Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition

Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 10

Blood

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slides 10.1 – 10.31

Blood

Lecture Slides in PowerPoint by Jerry L. Cook

BloodBlood

The only fluid tissue in the human body

Classified as a connective tissue

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Classified as a connective tissue

Living cells = formed elements

Non-living matrix = plasma

BloodBlood

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Figure 10.1

Physical Characteristics of BloodPhysical Characteristics of Blood

Color range

Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red

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Oxygen-poor blood is dull red

pH must remain between 7.35–7.45

Blood temperature is slightly higher thanbody temperature

Blood PlasmaBlood Plasma

Composed of approximately 90 percentwater

Includes many dissolved substances

Nutrients

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Salts (metal ions)

Respiratory gases

Hormones

Proteins

Waste products

Plasma ProteinsPlasma Proteins

Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure

Clotting proteins – help to stem blood

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Clotting proteins – help to stem bloodloss when a blood vessel is injured

Antibodies – help protect the body fromantigens

Formed ElementsFormed Elements

Erythrocytes = red blood cells

Leukocytes = white blood cells

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Leukocytes = white blood cells

Platelets = cell fragments

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Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

The main function is to carry oxygen

Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes

Biconcave disks

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Biconcave disks

Essentially bags of hemoglobin

Anucleate (no nucleus)

Contain very few organelles

Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1

HemoglobinHemoglobin

Iron-containing protein

Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen

Each hemoglobin molecule has four

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Each hemoglobin molecule has fouroxygen binding sites

Each erythrocyte has 250 millionhemoglobin molecules

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Crucial in the body’s defense againstdisease

These are complete cells, with anucleus and organelles

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Able to move into and out of bloodvessels (diapedesis)

Can move by ameboid motion

Can respond to chemicals released bydamaged tissues

Leukocyte Levels in the BloodLeukocyte Levels in the Blood

Normal levels are between 4,000 and11,000 cells per millimeter

Abnormal leukocyte levels

Leukocytosis

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Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml

Generally indicates an infection

Leukopenia

Abnormally low leukocyte level

Commonly caused by certain drugs

Types of LeukocytesTypes of Leukocytes

Granulocytes

Granules in theircytoplasm can be

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cytoplasm can bestained

Includeneutrophils,eosinophils, andbasophils

Figure 10.4

Types of LeukocytesTypes of Leukocytes

Agranulocytes

Lack visiblecytoplasmic

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cytoplasmicgranules

Includelymphocytes andmonocytes

Figure 10.4

GranulocytesGranulocytes

Neutrophils

Multilobed nucleus with fine granules

Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection

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Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection

Eosinophils

Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules

Found in repsonse to allergies and parasiticworms

GranulocytesGranulocytes

Basophils

Have histamine-containing granules

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Have histamine-containing granules

Initiate inflammation

AgranulocytesAgranulocytes

Lymphocytes

Nucleus fills most of the cell

Play an important role in the immuneresponse

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response

Monocytes

Largest of the white blood cells

Function as macrophages

Important in fighting chronic infection

PlateletsPlatelets

Derived from ruptured multinucleatecells (megakaryocytes)

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Needed for the clotting process

Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3

HematopoiesisHematopoiesis

Blood cell formation

Occurs in red bone marrow

All blood cells are derived from a

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All blood cells are derived from acommon stem cell (hemocytoblast)

Hemocytoblast differentiation

Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes

Myeloid stem cell produces other formedelements

Fate of ErythrocytesFate of Erythrocytes

Unable to divide, grow, or synthesizeproteins

Wear out in 100 to 120 days

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Wear out in 100 to 120 days

When worn out, are eliminated byphagocytes in the spleen or liver

Lost cells are replaced by division ofhemocytoblasts

Control of Erythrocyte ProductionControl of Erythrocyte Production

Rate is controlled by a hormone(erythropoietin)

Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as

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Kidneys produce most erythropoietin asa response to reduced oxygen levels inthe blood

