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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Tribal rights with regards to lands and forests
should be respected, The development of tribal’s along the
line of their own genesis without imposing anything on
them, attempts should be made to train and build up a
team of tribal themselves to do the work of administration
and development.
– Jawaharlal Nehru
India, it is the nation with the highest concentration of ‘indigenous
peoples’ in the world! They are identified as ‘Adivasis’, with the
population of 8.43 crores (8.2%) of the total population of country
according to 2001. They live in about 15% of the country’s areas. These
Adivasis are generally considered to be ‘indigenous people’ or ‘original
inhabitants’ or ‘Scheduled Tribes’. Though the term ‘Scheduled Tribes’
(STs) is not coterminous with the term ‘Adivasis’. Scheduled Tribes is an
administrative term used for purposes of ‘administering’ certain specific
constitutional privileges, protection and benefits for specific sections of
peoples considered historically disadvantaged and ‘backward’.
Primitive, geographically isolated, shy and socially, educationally
and economically backwardness these are the traits that distinguish
Scheduled Tribes of our country from other communities. In various
ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains to forests, hills
and inaccessible areas. Tribal groups are at different stages of social,
economic and educational development. While some tribal communities
have adopted a mainstream way of life at one end of the spectrum, there
are 75 Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs), at the other, who are characterized
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by (a) a pre-agriculture level of technology, (b) a stagnant or declining
population (c) extremely low literacy and (d) a subsistence level of
economy.
However, this administrative term does not exactly match all the
peoples called ‘Adivasis’. Out of the 5653 distinct communities in India,
635 are considered to be ‘tribes’ or ‘Adivasis’. In comparison, one finds
that the estimated number of STs varies from 250 to 593.There are over
500 tribes (with many overlapping communities in more than one State) as
notified under article 452 of the Constitution of India.
The Constitution of India seeks to secure for all its citizens, among
other things, social and economic justice, equality of status and
opportunity and assures the dignity of the individual. The Constitution
further provides social, economic and political guarantees to the
disadvantaged sections of people. Some provisions are specific to both
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and some are specific to only
Scheduled Tribes.
But in a process of marginalization today, the total forest cover in
India is reported to be 765.21 thousand square kilometers of which 71%
are Adivasi areas, of these 416.52 and 223.30 thousand square kilometers
are categorized as reserved and protected forests respectively. About 23%
of these are further declared as Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks
which alone has displaced some half a million Adivasis. And finally,
Forest Policy of 1952, Indian Forest Act of 1972, Wild Life Protection Act
of 1972 and Forest Conservation Act of 1980 downgraded these privileges
of the people to concessions of the state in the post-colonial period. The
rights of Adivasis were reduced to mere privileges conferred by the state.
With globalization, there are now further attempts to change these
paternalistic concessions to being excluded as indicated by the draft
“Conservation of Forests and Natural Ecosystems Act” that is to replace
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the forest act and the amendments proposed to the Land Acquisition Act
and Schedule V of the Constitution. In 1991, 23.03% of STs were illiterate
as against 42.83% among the general population. The Government’s
Eighth Plan document mentions that nearly 52% of STs live below the
poverty line as against 30% of the general population.
Tribal Society:
In general usage, the word ‘tribe’ is taken to denote a primary
aggregate of peoples living in a primitive or barbarous under a headman
or chief. The unnecessary moralistic overtones that this usage implies
can be avoided or minimized by the use of the expression ‘tribal
society,’ which is to be preferred to such synonyms as ‘primitive
society’ or ‘preliterate society.’ At the same time, the word ‘tribe’ need
not be discarded. Indeed, it has become a technical term denoting a
territorially defined political unit, a usage that recalls the original Latin
use of the word for the political divisions or patrician orders of the
Roman state.
Meaning of Tribe:
Tribe is a term used to describe certain human social groups.
Some scholars dislike the term because it lacks a precise meaning and
has been applied to many widely different groups. In addition, many of
the peoples called tribes consider the term offensive or inaccurate.
The first use of the word ‘tribe’ in English referred to the
Hebrews. Until about 1000 B.C. the Hebrew were loosely organized into
12 groups. These groups were called the 12 tribes of Israel. The term
‘tribe’ was soon extended to mean any group of families who traced
themselves to a common ancestor. Most Europeans regarded the
colonized peoples whose technology was less advanced than theirs as
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primitive. In time the word ‘tribe’ acquired the broad meaning of
‘primitive groups.’
Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state
tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one
type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable
resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate
production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting
or constraining people during times of surplus.
A tribe viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a
social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.
Many anthropologists use the term to refer to societies organized largely
on the basis of kinship; especially corporate descent groups.
Etymology:
The English word tribe occurs in 13th century Middle English
literature as referring to one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The word is
from Old French tribu, in turn from Latin tribus, referring to the original
tripartite ethnic division of the Roman state: Tities (Titienses), Ramnes
(Ramneses), and Luceres, corresponding, according to Varro, to the
Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans respectively. The Ramnes were named
after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Tatius, leader of the
Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had
assisted the Latins. According to Livy, the three tribes were in fact
squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions.
The term’s ultimate etymology may be found in the Latin word
for three ‘tres’. The dative and ablative declensions of this word are
both ‘tribus’. The word ‘tribus’ could therefore mean ‘from the three’ or
‘for the three’.
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Another theory holds that tribus is perhaps derived from the PIE
roots *tri- ‘three’ and *bhew- ‘to be’. From 242-240 BC, the tribal
Assembly (comitia tributa) in the Roman Republic was organized in 35
Tribes (4 “Urban Tribes” and 31 “Rural Tribes”). The Latin word as
used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle “race, tribe, clan” and
ultimately the Hebrew or “scepter”. In the historical sense, “tribe”,
“race” or “clan” can be used interchangeably.
Definition:
Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification
for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social
inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains
four categories:
1. Gatherer-hunter bands, which are generally egalitarian.
2. Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social
rank and prestige.
3. Stratified tribal societies led by chieftains.
4. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized,
institutional governments.
Anthropologists have added other characteristics to the definition
of tribe, though different scholars emphasize different features. Many
define a tribe as a group with a sense of shared identity and ties of
ancestry, customs, language and territory. Others believe a tribe must
have some form of political organisation, such as a means of making
decisions for the group and of settling disputes between its members.
Some scientists regard only groups without a written language as tribes.
Some Scholars also use the term tribe to refer to an early stage in the
development of political systems.
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A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name,
speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a
common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it
might have been so.
– Imperial Gazetteer of India
A tribe is a group of people in a primitive or barbarous stage of
development acknowledging the authority of a chief and usually
regarding them as having a common ancestor.
– Oxford Dictionary
A tribe is a group united by a common name in which the
members take a pride by a common language, by a common territory,
and by a feeling that all who do not share this name are outsiders,
‘enemies’ in fact.
– G.W.B. Huntingford
A tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous,
with no specialization of functions, ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or
otherwise, united in language or dialect, recognizing social distance with
other tribes or castes, without any social obloquy attaching to them, as it
does in the caste structure, following tribal traditions, beliefs and
customs, illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all
conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration.
– D.N. Majumdar
The British administrators of pre-Independence India were
probably the first people who tried to grapple seriously with the problem
of administering the tribal areas and they had a vested interest in
cultivating, and perpetuating the above mentioned myths about the tribal
people of India. They did everything to ensure that the so-called
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aborigines, the Scheduled Tribes, remain isolated from the rest of the
Indian masses, because, the British Imperialists had realized the
potentiality of Indian tribes as explosive force in any national
movement. The tribes were isolated and their places of habitation were
declared as prohibited area. Thus, the alien rulers and Christian
missionaries were the only people who had access to the tribal areas in
the initial stages.
Fried Morton H. (1972) An anthropologist, In his study, The
Notion of the Tribe, provided numerous examples of tribes the members
of which spoke different languages and practiced different rituals, or
that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes.
Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed
different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of
other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by
fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic.
In some countries, such as the United States of America and India, tribes
are polities that have been granted legal recognition and limited
autonomy by the state.
History:
Over centuries, the Adivasis have evolved in intricate convivial –
custodial mode of living. They belong to their territories, which are the
essence of their existence; the abode of the spirits and their dead and the
source of their science, technology, way of life, their religion and
culture. Back in history, the Adivasis were in effect self-governing,
‘first nations’. In general and in most parts of the pre-colonial period,
they were notionally part of the ‘unknown frontier’ of the respective
states where the rule of the reign in fact did not extend, and the tribes
governed themselves outside of the influence of the particular ruler.
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In the Indian epics such as Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas
(folklores) there are many references to interactions and wars between
the forest or hill tribes and the Hindus. Eminent historians who have
done detailed research on the epic Ramayana (200 B.C. to 500 B.C.)
have concluded that ‘Lanka’, the kingdom of the demonic king Ravana
and ‘Kishkinda’, the homeland of the Vanaras (depicted as monkeys)
were places situated south of Chitrakuta hill and north of Narmada river
in middle India.
Accordingly, Ravana and his demons was an aboriginal tribe,
most probably the Gond, and the Vanaras, like Hanuman in the epic,
belonged to the Savara and Korku tribes whose descendants still inhabit
the central Indian forest belt. Even today, the Gond holds Ravana, the
villain of Ramayana, in high esteem as a chief. Rama, the hero of
Ramayana, is also known for slaughtering the Rakshasas (demons) in
the forests! Shabari (Bhil woman) offered ‘bor’ to Lord Rama when he
was in the jungles of Dhandakaranya, searching Sita.
The epic of Mahabharata refers to the death of Krishna at the
hands of a Bhil Jaratha. In the ancient scriptures, considered to be sacred
by the upper castes, various terms are used depicting Adivasis as almost
non-humans. The epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Puranas,
Samhitas Jambuvan (boar men), Naga (serpents), Bhusundi Kaka
(crow), Garuda (King of Eagles) etc. In medieval India, they were called
derogatorily as Kolla, Villa, Kirata, Nishada, and those who surrendered
or were subjugated were termed as Dasa (slave) and those who refused
to accept the bondage of slavery were termed as Dasyu (a hostile
robber).
