. The Unit-ed States paid privateers, or armed shipsowned by individuals, to fight. Althoughprivateers could not stand up to Britishwarships, they were able to capture morethan 1,300 British merchant ships. TheBritish in turn blockaded the coast, stop-ping American shipping.


� AMERICAN MILITIA

COAT, 1812

Reading StrategySequencing Information As you readabout the war of 1812, create a time line like the one shown, and use it to show key events of the conflict. Use the dates provided as a guide.

Read to Learn . . .★ what challenges the United States faced

when the War of 1812 began.★ about the major campaigns of the War

of 1812. ★ how the War of 1812 affected the

United States.

Terms to Know★ privateer★ national anthem

Main IdeaThe United States and Britain fought awar in 1812.

1813 1815

1814

When President James Madisonsent his war message to Congress, he gaveseveral reasons for declaring war. Heaccused the British government of acts“hostile to the United States as an inde-pendent and neutral nation.” He declaredthat “our commerce has been plunderedin every sea. . . .” and he blamed theBritish for frontier warfare with NativeAmericans.

★ Lack of Preparation for War

The United States entered the war at agreat disadvantage. The military was weak


★ The Campaign for CanadaOne major goal of the war was the con-

quest of Canada, Britain’s last holding inNorth America. Henry Clay, a war hawkfrom Kentucky and speaker of the House,bragged in Congress that the United Statescould easily win a war in Canada. He saidthat the militia of Kentucky by itself could“place Montreal and Upper Canada atyour feet.”

The First InvasionsClay was too optimistic, however. The

first plan was a three-way invasion of

Canada from Detroit, from Fort Niagara onLake Ontario, and from Lake Champlain inNew York. All three campaigns failed.

The most embarrassing was the loss ofDetroit. General William Hull, governorof the Michigan Territory, led his troopsacross the Detroit River into Canada butwas forced to retreat by the British andtheir Native American allies. Soon after,Hull surrendered Detroit to the British,who held it for more than a year.

The invasions from Fort Niagara andLake Champlain were almost as unsuc-cessful. The British defeated and cap-tured the American forces when the state

LakeSuperior

LakeHuron

Lake Erie

ATLANTICOCEAN

Baltimore

Montreal

CANADA

85° W 80° W 75° W 65° W70° W90° W

40° N

45° N

Mass.

Ohio

R.

Potomac R.

St. Lawren

ceR.

Mississippi R.

N.J.

N.C.

S.C.

Del.

Md.Ft. McHenry

Bladensburg(August 1814) Burning of

Washington, D.C.(August 1814)

Vt.

N.H.

Conn.

R.I.

N.Y.

Pa.

Virginia

Tenn.

Ohio

Frenchtown

Ft. Meigs

Vincennes

Tippecanoe(November 1811)

Ft. DetroitSurrender (1812)

Put-in-Bay(1813)

Ft. Niagara

York (1813)

The Thames (1813)

Lundy's Lane (1814)

Chippewa (1814)

Kentucky

IllinoisTerritory

MissouriTerritory

IndianaTerritory

MichiganTerritory

Plattsburg

APPA

LACH

IAN

MOU

NTAI

NS

W

abash R..

Maine(part of Mass.)

35° N

Lake

Mich

igan

Lake Ontario

Ft. MichilimackinacSurrender (1812)

Ft. DearbornSurrender (1812)

0


100 200 miles

American troopsBritish victory

American victory

Native American battle

Fort

British blockade

British troops

The War of 1812, Northern Campaigns

Region In the early months of the War of 1812, Americans hoped to seizeCanada from the British. Around which two Great Lakes did a number ofbattles take place?


militias refused to help or to fight outsidetheir states.

Still more United States defeats came inthe West. Combined British and NativeAmerican forces captured both FortMichilimackinac in northern Michiganand Fort Dearborn (present-day Chicago).With these victories, the British had con-trol of much of the Northwest Territory.

