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CHAPTER 1

Perspectives on Development

2Chapter 1: Perspectives on Development

Perspectives on DevelopmentConcept Map

Longitudinal Studies

Cross-Section Studies

Sequential Design

Naturalistic ObservationCase Studies

Surveys

Experimental

Hypothesis/TheoriesExperimental Reasearch

Hypothesis/TheoriesExperimental Reasearch

Correlational Reasearch

METHOD

Protect ParticipantsInformed Consent

Not to Deceive Participants

Physical

Cognitive

Socioemotional

Maintain Privacy

ETHICS

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES

REASEARCH DESIGN

DOMAINS

LIFE SPAN APPROACH

Nature vs. Nurture

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Critical Periods

PROCESSES

DevelopmentPerspectives

Dependent Variables

Representative Samples

Independent Variables

Associations

Cause/Effect

Correlation CoefficientNegative Correlation

Positive Correlation

Prenatal

Infancy

Early Childhood

Middle Childhood

Adolescence

Early Adult

Middle Adult

Late Adult


Activities List

What You Should Do Where?

•Go to the introduction of the chapter by your friend•Review the concept map •Read the text•Try the learning activities/objects•Complete the additional activities•Take the lesson quiz•Participate in the discussion activity

OnlineBookBook

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Introduction

This chapter will orient us to the field of life span development. We begin with a look at the scope of development, the topical areas studied, and the range of ages examined in life span development from the moment of conception to death. We will examine some key issues that underlie the study of growth and development and also consider how developmentalists ask and answer questions about the world. We will describe the major types of research developmentalists perform to find answers to questions about development and behavior. Finally, we will look at the role of ethics in the study of life span development.

Learning Objectives

When you finish your study of this chapter, you should be able to• Identify the characteristics of the life span approach to development• Identify the eight developmental periods•Describe the characteristics of three topical areas of development• Identify key issues in the field of development•Describe how developmental research studies are conducted•Compare and contrast cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential approaches to research• Identify cohort effects• Identify the role of ethics in the study of life span development


Life Span Approach to Development

In this course, we will assume a life span approach to human growth and development. A life span approach studies development from conception to death. We will also adopt a normative approach to development, the typical or average developmental path that people follow, and also point out individual variations from time to time. A life span approach means that development is a lifelong process (Smith & Baltes, 1999).

The life span can be divided into segments for purposes of research, analysis, and description. However, if we want to describe and comprehend the changes that take place over the life span, it is important to assume that each segment is part of a whole (Lerner, 2002). The development periods covered in this course are shown below (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Human Development Stages

Prenatal Development Conception to birth Adolescence 12 to 18 years

Infancy Birth to 2 years Early adulthood 19 to 39 years

Early Childhood (Preschool Period) 2 to 6 years Middle

adulthood 40 to 64 years

Middle Childhood(School Period) 7 to 11 years Late adulthood 65 plus years

Domains of Development

Generally, there are three major domains or topical areas studied by developmental psychologists. These include the following.

Physical DevelopmentSome researchers investigate physical development. The emphasis is usually how the brain and

nervous system, muscles, sensory capabilities, and need for food, drink, and sleep affect behavior.

Cognitive Development Other specialists examine cognitive development, seeking to understand how growth and change in

intellectual abilities (learning, memory, problem solving, and intelligence) influence a person’s behavior.

Socioemotional Development Some specialists examine personality development, social development, and emotional

development. These specialists may be concerned with the enduring characteristics that differentiate


one person from another and how interactions with others grow and change throughout the life span.

Each of these topical areas plays a role throughout our life. In this course, we proceed chronologically from the prenatal period through late adulthood to death and dying. Within each of the major periods, we will look at the three different domains of development: physical, cognitive, and socioemotional.

Developmental Processes

In the study of life span development, there are several issues that affect one’s understanding of development; most have been present since the beginning of psychology as an independent discipline. These issues are discussed below.