Ekalavya, one of their archers was so skillful that the hero of the
Aryans, Arjuna, could not stand before him. But they assaulted him,
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cutting his thumb and destroying his ability to fight – and then fashioned
a story in which he accepted Drona as his Guru and surrendered his
thumb as an offering to the master! The renowned writer Maheshwata
Devi points out that Adivasis predated Hinduism and Aryanism, that
Shiva was not an Aryan god and that in the 8th century, the tribal forest
goddess or harvest goddess was absorbed and adapted as Shiva’s wife.
Goddess Kali, the goddess of hunters, has definitely had a tribal origin.
Little is known about the relationship between the tribal and non-
tribal communities during the Hindu and Muslim rules. There are stray
references to wars and alliances between the Rajput kings and tribal
chieftains in middle India and in the North-East between the Ahom
Kings of Brahmaputra valley and the hill Nagas. They are considered to
be ati-sudra meaning lower than the untouchable castes. Even today, the
upper caste people refer to these peoples as jangli, a derogatory term
meaning “those who are like wild animals” – uncivilized or sub-humans.
The introduction of the alien concept of private property began
with the Permanent Settlement of the British in 1793 and the
establishment of the “Zamindari” system that conferred control over
vast territories, including tribal territories, to designated feudal lords for
the purpose of revenue collection by the British.
In the process of economic, cultural and ecological change,
Adivasis have attached themselves to caste groups in a peripheral
manner, and the process of de-tribalisation is a continuous one. Many of
the Hindu communities have absorbed the cultural practices of the
Adivasis. Although Hinduism could be seen as one unifying thread
running through the country as a whole, it is not homogenous but in
reality a conglomeration of centuries old traditions and shaped by
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several religious and social traditions which are more cultural in their
essence (and including elements of Adivasi socio-religious culture).
Adivasis are not, as a general rule, regarded as unclean by caste
Hindus in the same way as Dalits are. But they continue to face
prejudice (as lesser humans); they are socially distanced and often face
violence from society. They are at the lowest point in every socio-
economic indicator. Today the majority of the population regards them
as primitive and aims at decimating them as peoples or at best
integrating them with the mainstream at the lowest rung in the ladder.
This is especially so with the rise of the fascist Hindutva forces.
None of the brave Adivasi fights against the British have been
treated as part of the “national” struggle for independence. From the
Malpahariya uprising in 1772 to Lakshman Naik’s revolt in Orissa in
1942, the adivasis repeatedly rebelled against the British in the north-
eastern, eastern and central Indian belt. In many of the rebellions, the
Adivasis could not be subdued, but terminated the struggle only because
the British acceded to their immediate demands, as in the case of the
Bhil revolt of 1809 and the Naik revolt of 1838 in Gujarat. Heroes like
Birsa Munda, Kanhu Santhal, Khazya Naik, Tantya Bhil, Lakshman
Naik, Kuvar Vasava, Rupa Naik, Thamal Dora, Ambul Reddi, Thalakkal
Chandu, etc. are remembered in the songs and stories of the Adivasis but
ignored in the official text books.
After the transfer of power, the rulers of the Residency Areas
signed the “Deed of Accession” on behalf of the ruled on exchange they
were offered Privy Purse. No deed was however, signed with most of
the independent Adivasi states. They were assumed to have joined the
Union. The government rode rough shod on independent Adivasi nations
and they were merged with the Indian Union. This happened even by
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means of state violence as in the case of Adivasi uprising in the Nizam’s
State of Hyderabad and Nagalim.
Some other tribal groups, groaning under the yoke of exploitation,
rebelled. In this context such uprisings as Ho mutiny of Singbhum in
1831, Khond uprising of 1846 and famous Santal rebellion of 1855 are
worth mentioning. The British Indian Government was also forced to
send punitive expeditions to Assam, Nagaland and Jaintia Hills between
1850 and 1890 and repeatedly to the Lushai Hills, Naga Hills and to the
Abor during the last decade of 19th
century and the first decade of 20th
century.
At this stage the idea that “distinct and special arrangements were
necessary for isolated tribal regions gained general acceptance, the
findings of anthropological researches seemed to support it” (Report of
the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission, Vol. I (1960-
61). The British Government finally decided on a policy of segregating
the tribes into special areas where their lives and interests could,
supposedly, be adequately protected. Keeping this purpose in mind, an
Act was passed in 1874 to specify tribal areas into ‘Scheduled Districts.’
These areas were reconstituted under Section 52A of the
Government of India Act of 1919. This Act provided for the
appointment of officers to administer civil and criminal justice, to
superintend the settlement and collection of public revenues and all
matters relating to rent, and otherwise to conduct the administration
within the Scheduled Districts. It also provided for the extension, by
notification to the Scheduled Districts, laws in force in any part of
British India, with such special restrictions and modifications as were
deemed fit. Thus, wide powers of legislation by simple executive order
were vested in the Executive.
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The Indian Statutory commission (Simon Commission) suggested
that on financial and constitutional grounds the responsibility for the
tribal tracts should be entrusted to the centre. In the subsequent years
and up to 1947 numerous Acts and Regulations were promulgated and
various reforms introduced. In 1935 more stringent provision for a
special treatment of the tribal areas were incorporated by convening
them into “Totally and Partially Excluded Areas.”
After 1947:
With the dawn of Independence, the nation witnessed a
considerable awakening about the welfare of the tribal people. This was
reflected in various provisions of the Constitution independent India
adopted the Constituent Assembly on January 26, 1950. It visualized a
policy of progressive assimilation of the tribal people in the national
mainstream. In order to promote the integration of the tribal people with
the rest of their Indian brethren, the Constitution provided special
safeguards for the tribal communities for a period of ten years. This
period continues to be extended till now.
A tribal welfare department was instituted in 1951 for the
protection and advancement of the Scheduled Tribes and with the help
of various provisions of the Constitution, a new line of administration
was chalked out. Article 244 of the Constitution provides for the
administration of “Scheduled Areas” in accordance with the Fifth
Schedule and (in Assam) “Tribal Areas” under sixth Schedule.
The term ‘Tribe’ is nowhere clearly defined in the Constitution
and in fact there is no satisfactory definition anywhere. But the
Constitution has defined a ‘tribe’ to the extent that the Scheduled Tribes
are “the tribes or the tribal communities or parts of or groups within
tribe or tribal communities” which the President may specify by public
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notification (Article 342), this ambiguity sometime leads to confusion in
classifying and identifying a tribal population for declaring it a
Scheduled Tribe, but it should not be regarded as a hindrance in
implementing tribal welfare programmes.
Attributes of a tribal community:
To summarize in a nut shell the views of experts about the attributes
of tribal could be classified as follows:
1. Tribal live in an isolated area as culturally distinct groups.
2. Tribal trace their origin from the oldest ethnological section of the
population.
3. They follow primitive methods of occupations such as hunting,
gathering of minor forest produce and therefore they are backward
economically as well as educationally.
4. Members of tribal society profess a primitive religion and are not
always within the Hindu-fold in the usual sense.
5. Tribal have their own common dialect. Their dialect has no written
script.
6. Tribal love, music, dance and liquor.
7. Members of tribal communities dress scantily.
Tribes in India were considered to be as “Backward Class”, but later
the term was used to denote as the weaker sections of the Indian Society.
Until, 1919 they were termed as the Depressed Class. The Indian pro-
administration committee in 1919 however accorded a different
nomenclature for the census reports as under:
a) census 1931 referred them as primitive tribes
b) census 1941 referred them as “tribes”
c) census 1951 referred the Tribes as “scheduled tribes”
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The term “scheduled tribes” was inserted in the Constitution vide
Article 342(1) which empowered the president of India to specify tribal
communities by public notification. In pursuance of this power the
following presidential orders have been issued.
1) The constitution (scheduled Tribes) order 1950
2) The constitution (scheduled Tribes) part ‘C’ states order 1951
3) The scheduled Tribes list (Notification) order 1956 etc.
Characteristics of tribal society:
Wilson & Wilson (1945) while taking account of the implications
of such homely synonyms as “simple society”, “pre-industrial society”
or “folk society,” a satisfactory characterization of tribal society must
therefore concentrate upon criteria of form rather than of content. Here
the most useful general criterion is that of “scale”. Ideally, tribal
societies are small in scale, are restricted in the spatial and temporal
range of their social, legal, and political relations, and possess a
morality, religion, and world view of corresponding dimensions.
Characteristically, too, tribal languages are unwritten, and hence, the
extent of communication both in time and space is inevitably narrow. At
the same time, tribal societies exhibit a remarkable economy of design
and have a compactness and self-sufficiency lacking in modern society.
This is achieved by the close, and sometimes unilateral, connections that
exist between tribal institutions or principles of social organisation, and
by the concentration of a multiplicity of social roles in the same social
persons or offices. There is a corresponding unity and coherence in
tribal values that are intimately related to social institutions and are
endowed with an intensity characteristic of all “closed” systems of
thought. Tribal societies are supremely ethnocentric.
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Economic relations are usually of the subsistence type, although
trade and barter often extend outside the community. At the same time,
economic differentiation and specialization are not developed, and by
modern standards technological knowledge and environmental control
remain restricted. Ideally, indeed, a position of socioeconomic
equilibrium has been attained in relation to environmental conditions. In
these circumstances social change tends to be on a limited scale,
reproducing rather than drastically altering the existing order and
innovation are profoundly affected by the established institutions of
society. Yet the isolation and unchanged of tribal communities must not
be exaggerated, above all, it must be remembered that knowledge of
tribal life derives mainly from studies made at a particular point in time.