At sea, the tiny United States navy hadlittle chance against the British fleet. Afew individual ships, however, foughtboldly. One famous sea battle in August1812 was between the frigate Constitution,captained by Isaac Hull, and the Britishship Guerriere. During fierce combat Hullwon a decisive battle. The Constitution‘screw, proud that the ship’s oak hull resist-ed British guns, called it Old Ironsides.

Victory on the Great LakesDuring 1813 matters improved in the

western end of the war zone and broughtAmerican victories. In April, United Statestroops captured the city of York (present-day Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada,and burned some official buildings.

A few months later, Oliver HazardPerry, a young naval officer, assembled afleet of 10 small ships that daringlyattacked British warships on Lake Erie.Perry triumphantly reported: “We havemet the enemy and they are ours.” Thevictory forced the British to leave Detroitand made Perry a hero. It also won backcontrol of Michigan and gave Americans amuch-needed boost in spirits.

Battle of the Thames RiverThe Battle of Lake Erie cleared the way

for another invasion of Canada. In Octo-ber 1813, General William Henry Harrisontook an army of about 3,500 across LakeErie in pursuit of the British forces fleeingfrom Detroit. In the Battle of the ThamesRiver, they defeated a smaller force ofabout 600 British and 1,000 Native Ameri-cans led by Tecumseh.

Tecumseh, who held the rank ofbrigadier general in the British army, waskilled in the fighting. His death ended theBritish-Shawnee alliance. However, fight-ing continued back and forth on the Cana-da–New York border.

★ The British InvasionBy the spring of 1814, Britain and its

allies had defeated Napoleon in Europe.Britain could now send thousands of itsbest troops to fight the United States.While fighting continued to rage on theNew York–Canada border, another Britisharmy arrived in the Chesapeake Bay.

The British Burn WashingtonOn August 24, 1814, British troops cap-

tured Washington, D.C. President Madi-son and his cabinet fled the city to avoidcapture. There was barely time to savehistoric government papers such as theoriginal Declaration of Independence.Dolley Madison, the wife of the President, is credited with saving many

The First Star-SpangledBanner, 1795–1818 TheStars and Stripes flaggained two more stars

and two more stripes in 1795, after Ken-tucky and Vermont had joined the Union.This flag flew over Fort McHenry duringthe War of 1812 and inspired FrancisScott Key to write “The Star-SpangledBanner.”

Congress realized that the flag wouldbecome too large if a stripe were addedfor every new state. It decided to keepthe stripes at 13—for the thirteen origi-nal colonies—and to add a star for eachnew state.★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★

AMERICA’S FLAGS★★★ ★★★


i m p o r t a n tpapers along

with a famousportrait of George

Washington.To avenge the burning of the Canadian

capital of York, the British set Washingtonon fire. Fire gutted the Capitol, the Presi-dent’s House (later called the WhiteHouse), and other buildings.

“The Rockets’ Red Glare”The British celebrated the burning of

Washington, regarding it as a decisive endto the war. They moved on to attack theharbor at Baltimore in early September.The troops at Fort McHenry, who protect-ed the city and the harbor, held off theBritish bombardment for 25 hours, finallyforcing the British army to retreat.

Francis Scott Key, a Washingtonlawyer, watched the fierce battle from thedeck of a prisoner-of-war exchange ship.He was so moved by what he saw that hescribbled a few lines of poetry on an enve-lope. Set to the tune of a traditional Eng-lish song, it became popular throughoutthe country. In 1931 Congress adopted itas the national anthem, an official song ofpraise and patriotism.

★ New OrleansLate in 1814, British forces planned to

invade the United States from the south,at New Orleans. General Andrew Jacksonand his backwoods—rural—sharpshoot-ers were ready for them, however. Jack-son’s soldiers were confident they wouldwin. Admiringly, they called Jackson “Old

Hickory,” because they knew of no woodtougher than hickory. Jackson had earnedhis name leading the Tennessee militiaagainst Creek warriors in 1813.