Nature Versus NurtureA very early issue in the study of development was

the question of which exercises the greatest influence on development, our inborn tendencies (nature) or the surrounding environment (nurture). Nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from our parents. It involves any factor that is produced by the unfolding of genetic information, often referred to as maturation. Nature influences our eye color, our height, whether we have thick hair or eventually go bald. Nurture refers to the environmental influences on behavior. Environmental influences may involve the pregnant mother’s use of cocaine, amount and kinds of food available to the child, kinds of discipline, parenting styles, and peer pressure. Most psychologists assume that there is interplay between these two forces in shaping development. It is this interaction between genes and the environment that explains the individual paths of development (Moore, 2002).

Continuity Versus DiscontinuityDoes developmental change appear as the result of a slow but steady progression (continuity) or as the

result of abrupt changes and stages (discontinuity)? Continuities occur in development because our early experiences, early learning, and our temperaments remain with us. The form of behavior may change, but the underlying processes remain the same (Rutter & Rutter, 1993). However, it will become evident that other behaviors in development seem different from those that preceded them when we study the development of walking and talking. Michael Lewis (1997) believes that the study of development is the study of complex, random, and unpredictable conditions. Today, most developmental psychologists believe that both continuity and discontinuity characterize development (Rutter & Rutter, 1993).


Critical and Sensitive PeriodsA critical period is a specific time during development when an event has its greatest consequences.

Usually a critical period occurs when the presence of certain conditions are necessary for development to proceed normally. If a prospective mother develops a case of rubella (German measles) in the 11th week of pregnancy, the consequences for the child may include blindness, deafness, and heart defects. However, if the mother develops rubella in the 30th week of pregnancy, damage to the child is unlikely. Thus, the 11th week of pregnancy would be considered a more critical period than the 30th as it relates to German measles. Today there is a tendency to think of sensitive periods rather than critical periods. During a sensitive period, organisms are more susceptible than usual to influences in their environment. Using the pregnant mother as an example, a sensitive period might include the weeks just before and after the 11th week of pregnancy.

Research Design and Methodology

The study of development is driven by questions. How do children learn language? What are the effects of malnutrition on later intellectual development? Do mental faculties improve with age? To answer such questions, developmentalists turn to the scientific method. The scientific method is the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques such as systematic observation of behavior. The method involves the formulation of theories, generalizations, and predictions about behavior. For example, many researchers theorize that there is a bonding period between parent and child immediately after birth. Without such a bonding period, it is assumed that the parent-child relationship will be forever in difficulty (Furnham & Weir, 1996).

Researchers use theories to form hypotheses, which are predictions stated in a way that allow them to be tested. For example, we might hypothesize that if parents never have a chance to bond with the child, there may ultimately be a less secure relationship between the parent and child.

Once a hypothesis is formed, researchers must develop a research strategy for testing the validity of the hypothesis. There are two major categories of research methods: experimental research and correlational research. Let us begin by examining the experiment.

The Experiment: Study of Cause and EffectExperimental research is designed to determine causal relationships between various factors.

Researchers may deliberately introduce a change in a situation in order to study the consequences of that change. Experimental research is a fundamental method for finding answers to developmental questions about cause and effect relationships.

In an experiment, a researcher may devise two different conditions and then compare the outcomes of the participants exposed to these two different conditions in order to see how behavior is affected. One group, the experimental group, is exposed to the variable being studied; the other group (the control group) is not. The central feature of all experiments is the comparison of the consequences of the different treatments. The use of both experimental and control groups allows us to rule out the possibility that something other than experimental manipulation caused the results.


Independent and Dependent Variables The independent variable is the manipulated variable in the experiment. The dependent

variable is what researchers measure to determine the effects of the independent variable. It is assumed that the dependent variable will change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable. The hypothesis, mentioned earlier, predicts how a dependent variable depends on the manipulation of the independent variable. Because of ethical or technical reasons, however, not all research questions can be answered by experimental research.

Correlational Research: How Variables Are RelatedCorrelational research indicates whether two or more factors are associated with or related to

each other. Correlational research cannot be used to determine whether one factor causes changes in other factors.