Constitutional Guarantee:
The Constitution of India provides social, economic and political
guarantees to disadvantaged sections of the people. Some provisions
specific for the Scheduled Tribes are:
(I) Social:
Equality before Law (Article 14);
The State to make special provisions for the advancement of any
socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes [Article 15 (4)];
Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to
employment or appointment to any office under the State(Article
16);
The State to make provisions for reservation in appointment, posts
in favor of any backward class citizens, which in the opinion of the
State is not adequately represented in the services under the State
[Article 16 (4)];
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The State to make provisions in matters of promotion to any class or
classes of posts in the services in favor of the Scheduled Castes and
the Scheduled Tribes [Article 16 (4A)];
A National Commission for Scheduled Tribes to investigate,
monitor and evaluate all matters relating to the Constitutional
safeguards provided for the Scheduled Tribes (Article 338 A);
Appointment of a Commission to report on the administration of the
Scheduled Areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the
States [Article 339 (1)];
Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of
socially and educationally backward classes and the difficulties
under which they labour and to make recommendations to remove
such difficulties and to improve their conditions (Article 340);
To specify the tribes or tribal communities to be Scheduled Tribes
(Article 342).
(II) Economic:
The State, to promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in
particular of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and
protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation
(Article 46);
Grants-in-Aid to be made available from the Consolidated Fund of
India each year for promoting the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes
and administration of Scheduled Areas [Article 275(1)];
The claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes in the appointments to services and posts in
connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State to be taken into
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consideration consistent with the maintenance of efficiency of
administration (Article 335).
(III) Political:
Special provisions, spelt out in the Fifth Schedule, for the
administration and control of Scheduled Areas and the Scheduled
Tribes in any State (other than the States of Assam, Meghalaya,
Tripura and Mizoram), Annual Reports are to be submitted by the
Governors to the President of India regarding the administration of
the Scheduled Areas, Tribes Advisory Councils are required to be
set up (especially in Fifth Schedule States) to advise on such matters
pertaining to the welfare and advancement of the Scheduled Tribes
{Article 244 (1)};
Special provisions, spelt out in the Sixth Schedule for the
administration of tribal areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya,
Tripura and Mizoram by designating certain tribal areas as
Autonomous Districts and Autonomous Regions and also by
constituting District Councils, Autonomous Councils and Regional
Councils {Article244(2)};
Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes in the House of the People (Article 330);
Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States (Article 332);
Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes in every Panchayat (Article 243D);
Extension of the 73rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution to
the Scheduled Areas through the provisions of the Panchayats
(Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 to ensure effective
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participation of the tribal in the process of planning and decision
making.
Scheduling and De-scheduling of Tribes:
The term "Scheduled Tribes" is defined in Article 366 (25) of the
Constitution as "such tribes or tribal communities or parts of, or groups
within such tribes, or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342
to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this Constitution". Article 342
prescribes the procedure to be followed in the matter of specification of
Scheduled Tribes.
Under Clause (1) of Article 342, the President may, with respect to
any State or Union Territory, and where it is a State, after consultation with
the Governor thereof, notifies tribes or tribal communities or parts of these
as Scheduled Tribes. This confers on the tribe, or part of it, a
Constitutional status invoking the safeguards provided for in the
Constitution, to these communities in their respective States/UTs.
Clause (2) of the Article empowers the Parliament to pass a law to
include in or exclude from the list of Scheduled Tribes, any tribe or tribal
community or parts of these.
Thus, the first specification of Scheduled Tribes in relation to a
particular State/ Union Territory is by a notified order of the President,
after consultation with the State Governments concerned. These orders can
be modified subsequently only through an Act of Parliament. The above
Article also provides for listing of Scheduled Tribes State/Union Territory
wise and not on an all India basis.
The criteria followed for specification of a community as a
Scheduled Tribe are:-
Indications of primitive traits,
Distinctive culture,
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Geographical isolation,
Shyness of contact with the community at large and
Backwardness.
These criteria are not spelt out in the Constitution but have become
well established and accepted. They take into account the definitions in the
1931Census, the reports of the first Backward Classes Commission
(Kalelkar) 1955, the Advisory Committee on Revision of SC/ ST lists
(Lokur Committee) 1965 and the Joint Committee of Parliament on the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Bill, 1967
(Chanda Committee) 1969.No community has been specified as a
Scheduled Tribe in relation to the States of Haryana and Punjab and Union
Territories of Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry.
Scheduled Areas:
The Scheduled Tribes live in contiguous areas unlike other
communities. It is, therefore, much simpler to have an area approach for
development activities as well as regulatory provisions to protect their
interests. In order to protect the interests of Scheduled Tribes with regard
to land and other social issues, various provisions have been enshrined in
the Fifth Schedule and the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution.
The Fifth Schedule under Article 244(1) of Constitution defines
"Scheduled Areas" as such areas as the President may by order declare to
be Scheduled Areas after consultation with the Governor of that State.
The Sixth Schedule under Article 244 (2) of the Constitution relates
to those areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
which are declared as "tribal areas" and provides for District or Regional
Autonomous Councils for such areas. These councils have wide ranging
legislative, judicial and executive powers.
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Fifth Schedule Areas
The criteria for declaring any area as a "Scheduled Area" under the
Fifth Schedule are:
Preponderance of tribal population,
Compactness and reasonable size of the area,
A viable administrative entity such as a district, block or taluka and
Economic backwardness of the area as compared to the neighboring
areas.
The specification of "Scheduled Areas" in relation to a State is by a
notified order of the President, after consultation with the State
Government concerned. The same applies in the case of any alteration,
increase, decrease, incorporation of new areas, or rescinding any Orders
relating to "Scheduled Areas".
The States of Madhya Pradesh and Bihar were reorganised vide the
Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2000 and Bihar Reorganisation Act,
2000 respectively. Consequently, a portion of Scheduled Areas of the
composite State of Madhya Pradesh stood transferred to the newly formed
State of Chhattisgarh and the whole of such areas stood transferred to
Jharkhand from the parent State of Bihar. In order to ensure that members
of the Scheduled Tribes in the newly formed States continue to get the
benefits available under the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution, it became
necessary to amend the Scheduled Areas (States of Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh and Orissa) Order 1977 (C.O.109) issued on 31 December, 1977
in so far as it related to the composite States of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
The President has promulgated a new Constitutional Order specifying the
Scheduled Areas in respect of the States of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and
Madhya Pradesh on 20th February 2003. The Scheduled Areas in the State
of Jharkhand have been redefined to be the Scheduled Areas within the
21
State of Jharkhand vide the Scheduled Areas (State of Jharkhand) Order,
2007 (Constitutional Order 229) dated11-04-2007.
Purpose and advantage of Scheduled Areas:
Scheduled Areas have certain distinct provisions meant to protect
and benefit tribal,
(A)The Governor of a State, which has Scheduled Areas, is empowered
to make regulations in respect of the following:
(I) Prohibit or restrict transfer of land from tribal;
(II) Regulate the business of money lending to the members of
Scheduled Tribes. In making any such regulation, the Governor may
repeal or amend any Act of Parliament or of the Legislature of the
State, which is applicable to the area in question.
(B)The Governor may by public notification direct that any particular
Act of Parliament or of the Legislature of the State shall not apply to a
Scheduled Area or any part thereof in the State or shall apply to such
area subject to such exceptions and modifications as he may specify.
(C)The Governor of a State having Scheduled Areas therein, shall
annually, or whenever so required by the President of India, make a
report to the President regarding the administration of the Scheduled
Areas in that State and the executive power of the Union shall extend
to the giving of directions to the State as to the administration of the
said area.
(D) Tribes Advisory Councils [TAC] shall be established in States having
Scheduled Areas. A TAC may also be established in any State having
Scheduled Tribes, but not Scheduled Areas, on the direction of the
President of India. The TAC should consist of not more than twenty
members of whom, as nearly as may be, three fourth should be from
the representatives of Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assembly
of the State. The role of TAC is to advise the State Government on
22
matters pertaining to the welfare and advancement of the Scheduled
Tribes in the State, as may be referred to it by the Governor.
(E) The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, vide
Which the Provisions of Panchayats, contained in Part IX of the
Constitution, were extended to Scheduled Areas, also contains special
provisions for the benefit of Scheduled Tribes.
The Sixth Schedule:
The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India under Article 244
makes provisions for the administration of tribal areas through
Autonomous District/ Regional Councils in the States of Assam,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura.
The term "tribal areas" generally means areas with a preponderance
of tribal population. However, the Constitution of India recognizes the
tribal areas within the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura & Mizoram, as
those areas are specified in Parts I, II, IIA & III of the table appended to
paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule. In other words, areas where provisions
of Sixth Schedule are applicable are known as "tribal areas". In relation to
these areas, Autonomous District Councils, each having not more than
thirty members, have been set up.
These Councils are elected bodies and have powers of legislation,
administration of justice apart from executive, developmental and financial
responsibilities. The State wise details of tribal areas are as under:-
Part-I (ASSAM)
1. The North Cachar Hills District
2. The Karbi-Anglong District
3. The Bodo Land Territorial Area District
23
Part II (MEGHALAYA)
1. Khasi Hills District
2. Jaintia Hills District
3. The Garo Hills District
[Part IIA] (TRIPURA)
Tripura Tribal Areas District
Part III (MIZORAM)
1. The Chakma District
2. The Mara District
3. The Lai District
The District or Regional Councils are empowered to make rules with
the approval of the Governor with regard to matters like establishment,
construction or management of primary schools, dispensaries, markets,
cattle ponds, ferries, fisheries, roads, road transport and water-ways in the
district. The Autonomous Councils of the North Cachar Hills and Karbi
Anglong have been granted additional powers to make laws with respect to
other matters like secondary education, agriculture, social security and
social insurance, public health and sanitation, minor irrigation etc. The
Councils have also been conferred powers under the Civil Procedure Code
and Criminal Procedure Code for trial of certain suits and offences, as also
the powers of a revenue authority for their area for collection of revenue
and taxes and other powers for the regulation and management of natural
resources.
24
The Scheduled Tribes:
Article 366 (25) of the Constitution of India refers to Scheduled
Tribes as those communities, who are scheduled in accordance with Article
342 of the Constitution. This Article says that only those communities who
have been declared as such by the President through an initial public
notification or through a subsequent amending Act of Parliament will be
considered to be Scheduled Tribes.