The Battle of New Orleans on January 8,1815, was the greatest victory of the war.Jackson’s sharpshooters patiently hidbehind bales of cotton, their guns aimed atthe 8,000 British soldiers sent to capture thecity. In the battle that followed, more than2,000 British soldiers were killed or wound-ed. American casualties were only about 20.

What neither side knew was that theBattle of New Orleans was needless. Be-cause communications were slow, neither

DOLLEY

MADISON

� CAUSES

EFFECTS

• British attacks on American ships andimpressment of American sailors

• British support for Native Americans in the West

• American trade suffers from Britishinterference with shipping

• Possibility of acquiring Florida fromSpain, a British ally

➦

• United States wins respect of GreatBritain and other foreign countries

• American ships enjoy freedom ofthe seas

• Americans experience increasedpride and sense of national identity

• Native Americans forced to give upland in Ohio Valley and NorthwestTerritory

• Settlement of West increases

➦

• War of 1812


side knew that more than two weeks earli-er, the United States and Britain had signeda peace treaty in Ghent, Belgium.

★ The War EndsThe war had deeply divided the nation.

Many people in New England had beenopposed to the war. These people, mostlyFederalists, saw that the war would ruintheir local economies. In December 1814,delegates from New England met in secretat Hartford, Connecticut. The HartfordConvention talked of forming a confeder-acy of New England states.

Before the delegates could meet withthe President to press their demands,news of the victory at New Orleans andthe end of the war forced them to aban-don their demands. Not much more washeard from the Federalist party.

The Aftermath of the War The Treaty of Ghent, signed on Christ-

mas Eve of 1814, ended the fighting butactually settled nothing. It did not dealwith the rights of American ships or theimpressment of American sailors. Neitherside gained or lost territory.

Most Americans felt proud and self-confident at the end of the War of 1812.The young nation had gained new respect

from other nations in the world. Ameri-cans felt a new sense of patriotism and astrong national identity.

Checking for Understanding1. Define privateer, national anthem.2. What were the disadvantages of the United

States in the War of 1812?

Critical Thinking3. Analyzing Issues How did the outcome of

the war affect the way that many Americansviewed themselves?

4. Analyzing Events Re-create the diagramshown here, and list the reasons why

Admiral Perry’s victory on Lake Erie was soimportant to the United States.

Gulf of Mexico

Lake Pontchartrain

Lake Pontchartrain

New Orleans(January 8, 1815)

85° W 80° W90° W35° N

30° N

N.C.

S.C.

Georgia

Ft. MimsPensacola

Burnt Corn Creek

Horseshoe Bend

Ft. Bowyer

La.


SPANISHFLORIDA

Mis

siss

ippi

Rive

r

25° N

Alab

ama R

.

American troopsBritish victory

American victory

Native American battle

British blockade

British troops

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100 200 miles

The War of 1812,Southern Campaigns

Movement Hoping to take control of theMississippi Valley, British forcesadvanced to New Orleans in the lastmonths of 1814. Who won the battlefor New Orleans?



5. Citizenship Read the words of “The Star-Spangled Banner” and imagine thatyou are Francis Scott Key. Draw a pictureto illustrate a scene from the song.

Importance ofPerry’s Victory

CHAPTER 11 ★ ASSESSMENT


Using Key VocabularyUse the following vocabulary words to com-

plete the sentences below.

embargo shamanceded judicial review

1. When the Supreme Court decided that theJudiciary Act was unconstitutional, it set aprecedent for using the power of ________.

2. In an 1800 treaty, Spain ________ theLouisiana Territory to France.

3. In 1807 Congress ordered an ________ onAmerican trade with Great Britain and France.

4. Tecumseh’s brother, The Prophet, was a________ who urged his followers to return totraditional ways of life.

Reviewing Facts1. Describe the changes that Jefferson’s adminis-

tration made in the government.