Homeostasis is maintained by negativefeedback from blood oxygen levels

Control of Erythrocyte ProductionControl of Erythrocyte Production

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Figure 10.5

HemostasisHemostasis

Stoppage of blood flow

Result of a break in a blood vessel

Hemostasis involves three phases

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Hemostasis involves three phases

Platelet plug formation

Vascular spasms

Coagulation

Platelet Plug FormationPlatelet Plug Formation

Collagen fibers are exposed by a breakin a blood vessel

Platelets become “sticky” and cling tofibers

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fibers

Anchored platelets release chemicals toattract more platelets

Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

Vascular SpasmsVascular Spasms

Anchored platelets release serotonin

Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles

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Serotonin causes blood vessel musclesto spasm

Spasms narrow the blood vessel,decreasing blood loss

CoagulationCoagulation

Injured tissues release thromboplastin

PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts withthromboplastin, blood protein clotting

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thromboplastin, blood protein clottingfactors, and calcium ions to trigger aclotting cascade

Prothrombin activator convertsprothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)

CoagulationCoagulation

Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins intohair-like fibrin

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hair-like fibrin

Fibrin forms a meshwork(the basis for a clot)

Blood ClottingBlood Clotting

Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes

The clot remains as endothelium

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The clot remains as endotheliumregenerates

The clot is broken down after tissuerepair

Undesirable ClottingUndesirable Clotting

Thrombus

A clot in an unbroken blood vessel

Can be deadly in areas like the heart

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Embolus

A thrombus that breaks away and floatsfreely in the bloodstream

Can later clog vessels in critical areas suchas the brain

Bleeding DisordersBleeding Disorders

Thrombocytopenia

Platelet deficiency

Even normal movements can causebleeding from small blood vessels that

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bleeding from small blood vessels thatrequire platelets for clotting

Hemophilia

Hereditary bleeding disorder

Normal clotting factors are missing

Blood Groups and TransfusionsBlood Groups and Transfusions

Large losses of blood have seriousconsequences

Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness

Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,

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Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,which can be fatal

Transfusions are the only way toreplace blood quickly

Transfused blood must be of the sameblood group

Human Blood GroupsHuman Blood Groups

Blood contains genetically determinedproteins

A foreign protein (antigen) may be

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A foreign protein (antigen) may beattacked by the immune system

Blood is “typed” by using antibodies thatwill cause blood with certain proteins toclump (agglutination)

Human Blood GroupsHuman Blood Groups

There are over 30 common red bloodcell antigens

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The most vigorous transfusion reactionsare caused by ABO and Rh blood groupantigens

ABO Blood GroupsABO Blood Groups

Based on the presence or absence of twoantigens

Type A

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Type A

Type B

The lack of these antigens is calledtype O

ABO Blood GroupsABO Blood Groups

The presence of both A and B is calledtype AB

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type AB

The presence of either A or B is calledtypes A and B, respectively

Rh Blood GroupsRh Blood Groups

Named because of the presence orabsence of one of eight Rh antigens(agglutinogen D)

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(agglutinogen D)

Most Americans are Rh+

Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ bloodinto a body with Rh– blood

Rh Dangers During PregnancyRh Dangers During Pregnancy

Danger is only when the mother is Rh–

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Danger is only when the mother is Rhand the father is Rh+, and the childinherits the Rh+ factor

Rh Dangers During PregnancyRh Dangers During Pregnancy

The mismatch of an Rh– mother carryingan Rh+ baby can cause problems for theunborn child

The first pregnancy usually proceeds without

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The first pregnancy usually proceeds withoutproblems

The immune system is sensitized after the firstpregnancy

In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immunesystem produces antibodies to attack the Rh+

blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

Blood TypingBlood Typing

Blood samples are mixed with anti-A andanti-B serum

Coagulation or no coagulation leads todetermining blood type

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determining blood type

Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done inthe same manner

Cross matching – testing foragglutination of donor RBCs by therecipient’s serum, and vice versa

Developmental Aspects of BloodDevelopmental Aspects of Blood

Sites of blood cell formation

The fetal liver and spleen are early sites ofblood cell formation

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blood cell formation

Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis bythe seventh month

Fetal hemoglobin differs fromhemoglobin produced after birth