The list of Scheduled Tribes is State/ UT specific and a community
declared as a Scheduled Tribe in a State need not be so in another State.
The essential characteristics, first laid down by the Lokur Committee, for a
community to be identified as Scheduled Tribes are as mentioned earlier.
25
Distribution of Tribes:
Table No. 1.1
State wise Total & Tribal Population of India (2001 Census)
Sr.
No
State/Union
Territory
Population Percentage of
tribal
population Total Tribal
I INDIA 10,286.10 843.26 8.20
1. Andhra Pradesh 762.10 50.24 6.59
2. Arunachal
Pradesh
10.98 7.05 64.21
3. Assam 266.55 33.09 12.41
4. Bihar 829.98 7.58 0.91
5. Chhattisgarh 208.34 66.17 31.76
6. Delhi 138.51 -- --
7. Goa 13.48 0.01 0.07
8. Gujarat 506.71 74.81 14.76
9. Haryana 211.44 -- --
10. Himachal
Pradesh
60.78 2.45 4.03
11. Jammu &
Kashmir
101.43 11.06 10.90
12. Jharkhand 269.46 70.87 26.30
13. Karnataka 528.51 34.64 6.55
14. Kerala 318.41 3.64 1.14
15. Madhya Pradesh 603.48 122.34 20.27
16. Maharashtra 968.79 85.77 8.85
17. Manipur 21.67 7.41 34.19
18. Meghalaya 23.19 19.93 85.94
19. Mizoram 8.89 8.39 94.38
20. Nagaland 19.90 17.74 89.15
21. Orissa 368.05 81.45 22.13
22. Punjab 243.59 -- --
23. Rajasthan 565.07 70.98 12.56
24. Sikkim 5.41 1.11 20.52
25. Tamilnadu 624.06 6.51 1.04
26. Tripura 31.99 9.93 31.04
27. Uttar Pradesh 1661.98 1.08 0.06
28. Uttaranchal 84.89 2.56 3.01
29. West Bengal 801.76 44.07 5.50
26
II UNION
TERRITORIES
1. Andaman & Nicobar 3.56 0.30 8.43
2. Chandigarh 9.01 -- --
3. Dadra & Nagar
Haveli
2.20 1.37 62.27
4. Diu and Daman 1.58 0.14 8.86
5. Lakshdweep 0.61 0.57 93.44
6. Pondicherry 9.74 -- --
(Source: Census Report, 2001)
The tribal population of the country, as per the 2001 census, is 8.43
crore, constituting 8.2% of the total population. The population of tribes
had grown at the growth rate of 24.45% during the period 1991-2001.
More than half the Scheduled Tribe population is concentrated in the States
of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand and
Gujarat.
Tribal communities live in about 15% of the country's areas, in
various ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains and
forests to hills and inaccessible areas. Tribal groups are at different stages
of social, economic and educational development. While some tribal
communities have adopted a mainstream way of life, at the other end of the
spectrum, there are 75 groups, in number known as Particularly Vulnerable
Tribal Groups (PTGs), who were identified earlier for having the following
characteristics:
(a) Pre-agriculture level of technology;
(b) Stagnant or declining population; and
(c) Extremely low literacy;
(d) Subsistence level of economy
27
The distribution of the tribal population in different States/UTs of
India has been shown below:
Table 1.2: Distribution of STs Population in different States / UTs
No. STATE
Percentage of ST
Population in States/UTs
to the total ST
Population of the
country
(Descending Order)
1 Madhya Pradesh 14.51
2 Maharashtra 10.17
3 Orissa 9.66
4 Gujarat 8.87
5 Rajasthan 8.42
6 Jharkhand 8.40
7 Chhattishgarh 7.85
8 Andhra Pradesh 5.96
9 West Bengal 5.23
10 Karnataka 4.11
11 Assam 3.92
12 Meghalaya 2.36
13 Nagaland 2.10
14 Jammu and Kashmir 1.31
15 Tripura 1.18
16 Mizoram 1.00
17 Bihar 0.90
18 Manipur 0.88
19 Arunachal Pradesh 0.84
20 Tamil Nadu 0.77
21 Kerala 0.43
22 Uttarakhand 0.30
23 Himachal Pradesh 0.29
24 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 0.16
25 Sikkim 0.13
(Source: Census Report, 2001)
28
While the tribal population in some States is low when calculated as
the percentage of the total tribal population of India but it constitutes the
majority within the State or UT itself (e.g.in Lakshadweep, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Dadra & Nagar Haveli). A
very sizeable segment of tribal population, as stated earlier, resides in the
States of Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Orissa, Rajasthan, Maharashtra
and Madhya Pradesh.
29
The tribal population as percentage of the States/UTs is indicated in
below map,
Figure No. 1: State wise Tribal percentage in India.
30
The major tribes:
There are over 700 Scheduled Tribes notified under Article 342 of
the Constitution of India, spread over different States and Union Territories
of the country. Many tribes are present in more than one State. The largest
numbers of scheduled tribes are in the State of Orissa (i.e., 62). The
synonyms of these 700 or so tribes are also vary many a times and are
listed in the schedule.
Tribal Development Strategy and Programmes:
The first Five Year Plan emphasized the provision of additional
financial resources through a community development approach to address
the problems of tribal people rather than evolving a clear-cut tribal
development strategy. Towards the end of the plan (1954), 43 Special
Multipurpose Tribal Development Projects (MTDPs) were created. These
MTDPs could not fully serve the interests of the tribal people since the
schemes were numerous and of a general nature. This approach continued
during the Second Five Year Plan. In the Third Plan, a different strategy
for tribal development was evolved by converting those Community
Development Blocks where the concentration of tribal population was 66%
and above into Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs). By the end of the
Fourth Five Year Plan, the number of TDBs in the country rose to 504.
The strategy of development through TDBs had its limitations as well, as it
failed to address the cause of the tribal population of the country living
outside the TDBs, which comprised more than 60% of the total tribal
population.
The present strategy of Tribal Sub Plan:
The Tribal Sub Plan strategy was developed by an Expert
Committee set up by the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare in 1972
under the Chairmanship of Prof. S.C. Dube for the rapid socio-economic
31
development of tribal people and was adopted for the first time in the Fifth
Five Year Plan.
The strategy adopted continues till this day. Its salient features are:
(I) Preparation of plan meant for the welfare and development of tribal
within the ambit of a State or a UT plan is a part of the overall plan of
a State or UT, and is therefore called a Sub-Plan;
(II) The funds provided under the Tribal Sub-Plan have to be at least
equal in proportion to the ST population of each State or UT;
(III) Tribal and tribal areas of a State or a UT are given benefits under the
TSP, in addition to what percolates from the overall Plan of a State/
UT;
(IV) The Sub-Plan should:
(a) Identify the resources for TSP areas;
(b) Prepare a broad policy framework for development; and,
(c) Define a suitable administrative strategy for its implementation.
(V) The TSP strategy has been in operation in 22 States and 2 UTs. The
names of TSP States and UTs are given in Table 1.2
(VI) TSP concept is not applicable to the tribal majority States of
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland and in the
UTs of Lakshadweep and Dadra & Nagar Haveli where tribal
represent more than 80% of the population, since the Annual Plan in
these States/ UTs are itself a Tribal Plan.
32
Table 1.3: TSP States & Union Territories
TSP States & Union Territories
1. Andhra Pradesh 13. Maharashtra
2. Assam 14. Manipur
3. Bihar 15. Orissa
4. Chhittisgarh 16. Rajasthan
5. Goa 17. Sikkim
6. Gujarat 18. Tamil Nadu
7. Himachal Pradesh 19. Tripura
8. Jammu & Kashmir 20. Uttar Pradesh
9. Jharkhand 21. Uttarakhand
10. Karnataka 22. West Bengal
11. Kerala 23. Andaman & Nicobar (UT)
12. Madhya Pradesh 24. Daman & Diu (UT)
(Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, GOI)
Though the States are expected to provide under the TSP funds
which are at least equal to the percentage of the tribal population to the
total population in the State, and though both the Ministry of Tribal Affairs
and the Planning Commission had written to the States to do so, this was
unfortunately not followed by all the states while preparing the Annual
Plan for 2009-10. The details of Annual Plan outlays for 2009-10 of
States/UTs and the proportion or funds provided under the TSP are given
at below table,
33
Table 1.4: STATUS OF THE TSP FORMULATED BY
STATES/ UTS FOR 2009-10
(a) States which have not made adequate provision.
S.No. State/UT ST
Population
%
A.P. 2009-10 (Rs. in crore)
State Plan
Outlay
Flow to
TSP
% of TSP
to
Annual
Plan
1 Assam 12.4 6000.00 55.28 0.9
2 Chhattisgarh 32.4 18310.32 NA -
3 Goa 12.1 2240.00 136.99 6.1
4 Gujarat 14.8 NA NA -
5 Jammu & Kashmir 10.9 5500.00 559.97 10.2
6 Maharashtra 8.9 NA NA -
7 Rajasthan 12.6 17322.00 2115.48 12.2
8 Sikkim 20.6 1045.00 NA -
9 Tamil Nadu 1.0 17500.00 36.36 0.2
10 Uttarakhand 3.0 NA NA -
(b) States which have made adequate/ excess provision.
S.No. State/UT ST Population
% A.P. 2009-10 (Rs. in crore)
State Plan
Outlay
Flow to TSP % of TSP to
Annual Plan
1 Andhra Pradesh 6.6 33496.75 2370.86 7.1
2 Bihar 0.9 16000.00 163.38 1.0
3 Himachal Pradesh 5.6 2700.00 243.00 9.0
4 Jharkhand 26.3 8200.00 5760.46 70.2
5 Karnataka 6.6 29500.00 1947.00 6.6
6 Kerala 1.1 8920.00 180.86 2.0
7 Madhya Pradesh 20.3 16174.17 3714.43 23.0
8 Manipur 34.2 2000.00 741.15 37.1
9 Orissa 22.1 9500.00 2171.48 22.9
10 Tripura 31.1 1680.00 575.91 34.3
11 Uttar Pradesh 0.1 39000.00 546.00 1.4
12 West Bengal 5.5 14150.00 963.55 6.8
13 A & N Islands 8.3 833.18 68.95 8.3
14 Daman & Diu 8.8 154.34 13.66 8.9 NA: Not available Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, D&N Haveli, Lakshadweep are tribal majority States, so do not have TSP. (Source: Planning Commission)
34
TSP Component of Central Ministries:
The TSP strategy is expected to be followed in the Central
Ministries/ Departments also. Therefore an adequate flow of funds in all
the Central Ministries/ Departments needs to be ensured. The Planning
Commission and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs have requested in the past
all the Central Ministries and Departments to quantify the funds for the
TSP in their Annual Plans in accordance with the population percentage of
STs in the country. i.e. 8.2%, as per 2001 census.