2. Identify the goals of the Lewis and Clarkexpedition to the Louisiana Territory.

Understanding ConceptsU.S. Role in World Affairs1. How did the War of 1812 affect Americans’

attitude toward their nation?

2. How did the War of 1812 affect Great Britain’sattitude toward the United States?

Economic Development3. Re-create the diagram shown here and list

Jefferson’s main economic goals.

History and GeographyCongress Votes on the War of 1812

Study the map. Then answer the questions.

1. Region In what states was there no opposi-tion to the war? What regions are they in?

2. Location What was the southernmost statein which members of Congress were opposedto the war against Britain?

IllinoisTerritory

IndianaTerritory

MichiganTerritory

OhioPa.

CANADA

SPANISHFLORIDA

N.Y.

N.H.Mass.

R.I.Conn.

N.J.

Del.Md.Va.

N.C.

S.C.Ga.

Tenn.

Ky.


Vt.Maine(Mass.)

ATLANTICOCEAN

Great Lakes

Mississippi R.

45° N

65° W70° W75° W80° W85° W90° W

40° N

35° N

30° N

25° N

Home of membersvoting for war

Home of membersvoting against war

Congressional Votes on theWar of 1812

Self-Check QuizVisit the American History: The Early Years to1877 Web site at ey.glencoe.com and click onChapter 11—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare forthe chapter test.

HISTORYJefferson’s

Economic Goals

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=002&CHAPTER=11&TITLE=The+Age+of+Jefferson

CHAPTER 11 ★ ASSESSMENT

Critical Thinking1. Identifying Central Issues What did the

Republican victory in 1800 show about thestrength of the Constitution and the new Unit-ed States government?

2. Making Comparisons What were some differences and similarities between Jeffer-son’s administration and those of Adams and Washington?

Interdisciplinary Activity:Debate

Have each member of your group choose to beone of the following people: Thomas Jefferson,Tecumseh, Henry Clay, William Henry Harrison,John Adams, or Andrew Jackson. Prepare andpresent a debate on the pros and cons of declar-ing war on Great Britain in 1812.

Practicing SkillsComparing Points of View

The two passages represent different view-points about the Embargo Act. Read the passagesand then answer the questions.

A. “I have always understood that there weretwo objects contemplated by the embargolaws. . . . Precautionary, in saving our sea-men, our ships and our merchandize fromthe plunder of our enemies and avoiding thecalamities of war. Coercive, by addressingstrong appeals to the interests of both thebelligerents. The first object has beenanswered beyond my most [hopeful] expec-tations. . . . But, Sir, these are not the onlygood effects of the embargo. It has preservedour peace—it has saved our honor—it hassaved our national independence.”

—Senator W.B. Giles, 1808

B. “[The embargo] prostrated the whole com-merce of America and produced a degree ofdistress in the New England States greaterthan that which followed upon the War. Ialways thought that it was a measure of

doubtful policy, but I sustained it. . . [to giveit] a fair experiment. A year passed away, andthe evils, which it inflicted upon ourselves,were daily increasing in magnitude andextent; and in the meantime . . . Great Britainwas enjoying a triumphant monopoly of thecommerce of the world.”

—Justice Joseph Story, 1831

1. Which passage supports the embargo? Whichindicates it was a bad idea?

2. What reasons does Senator Giles give for hisopinion on the embargo?

3. What economic effects of the embargo doesJustice Story mention?

Technology ActivityDeveloping a Multimedia Presentation

Work with another student to create a multi-media presentation about an eventdiscussed in this chapter. Use theInternet and other library resourcesto collect information, includingpictures, maps, andquotes. Organize thematerial and present itto the class.

Cooperative

Learning


Using Your JournalImagine that you havehad the chance to takepart in an Americanadventure—for instance,accompanying Lewis andClark or fighting Barbarypirates. Write a letterhome describing what youhave done and seen.

History

WritingABOUT

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