Researchers have found that children who watch a good deal of aggression on television—murders, crime shows, shootings—tend to be more aggressive than children who do not. Therefore, we would say that viewing aggression and actual aggression are strongly correlated with one another (Center for Communication & Social Policy, University of California, 1998; Singer & Singer, 2000). Does this mean that viewing of televised aggression causes the more aggressive behavior of the viewer? Not necessarily. It could be that aggressive children watch violent programs, or it could be that a third factor causes both aggressive behavior and viewing habits.

Correlation studies have provided some very important information. Correlational research has shown that the closer the genetic link between people, the more highly associated is their intelligence; the more parents talk to their infant, the more extensive the child’s vocabulary; and the better the nutrition of the infant, the fewer the cognitive and social problems s/he later experiences (Hart & Risley, 1995; Pollitt, Gorman, Engle, Martorell, & Rivera, 1993).

Correlation CoefficientThe strength and direction of a correlational relationship is indicated by a mathematical score that

ranges from + 1.0 to – 1.0, the correlation coefficient. A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one factor increases, the value of the other factor will also increase. A positive correlation is indicated by a positive sign (+), and the strength of the relationship is indicated by the number; the stronger the association, the closer the number would be to +1.0. A correlation with a negative sign tells us that as the value of one factor increases, the value of the other factor decreases. Negative correlations range from 0 to –1.0. A lack of a relationship is shown by a correlation coefficient close to 0. Some examples of positive and negative correlations are shown below.

Examples of positive correlations: •Cool drink consumption and warm air temperature•Hours spent studying and academic success•Smoking rates and number of related health problems•Dietary fat consumed and rates of coronary artery disease•Dietary fat consumed and cholesterol levels•Red meat consumption and colon cancer rates


Examples of negative correlations: •Hot drink consumption and warm air temperature •Number of extracurricular involvements and grades•Dietary fiber consumption and colon cancer rates•Exercise and blood pressure•Teaching load and research output (university and college professors)•Number of classes missed and exam grades

There are several types of correlational studies: naturalistic observations, case studies, and survey research.

Naturalistic Observation This is the observation of behavior as it occurs in its natural environment. Behavior is recorded

as it occurs by means of notebook, videotape, or other methods. The key is that the researcher simply observes the person without any interference of any kind (Beach, 2003; Prezbindowski & Lederberg, 2003). The major disadvantage of naturalistic observation is the lack of control of factors that might influence the behavior. Also, it is not a strong method for testing hypotheses. Jane Goodall (1986) used naturalistic observation in her observations of African chimpanzees in the wild. Christophe Boesch (1991) has used the technique to study “hammer/anvil” tool use among wild African chimpanzees.

Case Studies These involve extensive interviews with an individual or a small group. Case studies may be

used to draw broad principles or tentative conclusions that may apply to other individuals. One of the first recorded case studies was done by Charles Darwin (1872) when he kept a highly detailed diary of his son’s emotional expressions, which became the basis of his ideas about emotional development. A good deal of the work of Jean Piaget on child development was based on the case study approach. Piaget (1952) carefully observed the behavior of his children and used this information to formulate hypotheses about cognitive development. However, it is difficult to generalize data collected from one individual to other people, groups, or situations.

Survey Research In survey research, a group may be chosen to represent a larger population. A population consists

of all the individuals about which we are interested in drawing a conclusion. The group may be asked questions about attitudes or behavior or about opinions on a topic. The questions may be asked by phone, in personal interviews, by mail, or on the Internet in questionnaire form. Inferences may be drawn regarding the larger population represented by the small group. For surveys to be useful, the sample of participants must be representative of the group in question. A representative sample is one that reflects important characteristics of the population. Representativeness of the sample is determined by random sampling. The idea of random sampling is that every member of the population sampled has an equal chance of being selected. Questions must be well-designed and easy to answer–open-ended questions have a low rate of return. Political opinion polls typically use excellent sampling procedures allowing them to predict who will win an election. Surveys are an efficient method for collecting a large


amount of information about people’s opinions and lifestyles. On the other hand, surveys cannot be used to draw conclusions about cause and effect; because they rely on self-reports, they can be distorted by factors such as social desirability bias, interviewer bias, or an individual’s inaccurate perceptions of her/his own behaviors (Passer & Smith, 2007).