Many Ministries have reported difficulty in segregation of their TSP
component citing indivisibility of projects, because their projects are
applicable to all communities, including SCs/ STs. The Ministry taking
this into account has approached Planning Commission for devising a
different strategy for Central Ministries on TSP.
TSP of the State Government:
The Planning Commission has issued guidelines for the States to
earmark funds for TSP to be placed under a separate Budget Head Code
796 from total State Plan outlay. As per guidelines issued by the Planning
Commission,
The Tribal Sub Plan funds are to be non-divertible and non-lapsable.
The guidelines also provide that the Tribal Welfare Departments will be
nodal Departments for the formulation and implementation of the Tribal
Sub Plan in the States.
In order to provide incentive for adoption of TSP, as provided in the
guidelines for release of funds under the programme of SCA to TSP,
an amount equivalent to 10% of the total allocation is earmarked and
released to those States who qualify for incentive based on the past
performance of TSP implementation -i.e. those which have utilized more
than 75% of the approved Tribal Sub-Plan funds to the implementing
35
agencies through the budget head of the Tribal Development Department
of the State.
Similar provision of earmarking 10% is contained in the guidelines
for release of funds under the programme of grants under Article 275(1) of
the Constitution, under which such funds are released to those 22 states
which qualify as indicated above, and in the case of the 4 tribal-majority
States, utilization of 75% of the grants released under the Central Sector
Schemes of the Ministry is the criterion for qualifying for such special
funds, for consideration of innovative projects grants - Ministry scrutinizes
such proposals from the States to ensure that these are being used for
innovative projects only; as an instrument to bring about changes in the
institutional framework for adoption of the TSP.
Funding of Tribal Development Programme:
Funds for tribal development are sourced from:
(I) State Plans
(II) Special Central Assistance (SCA) to Tribal Sub Plan, Grants under
Article 275(1) of the Constitution and funds under other Schemes of
the Ministry.
(III) Sectoral programmes of Central Ministries/ Departments, and
(IV) Institutional Finance.
The Ministry: An Introduction
The Ministry of Tribal Affairs was constituted in October 1999 with
the objective of providing more focused attention on the integrated socio-
economic development of the most under-privileged sections of the Indian
society, the Scheduled Tribes (STs), in a coordinated and planned manner.
The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is the nodal Ministry for overall policy,
planning and coordination of programmes for development of ST's. To this
end, Ministry of Tribal Affairs undertaken activities that follow from the
36
subjects allocated under the Government of India (Allocation of Business)
Rules, 1961. These include:
1. Social security and social insurance to the Scheduled Tribes.
2. Tribal Welfare: Tribal welfare planning, project formulation, research,
evaluation, statistics and training.
3. Promotion and development of voluntary efforts on tribal welfare.
4. Scheduled Tribes, including scholarship to students belonging to such
tribes.
5. Development of Scheduled Tribes.
5. (a) All matters including legislation relating to the rights of forest
dwelling Scheduled Tribes on forest lands.
6. (a) matters relating to autonomous districts of Assam excluding roads
and bridge works and ferries thereon; and,
(b) Regulations framed by the Governors of States for Scheduled Areas
and for Tribal Areas specified in Part 'A' of the Table appended to
paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution.
7. (a) Commission to report on the administration of Scheduled Areas and
the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes; and
(b)Issue of directions regarding the drawing up and execution of
schemes essential for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in any
State.
8. The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
9. Implementation of the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (22 of 1955)
and the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of
Atrocities) Act, 1989 (33 of 1989), excluding administration of criminal
justice in regard to offences in so far as they relate to Scheduled Tribes.
Role:
It needs to be emphasized that the programmes and schemes of the
Ministry are intended to support and supplement, through financial
37
assistance, the efforts of other Central Ministries, the State Governments
and voluntary organizations, and to fill critical gaps taking into account the
situation of STs. The primary responsibility for promoting the interests
of Scheduled Tribes thus rests with all the Central Ministries. The
Ministry complements their efforts by way of various developmental
interventions in critical sectors through specially tailored schemes. These,
comprising schemes for economic, educational and social development,
are administered by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs and implemented
through the State Governments/Union Territory Administrations and
voluntary organizations.
Administration:
The establishment and general administration of the Ministry and
the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) are handled in the
Administration Division. In addition, establishment matters of officers
appointed under Central Staffing Schemes for the Department proper and
against ex-cadre posts of this Ministry and also posts belonging to other
Central Services i.e. Indian Economic Service cadre, various Statistical
cadres, etc. are being administered in this Division.
Ministry of Tribal Affairs had been facing severe crunch of space
since its inception. Some divisions viz., Research & Media, Plan and
Miscellaneous, Statistics and Cooperative Marketing & Regulation
Divisions have been located in August Kranti Bhawan at Bhikaji Cama
Place. It involves extra efforts of staff and vehicles for coordination. It will
be a major problem to accommodate any additional staff that this Ministry
is seeking to carry out the neglected and new functions in the Ministry.
38
Demographic Trends and Present Status:
Population Profile: According to the 2001 Census, the population of
Scheduled Tribes in the country is 8.43 crore, which is 8.2% of the total
population of the country. The population of Scheduled Tribes has been on
the increase since 1961. The State wise overall population, ST population,
growth rate etc during 1991 to 2001 as per census 2001 are given at above
graph,
Growth: The decadal population growth between the Census Year 1971 to
1981 in respect of the tribal population has been higher (35.79%) than that
of the entire population (25.0%). The decadal population growth between
the Census Year 1981 to 1991 in respect of the tribal population has also
been higher (31.64%) than that of the entire population (23.51%).
Similarly during census year 1991 to 2001 it has been 24.45% against the
growth rate of 22.66% for the entire population. The ST population in the
State of Karnataka has witnessed the highest growth rate of 80.82%
followed by Nagaland (67.23%).The increased rate of population growth,
in some cases, however, is as a result of addition of new communities to
the STs list. The lowest growth rate in respect of ST population as per
2001 census was recorded in Andaman & Nicobar (10.08%) followed by
Himachal Pradesh (12.02%).
Sex Ratio: As compared to the sex ratio for the overall population (933
females per 1000 male), the sex ratio among Scheduled Tribes is more
favorable, at 977 females per thousand males (2001 Census), though also
declining. In all States except Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Uttarakhand, the ST sex ratio as per 2001 Census was better than the
general sex ratio.
39
Child Sex Ratio: The 1991 Census revealed that the child sex ratio in 0-6
age group for the general population was 940 girls per 1000 boys for the
country as a whole. In case of STs, this ratio was more favorable and stood
at 985 girls per 1000 boys. In 2001, the child sex ratio in the general
population further reduced to 919 girls to 1000 boys. The situation among
STs, though also on the decline, remains comparatively better at 972 girls
per 1000 boys.
In the UT of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, the ST sex ratio for the 0-6
age group is positive. There were 1018 girls per 1000 boys in 1991, which
declined to 1009 girls per 1000 boys during 2001 Census. However, it was
still higher than the general sex ratio of 1005 girls (1991) and 911 girls
(2001) per 1000 boys in the UT. The State-wise detail of 1991 and 2001
census figures indicating child sex ratios is given below,
40
Table 1.5: CHILD SEX RATIO (POPULATION 0-6 AGE GROUP)
S.No. State 1991 Census 2001 Census
Total Gen. ST Total Gen. ST
India 945 940 985 927 919 973
1 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 973 981 897 957 957 956
2 Andhra Pradesh 975 972 978 961 957 972
3 Arunachal Pradesh 982 993 976 904 940 976
4 Assam 975 973 990 965 966 962
5 Bihar 953 950 983 942 938 975
6 Chandigarh 899 889 NST 845 834 NST
7 Chhattisgarh 984 978 996 975 962 998
8 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 1013 1005 1018 979 911 1009
9 Daman & Diu 958 966 911 926 923 983
10 Delhi 915 912 NST 868 861 NST
11 Goa 964 964 1122 938 937 915
12 Gujarat 928 916 988 883 865 966
13 Haryana 879 875 NST 819 807 NST
14 Himachal Pradesh 951 945 966 896 876 955
15 Jammu & Kashmir NA NA NA 941 939 979
16 Jharkhand 979 973 993 965 955 979
17 Karnataka 960 957 970 946 941 974
18 Kerala 958 957 961 960 961 974
19 Lakshadweep 941 1138 936 959 1057 957
20 Madhya Pradesh 941 929 987 932 915 979
21 Maharashtra 946 940 982 913 903 965
22 Manipur 974 979 968 957 955 959
23 Meghalaya 986 949 991 973 963 974
24 Mizoram 969 988 969 964 909 966
25 Nagaland 993 916 1003 964 919 969
26 Orissa 967 951 998 953 938 979
27 Pondicherry 963 962 NST 967 962 NST
28 Rajasthan 916 910 958 909 897 950
29 Sikkim 965 960 973 963 963 964
30 Tamil Nadu 948 943 955 942 937 945
31 Tripura 967 954 984 966 956 987
32 Punjab 875 865 NST 798 767 NST
33 Uttar Pradesh 927 926 967 916 911 973
34 Uttarakhand 949 945 973 908 899 955
35 West Bengal 967 967 983 960 958 981
(Source: Census Report, 2001)
41
1. Excludes Jammu & Kashmir from 1991 Census as 1991 was not
conducted in J&K;
2. Excludes figures of Paomata, Mao Maram and Purul sub-divisions of
Senapati district of Manipur for 2001;
Total Includes General, ST & SC population NA-Not available, NST-
No Notified STs, GEN-Other than SC/ST population.
Literacy: The literacy rate for the total population in India has increased
from 52.21% to 64.84% during the period from 1991 to 2001 whereas the
literacy rate among the Scheduled Tribes has increased from 29.60% to
only 47.10%. Among ST males literacy increased from 40.65% to 59.17%
and among ST female literacy increased from 18.19% to 34.76% during
the same period. The ST female literacy is lower by approximately 21
percentage point as compared to the overall female literacy of the general
population. However, the increase in total as well as female literacy among
STs is significant.
Literacy rate has increased from 8.53 percent in 1961 to 47.10
percent in 2001 for STs, while the corresponding increase for total
population was from 28.30 percent in 1961 to 64.84 percent in 2001. The
details are given in below table:
Table 1.6: Literacy among STs and all Social Groups
Year STs All Social Groups
Male Female Total Male Female Total
1961 13.83 3.16 8.53 40.40 15.35 28.30
1971 17.63 4.85 11.30 45.96 21.97 34.45
1981 24.52 8.04 16.35 56.38 29.76 43.57
1991 40.65 18.19 29.60 64.13 39.29 52.21
2001 59.17 34.76 47.10 75.26 53.67 64.84
(Source: Registrar General of India)
42
Literacy Rate increased by 17.5 percentage points from 1991 to
2001 for STs and increased by 12.63 percentage points for total population
during the same period. Male-female gap in literacy rate increased from
22.46 percentage points in 1991 to 24.41 percentage points in 2001for STs
while it declines from 24.84 percentage points in 1991 to 21.59 percentage
points in 2001 for total population.
The percentage of literacy gap between STs and all population
various from 0.5 to 31.9 percentage point during 2001. The States like
Tamilnadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jammu &
Kashmir are having more than 17.7 (i.e. literacy gap at all India)
percentage gap of literacy rate between STs vis-a-vis total population
during 2001. All States registered a decline in literacy gap durring1991 to
2001 except in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Dadra & Nagar Haveli. Although
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar maintained almost the same gap as compared to
census 1991 but the gap was widened in case of Dadra & Nagar Haveli.
States like West Bengal, Orissa, Goa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are having
more than 25 percentage point gap of literacy between STs and all
population in these states.
State-wise details are given in below table,
43
Table 1.7: Literacy Rate of Total Population and Scheduled Tribes Population
and Gap in Literacy Rate-India/States/Union Territories: 1991-2001 ST
Code
India/State/UT# Literacy rate -
1991
Gap in
Literacy
Rate
Literacy rate –
2001
Gap in
Literacy
Rate
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
INDIA 52.2 29.6 22.6 64.8 47.1 17.7
1 Andaman & Nicobar
Islands 73.0 56.6 16.4 81.3 66.8 14.5
2 Arunachal Pradesh 41.6 34.4 16.4 81.3 66.8 14.5
3 Assam 52.9 49.2 3.7 63.3 62.5 0.8
4 Andhra Pradesh 44.1 17.2 26.9 60.5 37.0 23.4
5 Bihar 37.5 18.9 18.6 47.0 28.2 18.8
6 Chandigarh# 77.8 NST -- 81.9 NST --
7 Chhattisgarh 42.9 26.7 16.2 64.7 52.1 12.6
8 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 40.7 28.2 12.5 57.6 41.2 16.4
9 Daman & Diu 71.2 52.9 18.3 78.2 63.4 14.8
10 Delhi# 75.3 NST -- 81.7 NST --
11 Goa 75.5 42.9 32.6 82.0 55.9 26.1
12 Gujarat 61.3 36.4 24.9 69.1 47.7 21.4
13 Haryana 55.8 NST -- 67.9 NST --
14 Himachal Pr. 63.9 47.1 16.8 76.5 65.5 11.0
15 Jammu & Kashmir NA NA NA 55.5 37.5 18.0
16 Jharkhand 41.4 27.5 13.9 53.6 40.7 12.9
17 Karnataka 56.0 36.0 20.0 66.6 48.3 18.3
18 Kerala 89.8 57.2 32.6 90.9 64.4 26.5
19 Lakshadweep 81.8 80.6 1.2 86.7 86.1 0.6
20 Madhya Pradesh 44.7 18.4 26.3 63.7 41.2 22.5
21 Maharashtra 64.9 36.8 28.1 76.9 55.2 21.7
22 Manipur 59.9 53.6 6.3 70.5 65.9 4.6
23 Meghalaya 49.1 46.7 2.4 62.6 61.3 1.3
24 Mizoram 82.3 82.7 0.4 88.8 89.3 0.5
25 Nagaland 61.6 60.6 1.0 66.6 65.9 0.7
26 Orissa 49.1 22.3 26.8 63.1 37.4 25.7
27 Pondicherry# 74.7 NST - 81.2 NST --
28 Punjab 58.8 NST - 69.7 NST -
29 Rajasthan 38.6 19.4 19.2 60.4 44.7 15.7
30 Sikkim 56.9 59.0 2.1 68.8 67.1 1.7
31 Tamil Nadu 62.7 27.9 34.8 73.5 41.5 32.0
32 Tripura 60.4 40.4 20.0 73.2 56.5 16.7
33 Uttar Pradesh 40.7 20.0 20.7 56.3 35.1 21.2
34 Uttarakhand 57.8 41.2 16.6 71.6 63.2 8.4
35 West Bengal 57.7 27.8 29.9 68.6 43.3 25.2
(Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, GOI)
44
1. Excludes Jammu & Kashmir where 1991 census was not conducted.
2. Excludes figure of Paomata, Mao Marm & Purul Sub divisions of
Senapati districts of Manipur for 2001.
# NST – No Notified Scheduled Tribes in the States.
Indicators of Backwardness:
According to the 2001 Census figures, 44.70% of the ST population
were cultivators, 36.9% agricultural labourers, 2.1% house hold industry
workers and 16.3% were other occupation workers. Thus, about 81.6% of
the main workers from these communities were engaged in primary sector
activities. These disparities are compounded by higher dropout rates in
formal education, resulting in disproportionately low representation in
higher education. Not surprisingly, the cumulative effect has been that the
proportion of STs below the poverty line is substantially higher than the
national average. As per the statement provided by the Planning
Commission, it is observed that ST people living below the poverty line in
1993-94 were 51.94% in the rural areas and 41.14% in the urban areas
respectively. This percentage of ST population living below the poverty
line has decreased to 47.3% in the rural areas and 39.9% in the urban areas
as per poverty line estimates in the year 2004-05. There is a decrease of
STs living below the poverty line by about 4.7% in the rural areas and
1.15% in urban areas since 1993-94 to 2004-05. State-wise details are in
table below:
45
Table 1.8: Percentage of Population (Social Group Wise) below
poverty line by states 2004-05
S.No. States Rural Urban
ST SC OBC Others ST SC OBC Others
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Andhra
Pradesh 30.5 15.4 9.5 4.1 50.0 39.9 28.9 20.6
2 Assam 14.1 27.7 18.8 25.4 4.8 8.6 8.6 4.2
3 Bihar 53.3 64.0 37.8 26.6 57.2 67.2 41.4 18.3
4 Chhattisgarh 54.7 32.7 33.9 29.2 41.0 52.0 52.7 21.4
5 Delhi 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.6 9.4 35.8 18.3 6.4
6 Gujarat 34.7 21.8 19.1 4.8 21.4 16.0 22.9 7.0
7 Harayana 0.0 26.8 13.9 4.2 4.6 33.4 22.5 5.9
8 Himachal
Pradesh 14.9 19.6 9.1 6.4 2.4 5.6 10.1 2.0
9 Jammu &
Kashmir 8.8 5.2 10.0 3.3 0.0 13.7 4.8 7.8
10 Jharkhand 54.2 57.9 40.2 37.1 45.1 47.2 19.1 9.2
11 Karnataka 23.5 31.8 20.9 13.8 58.3 50.6 39.1 20.3
12 Kerala 44.3 21.6 13.7 6.6 19.2 32.5 24.3 7.8
13 M.P. 58.6 42.8 29.6 13.4 44.7 67.3 55.5 20.8
14 Maharashtra 56.6 44.8 23.9 18.9 40.4 43.2 35.6 26.8
15 Orissa 75.6 50.2 36.9 23.4 61.8 72.6 50.2 28.9
16 Punjab 30.7 14.6 10.6 2.2 2.1 16.1 8.4 2.9
17 Rajasthan 32.6 28.7 13.1 8.2 24.1 52.1 35.6 20.7
18 Tamilnadu 32.1 31.2 19.8 19.7 32.5 40.2 20.9 6.5
19 Uttar
Pradesh 32.4 44.8 32.9 19.7 37.4 44.9 36.6 19.2
20 Uttarakhand 43.2 54.2 44.8 33.5 64.4 65.7 46.5 25.5
21 West
Bengal 42.4 29.5 18.3 27.5 25.7 28.5 10.4 13.0
All India 47.3 36.8 26.7 16.1 33.3 39.9 31.4 16.0
(Source: Planning Commission)
Legend SC – Scheduled Castes, ST – Scheduled Tribes, OBC – Other
Backward Classes,
46
Health Indices of STs versus Others:
The infant mortality, under-5 child mortality and percentage of child
mortality rate for STs as well as of other disadvantaged socio-economic
groups as shown in the below table,
Table 1.9: Some Health Indicators
Indicator
Infant
mortality /
1000 live
birth
Under-5
mortality /
1000 live
birth
Child
mortality
rate
India 57.0 74.3 18.4
SC 66.4 88.1 23.2
ST 62.1 95.7 35.8
OBC 56.6 72.8 17.3
Others 48.9 59.2 10.8
(Source: NFHS 3: 2005-06, Minstry of Health & Family Welfare, GOI)
Education:
Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for elementary stage (classes’ I-VIII)
is defined as percentage of the enrolment in Elementary stage to the
estimated child population in the age group of 6 to below 14 years. GER
has increased from 102.4% in 2004-05 to 109.6% in 2006-07 for all STs
and from 93.5% in 2004-05 to 97.1% in 2006-07 for total population.