Measuring Developmental Change: Longitudinal, Cross-Sectional, and Sequential Studies

Central to the study of life span development is how people grow and change throughout the life span. Researchers have developed three major research methods: longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, and sequential research.

Longitudinal Studies In longitudinal studies, the behavior of one or more individuals is measured as they age. This

research method measures change over time. It can provide information about the general course of developmental change across some period of time.

The longest running longitudinal study is the study of gifted children begun by Lewis Terman more than 80 years ago; it is yet to be completed. In the study, a group of 1,500 children with very high IQs were tested every 5 years. The participants, now in their 90s, have provided information about intellectual accomplishment, personality, and longevity (Feldhusen, 2003). Longitudinal studies have several drawbacks. They require tremendous investment of time, and participants may drop out, move away, become ill, or die during the course of the study. Participants may also become “test-wise” as a result of being tested repeatedly.

Cross-Sectional Studies In cross-sectional research, people of different ages are compared at the same point in time. If

we were interested in children’s moral development, we could simultaneously look at three groups of children of different ages. The method provides information about differences among different age groups. Cross-sectional studies save a tremendous amount of time since all participants are tested at just one point in time.

A disadvantage of cross-sectional studies is cohort effects. A cohort consists of a group of people born at around the same time in the same place. We are all members of cohorts. If it is found that people of different ages vary on some dimension, it may be due to cohort membership and not to age alone. Major social events such as wars, economic upturns and depressions, famines, and epidemics have similar influences on members of a particular cohort. Individuals may in part be a product of the social times in which they live. Cohort effects are examples of history-graded influences on development, influences associated with particular historical moments. Age-graded influences are influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group regardless of where or when they were raised. Selective dropout may occur in cross-sectional studies. In selective dropout, participants in some age groups may be more likely to quit participating than those in other groups.


Cross-sectional studies have a very basic disadvantage: They cannot inform us about changes in individuals or groups. Cross-sectional studies are like photos of entirely different groups.

Sequential Studies Sequential studies are basically a combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional studies.

Researchers may examine a number of different age groups at several points in time.

Ethics

Any time they study humans, researchers must balance the need to know with the need to protect individuals’ rights and privacy. In order to help researchers deal with ethical problems, most major organizations have developed ethical guidelines for researchers (American Psychological Association, 2010; Fisher, 2003; Sales & Folkman, 2000; Smith, 2003a, 2003b; Society for Research in Child Development, 2007):

•Researchers must protect participants from psychological and physical harm. In research, participant’s rights always come first (Sieber, 2000). The researcher should use no research procedure that may harm the participant either physically or psychologically. The investigator should at all times use the least stressful research procedure whenever possible. When the investigator is in doubt about the possible harmful effects of the research procedures, consultation should be sought from others. When harm seems inevitable, the investigator should find other means of obtaining the information or abandon the research.

•Researchers must obtain written informed consent from participants before their involvement in a study. The consent must be voluntary. At any time before, during, or after the research, an individual can withhold consent. The researcher must tell all individuals the purpose of the research and the risks and benefits of participation. Individuals must be able to understand what they are being asked to do. Researchers are now required to inform participants of the following (Smith, 2003a, January, 2003b January):

º The experimental nature of the treatment º The services that will or will not be available to the control group(s) º The means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made º Available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the research or wishes to withdraw once a study has begun

º Compensation for or monetary costs of participating, including whether reimbursement from the participant or a third-party payer will be sought

•The use of deception in research must be justified and cause no harm. Psychologists are required to not deceive participants about research that is reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress. Any deception that is an integral feature of the design and conduct of an experiment needs to be explained to the participants as soon as possible. Participants are provided an opportunity to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research. Steps must be taken to correct


any misconceptions that participants may have. Researchers must take reasonable steps to reduce or minimize any physical or psychological harm to the participants.