The enrolments in these stages include underage and over-age and
hence the total percentage may be more than 100% in some cases. Gender
disparity in GER at elementary stage declined 12.7 percentage points in
2004-05 to 10.5 percentage points in 2006-07 for ST children and declines
7.0 percentage points in 2004-05 to 6.9 percentage points in 2006-07 for
total population.
47
Problems of Development:
The Adivasi territories have been divided amongst the states formed on
the basis of primarily the languages of the mainstream castes society,
ignoring the validity of applying the same principle of language for the
Adivasis in the formation of states. Jharkhand has been divided amongst
Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa though the Bihar part of
Jharkhand has now become a separate state after decades of struggle. The
Gond region has been divided amongst Orissa, Andhra, Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh. Similarly the Bhil region has been divided amongst
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The call for a
socially homogenous country, particularly in the Hindi Hindu paradigm
have suppressed tribal languages, defiled cultures and destroyed
civilizations.
The invasion of Adivasi territories, which for the most part
commenced during the colonial period, intensified in the post colonial
period. Most of the Adivasi territories were claimed by the state. The
systematic opening up of Adivasi territories, the development projects and
the ‘trial development projects’ make them conducive for waves of
immigrants. Over 10 million Adivasis have been displaced to make way
for development projects such as dams, mining, industries, roads, protected
areas etc. Though most of the dams (over 3000) are located in Adivasi
areas, only 19.9% (1980-81) of Adivasi land holdings are irrigated as
compared to 45.9% of all holdings of the general population.
According to the Central Planning Committee of the Government of
India, nearly 41 districts with significant Adivasi populations are prone to
deaths due to starvation, which are not normally reported as such. Few
Adivasi communities which are forest dwellers have not been displaced
and continue to live in forests, away from the mainstream development
activities, such as in parts of Bastar in Madhya Pradesh, Koraput, Phulbani
48
and Mayurbanj in Orissa and of Palamu in South Bihar have reported sever
food shortage.
India produces as many as 52 principal, 3 fuels, 11 metallic, 38 non-
metallic and a number of minor minerals. Of these 45 major minerals
(coal, iron ore, magnetite, manganese, bauxite, graphite, limestore,
dolomite, uranium etc) are found in Adivasi areas contributing some 56%
of the national total mineral earnings in terms of value. Of the 4,175
working mines reported by the Indian Bureau of Mines in 1991-92,
approximately 3500 could be assumed to be in Adivasi areas. Income to
the government from forests rose from Rs. 5.6 million on 1869-70 to more
than Rs. 13 billions in the 1970s. The bulk of the nation’s productive
wealth laid in the Adivasi territories. Yet the Adivasi has been driven out,
marginalized and robbed of dignity by the very process of ‘national
development’.
Internal colonialism Constitutional privileges and welfare measures
benefit only a small minority of the Adivasis. These privileges and welfare
measures are denied to the majority of the Adivasis and they are
appropriated by more powerful groups in the caste order.
Despite the Bonded Labour Abolition Act of 1976, Adivasi’s still
form a substantial percentage of bonded labour in the country. The
Adivasis have preserved 90% of the country’s bio-cultural diversity
protecting the polyvalent, precolonial, biodiversity friendly Indian identity
from bio-cultural pathogens. Excessive and indiscriminate demands of his
urban market have reduced Adivasis to raw material collectors and
providers. It is a cruel joke that people who can produce some of India’s
most exquisite handicrafts, who can distinguish hundreds of species of
plants and animals, who can survive off the forests, the lands and the
streams sustainably with no needs to go to the market to buy food, are
49
labeled as ‘unskilled’. Equally critical are the paths of resistance that many
Adivasi areas are displaying.
Though the Constitution recognizes them as a distinct cultural
group, yet when it comes to religion those who do not identify as
Christians, Muslims or Buddhists are compelled to register themselves as
Hindus. Hindus and Christians have interacted with Adivasis to civilize
them, which has been defined as sanscritisation and westernization.
However, as reflected during the 1981 census it is significant that about
5% of the Adivasis registered their religion by the names of their
respective tribes or the names adopted by them. In 1991 the corresponding
figure rose to about 10% indicating the rising consciousness and assertion
of identity!
The significance of their sustainable subsistence economy in the
midst of a profit oriented economy is not recognized in the political
discourse, and the negative stereotyping of the sustainable subsistence
economy of tribal societies is based on the wrong premise that the
production of surplus is more progressive than the process of social
reproduction in co-existence with nature.
The source of the conflicts arises from these unresolved
contradictions. With globalization, the hitherto expropriation of rights as
an outcome of development has developed into expropriation of rights as a
precondition for development in response, the struggles for the rights of
the tribal have moved towards the struggles for power and a redefinition of
the contours of state, governance and progress.
50
TRIBAL SUB-PLAN AREA (TSP AREA)
Figure No. 2: Map of Maharashtra.
Figure No. 3: Tribal Sub-Plan Map of Maharashtra
Source: TRTI, Pune.
51
Tribal Areas in Maharashtra:
The Scheduled Area notified by the Government of India consists
of 5809 villages and 16 towns in 12 districts covering an area of
46,531sq.kms. in state, this is about 15.1% of the area of the State.
These districts are Thane, Pune, Nashik, Dhule, Nandurbar, Jalgaon,
Ahmednagar, Nanded, Amravati, Yeotmal, Gadchiroli and Chandrapur.
The Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) area covers the scheduled area. In addition,
the State Government felt that 773 villages in the districts of Raigad,
Bhandara, Gondia, Chandrapur, Yeotmal and Pune also deserved to be
extended the benefits of TSP, though these villages did not strictly
satisfy the criteria laid down by the Government of India for inclusion in
TSP area. These areas were designated as Additional Tribal Sub-plan
(ATSP) areas.
In addition the Government of India had also decided that a group
of villages having a total population of 10,000 or more with more than
50% tribals should be brought under the Modified Area Development
Approach (MADA). Similarly, a group of villages having a total
population of more than 5000 with more than 50% tribals are to be
constituted into Mini-MADA pockets. All together 1754 villages in the
State have been included in MADA and Mini-MADA pockets. All the
benefits available to the tribal in the TSP areas as approved by the
Government of India have been extended to the tribal in the ATSP,
MADA, and Mini-MADA areas.
The population of scheduled tribes in Maharashtra as per the 2001
census is 85.77 lakh (Maharashtra has the second highest tribal
population in the country, next to Madhya Pradesh having a population
of 122.34 lakh). 49.0% of the tribals live in scheduled areas (main TSP
52
area) 2.6% in ATSP areas, 6.8% in MADA and Mini-MADA pockets.
The remaining 41.6% of the tribal live outside all these areas.
There are 47 scheduled tribes in the State. The tribes each having
a population over one lakh as per the 2001 census (with population in
lakhs) are:
Table No. 1.10: Tribe wise population in Maharashtra
TRIBES POPULATION
(IN LAKHS)
1. Gond 11.63
2. Bhil 9.93
3. Mahadeo Koli 7.87
4. Warli 3.61
5. Kokna 3.53
6. Thakur 3.23
7. Halba 2.43
8. Andh 2.32
9. Koli Malhar 1.77
10. Katkari 1.75
11. Kolam 1.18
12. Korku 1.16
13. Gamit 1.11
(Source: Tribal Development Department, Maharashtra State)
Administrative set-up:
A separate Tribal Development Department (TDD) was set up in
the year 1983 to look after the welfare and development of the tribals in
the State. Initially, the field organisation of the Tribal Development
Department consisted of two separate wings, namely the Directorate of
Tribal Development and the Additional Commissioners of Tribal
Development. As this arrangement was not found effective, the field set-
up of the Department was reorganized in 1992 by merging the two
wings to achieve a single line of command and creating a post of Tribal
Commissioner with Nashik as headquarters. There are four posts of
Additional Tribal Commissioner at Thane, Nashik, Amravati and
53
Nagpur. The State has been divided into 24 Integrated Tribal
Development Projects mainly concentrated in the TSP, ATSP, MADA
and Mini-MADA areas. Each ITDP Project is headed by a Project
Officer.
In order to ensure public participation in the planning,
implementation and monitoring of the schemes for tribal development at
the district level, District Tribal Sub-Plan Committees have been set up.
The concerned District Minister is the Chairman, the Divisional
Commissioner and the Additional Tribal Commissioner are the Vice
Chairmen and among others, the tribal MPs, MLA and MLCs members.
The Collector is the Member-Secretary of this Committee. At the
Project level, there is an Implementation Committee under the
chairmanship of the local MLA. The Additional Tribal Commissioner is
the Vice Chairman and the Project Officer Member Secretary of this
committee, which is required to meet every month and review the
progress of the tribal development schemes.
Staff:
Total Administrative & Teaching Staff strength is 20,000. In
addition to this there is also teaching and non-teaching staff in Aided
Ashram Schools and Hostels.
Schemes/Oppurtunities for Employment and Self-Employment:
Recruitment in Government and semi-government services:
7% of the posts in the services of the State are reserved for
Scheduled Tribes who account for about 9.4% of the population. This
percentage has been increased to 9% - 22% in the districts of Raigad,
Yeotmal, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Thane, Nashik, Dhule and Nandurbar
54
which have high tribal population. The monitoring of the recruitment of
ST candidates and filling up of the backlog vacancies is done by the
General Administration Department. The Tribal Development
Department also monitors this.
Training for securing employment
As there is a substantial backlog of the posts of drives reserved for
STs in Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation (MSRTC), Tribal
Development Department in collaboration with the MSRTC has taken
up a programme for imparting training in the driving of heavy vehicles
to tribal youth, so as to equip them for appointment as drivers in
MSRTC and similar organizations. A motor driving training centre was
started at various tribal regions.
In order to train the tribal youth for recruitment in the Army and
Police forces, the State Government has set up recruitment centre at nine
places n the predominantly tribal districts. At each centre about 100
students are enrolled during each session lasting for about four months
and three such sessions are held every year.
Assistance for setting up self-employment schemes with NSFDC
funds
The scheme of providing self employment to the tribals with the
help of financial assistance sanctioned by the National Scheduled Castes
/ Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC) was taken up
by TDC from the year 994-95. Under this scheme 75% of the total
project cost is sanctioned by the NSFDC as loan, 15% by TDC as loan
and 10% has to be contributed by the beneficiaries. The State
Government provides guarantee to the loan sanctioned by NSFDC.
55
Shabari Tribal Finance and Development Corporation
It was found that TDC, which is preoccupied with its marketing
activities, was not able to pay adequate attention to the task of helping
tribal to start self-employment. The Government has, therefore, set up in
December, 1998 a separate Shabari Tribal Finance and Development
Corporation for the scheduled tribes for assisting them to start their own
business by providing financial assistance through subsidy, seed capital,
loan etc., This Corporation is registered under the companies Act, 1956.
Maharashtra is the first State in the country to have established a
separate Finance and Development Corporation for the scheduled tribes.
Seed money assistance to educated unemployed
This scheme was introduced in 1976-77 as a State Plan Scheme.
The scheme is intended to encourage educated unemployed persons to
take up self employment ventures. Persons between the age group of 18
to 50 who have passed at least the VIIth
standard examination are
eligible to avail of seed money assistance upto Rs. 1.5 lakh. The loan is
granted for a period of seven years at the interest rate of 10%. The
recovery of the loan is started with effect from third year from the year
of granting the loan.
Entrepreneurial training programme
The objects of the scheme are to encourage entrepreneurs to start
new ventures; training programmes are arranged and stipend is provided
to participants of the programme.
District Industries Centres
Under this scheme, soft loans to meet margin requirements are
granted to entrepreneurs in respect of industrial/service units with an
56
investment in plant and machinery below Rs. 2 lakh in areas with a
population below 1 lakh, the rate of interest being 4%.
Tribal Research and Training Institute
The Tribal Research and Training Institute (TRTI) was
established in 1962 at Pune with the main objectives of conducting
research about the tribal in general and specific areas of economic
activities affecting tribal life in particular; carrying out of evaluation and
monitoring of developmental schemes; collecting and disseminating
information regarding tribal life; organizing training programmes for
tribal; and building up a museum and a library on tribal.
The main activities of TRTI at present relate to research;
Integrated Area Development Programme; training; publications;
library, museum and cultural unit; production of films on tribal life and
culture; and scrutiny and verification of tribe claims. To look after the
activities of TRTI, a governing council headed by Minister, Tribal
Development has been constituted. Brief details of the major activities
of TRTI are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Encouragement to Tribal art and handicrafts
The Institute holds tribal handicraft exhibitions so as to expose the
tribal artists to the urban market. The institute has succeeded in
upgrading the economic status of tribal artists by giving them an
opportunity to become self-employed. With a view to preserve the tribal
dance tradition and to encourage the tribal dance groups, dance
competitions are organized. The dance groups are given prizes, besides
providing them allowance to meet incidental expenses. To promote and
preserve the art of Warli painting, the Institute has been holding Warli
57
painting competitions in tribal areas for adults as well as school
children.
Production of documentary films
Documentary films on various aspects of tribal life and
development are produced by the Institute. Since 1981-82, such films
have been prepared on 45 topics.
Tribal Cultural Museum
The Institute had set up in 1965 a museum which displays nearly
1770 exhibits of all the 47 tribes in Maharashtra. The museum is visited
regularly by tourists on Pune Darshan and students. The museum serves
as a medium to spread awareness about the tribal and their activities.
Evaluation studies
TRTI conducts evaluation studies regarding the impact of
different schemes implemented for welfare of tribal. So far 201 such
studies have been conducted and reports submitted to the Government.
Verification of caste certificates issued to ST candidates.
Individual Beneficiary Schemes
Eradication of poverty, removal of disparity in income and
upliftment of the living standards of the weaker sections of the society
form part of the twenty point programme. There are 22 individual
beneficiary schemes implemented under the programme.
Nucleus Budget Scheme
In order to provide for local variations and specific needs which
cannot be met from regular schemes, a special scheme ‘Nucleus Budget’
is being implemented since 1982-82. Under the scheme, the project
officers of the ITDPs are empowered to formulate and implement (if
58
necessary through other departments), schemes of local importance. The
ceiling for financial assistance under this scheme is Rs. 10,000 per
family. The schemes under nucleus budget are categorized into four
groups:
1. Income generation schemes like minor irrigation increase in
agricultural production and land leveling. The grant-in-aid given
to the beneficiary is 50% for normal tribal and 60% for primitive
tribal. In respect of schemes costing below Rs. 2000, full amount
is given as subsidy to all tribal.
2. Training schemes under which various training programmes are
arranged for unemployed tribal, for example, pre-recruitment
training; training in radio repairing, wiring carpentry, etc.
3. Welfare schemes for women and children.
4. Human resource development schemes related to sports, tribal
arts and tribal culture.
Supply of Electric pumps and oil engines
Replacement of thatched roofs with Mangalore tiles / GI sheets
Backward Class Co-operative Housing Scheme
BPL tribal families and how to bring them up
BPL families to come up above the poverty line are creation of
irrigation facilities, self-employment programmes implemented with
NSFDC assistance, Employment Guarantee Scheme and construction
stage employment on irrigation and road works. It has been estimate that
with the present level of funding, the number of families which can be
brought above poverty line in the TSP areas with these latter schemes is
about 5500.
59
Special Facilities for Education of Tribal:
The tribal areas have facilities for school education like the rest of
the State. There are 8445 primary, 864 secondary and 151 higher
secondary schools run by Zilla Parishads in these areas. The number of
students is 8.43 lakh in primary, 3.68 lakh in secondary and 1.46 lakh in
higher secondary schools. The Tribal Development Department,
however, implements certain special schemes in order to improve the
quality of education and to enable more tribal students to pursue their
studies.
Government Ashram School complex
To provide higher education to tribal boys and girls, the
Government started to upgrade some of the Ashram Schools to Post
Basic Ashram Schools (with classes up to Xth
) since 1978-79. At present
there are 273 Post Basic Ashram Schools out of the 410 Ashram
Schools. Approximately 1.35 lakh tribal students get education in these
schools.
The Government has converted 22 Post Basic Ashram Schools
into Girls Ashram Schools in June, 1999. With a view to provide
opportunity to the tribal children to achieve merit in education, the
Tribal Development Department has started 2 model schools at
Bhandara, in Ahmednagar District and Deomogara in Nandurbar
District. These schools have been established on the lines of
Vidhyaiketan and Navodaya Vidhyala. The students in these model
schools are selected through entrance examination.
Government has sanctioned 11th
and 12th
standards in Arts and
Science faculties in 31 Government Post Basic Ashram Schools in June,
1999. With the objective of raising the standard of Ashram Schools, to
60
enable the tribal students to find employment, Government has
sanctioned 4 vocational training centres at Kasansur and Kotgul in
Gadchiroli district, Vinval in Thane district and Patharaj in Raigad
district.
Grant-in-aid Ashram Schools
At present there are 507 aided Ashram Schools in the State out of
which 161 Ashram Schools have been upgraded to Post Basic Ashram
Schools (adding standards 8 to 10). In these Ashram Schools, about 1.34
lakh students have been enrolled in the year 1999-2000. These voluntary
agencies get 100% grant on the salary of the teaching and non-teaching
staff and maintenance grant at the rate of Rs. 335 per student per month.
In addition to this, to meet contingency expenditure on account of
furniture, building repairs, books and notebooks, writing instruments,
uniforms, bedding, utensils, etc., a grant of 8% and 12% on the salary of
the teaching and non-teaching staff is paid to the Ashram Schools and
Post Basic Ashram Schools respectively.
Government hostels for tribal students
Government hostels have been started at divisional/district/tahsil
places in order to attract the tribal students to pursue higher studies.
There are 188 government hostels (124 for boys and 64 for girls) in the
State. These hostels provide accommodation to 15,170 tribal students
(10,200 boys and 4,970 girls). The location of new government hostels
is decided on the basis of total population of tribal, educational facilities
and number of tribal students in the vicinity.
Free lodging and boarding facilities are available in the
Government hostels (124 for boys and 64 for girls) in the State.
61
Post matric scholarship scheme
The Post Matric Scholarship Scheme has been introduced to
enable backward class students whose financial condition is poor to
pursue higher education. The prevailing monthly rates of scholarship for
hostellers vary from Rs. 150 (for students in 11th
and 12th
standards) to
Rs. 425 (for students studying medical, engineering and other
professional degree courses). The rates for day scholars range from Rs.
90 to 190. Maintenance allowance at these rates and full fee exemption
are available for all students whose parents do not have annual income
above Rs.2 Lakh (latest by 2011).
Conclusion:
Tribes are in situation, where the Government’s efforts of tribal
Welfare with protective and developmental measures do not make any
remarkable impact on tribal development. Tribal development is
challenge for government till now. Hence, researcher felt appropriate to
investigate the impact of welfare measures on tribals with social work
perspective.
62
REFERENCES
Books:
1. Annual Tribal Sub Plan (2000-2001), Government of Maharashtra,
Tribal Development Department.
2. Census Report (2001), Census Department, GOI.
3. Civil Estimates (2010), Tribal Development, Government Central
Press, Mumbai.
4. Fried, Morton H. (1972), The Notion of Tribe, Cummings Publishing
Company
5. Nehru Pandit Jawaharlal, Panchsheel for Development (Pub. Tribal
Research Bulletin, March, 1981)
6. Report of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Commission, Vol-I,
1960-61.
6. The World Book Encyclopedia, World Book, Inc
7. Yadav, C.P. (2000), Encyclopedia of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes, Published by Anmol Publication (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
8. Wilson, Geoffrey and Wilson, Monica H. (1945), The Analysis of
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