•Participants’ privacy must be maintained. Participants need to know that information they share and all research records will be kept confidential. Data collected must be coded in such a way that the individual cannot be identified. The new code includes several revised and new standards to protect the privacy of psychology students who attend graduate programs that require psychotherapy as part of training.

The Society for Research in Child Development (2007) has also issued a set of guidelines for use in the research with children. To gain an understanding of the detail involved in setting principles and guidelines for psychological research, visit its website to read the SRCD Ethical Standards for Research With Children section.

Summary

In the following chapters, many hypotheses, theories, and research results will be presented. Ask yourself what research methods might have been used to derive the data. How was the sample constructed? Is it representative, and does it include enough participants to draw reliable conclusions?

Terms and Concepts

life span approach ........................................4Physical Development .................................4Cognitive Development ..............................4Socioemotional Development .....................5Nature Versus Nurture ................................5Continuity Versus Discontinuity .................5Critical and Sensitive Periods ......................6 theories .......................................................6hypotheses ..................................................6experimental research ...................................6correlational research ..................................6experimental group .....................................6control group ..............................................6independent variable ....................................7dependent variable .......................................7correlation coefficient .................................7

positive correlation ......................................7Negative correlations ...................................7Naturalistic Observation .............................8Case Studies ................................................8Survey Research ..........................................8random sampling ........................................8Longitudinal Studies ...................................9Cross-Sectional Studies ...............................9cohort effects ..............................................9cohort .........................................................9history-graded influences ............................9Age-graded influences .................................9Selective dropout ........................................9Sequential Studies .....................................10ethical guidelines ......................................10


References

American Psychological Association. (2010). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct: 2010 ammendments. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx

Beach, B.A. (2003). Rural children’s play in the natural environment. In D. E. Lytle (Ed.), Play and educational theory and practice. Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.

Boesch, C. (1991). Teaching among wild chimpanzees. Animal Behaviour, 41, 530-532.Center for Communication & Social Policy, University of California. (1998). National television

violence study, Vol. 2. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of emotions in animals and man. London, England: John Murray.Feldhusen, J. F. (2003). Lewis M. Terman: A pioneer in the development of ability tests. In B. J.

Zimmerman, Educational psychology: A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Fisher, C. B. (2003). Decoding the ethics code: A practical guide for psychologists. Thousand

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157, 211-226.Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

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York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children (M. Cook, Trans.). New York, NY:

International University Press.Pollitt, E., Gorman, K. S., Engle, P. L., Martorell, R., & Rivera, K. (1993). Early supplementary

feeding and cognition: Effects over two decades. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58, v-99.

Prezbindowski, A.K., & Lederberg, A.R. (2003). Vocabulary assessment of deaf and hard-of-hearing children from infancy through the preschool years. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 8, 383-400.

Rutter, M., & Rutter, M. (1993). Developing minds. New York, NY: Basic.Sales, B. D., & Folkman, S. (Eds.) (2000). Ethics in research with human participants. Washington,

DC: American Psychological Association.Sieber, J. E. (2000). Planning research: Basic ethical decision-making. In B. D. Sales & S.

Folkman (Eds.), Ethics in research with human participants. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Singer, D. G., & Singer, J. L. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of children and the media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Smith, D. (2003a, January). Five principles for research ethics. Cover your bases with these ethical strategies. Monitor on Psychology, 34, 56. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan03/principles.html


Smith, D. (2003b, January). What you need to know about the new code. Monitor on Psychology, 34, 62. Retrieved from www.apa.org/monitor/ Jan03/newcode.html

Smith, J., & Baltes, P. (1999). Lifespan perspectives on development. In M. Bornstein & M. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (pp. 47-73). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Society for Research in Child Development. (2007). Ethical standards for research with children. Retrieved from http://www.srcd.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=68&Itemid=499

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