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The term 'tribe' has been defined variously by different
scholars. So it is not easy to give a clear cut defeni tion due to
its different connotations. A section of the people was notified as
Scheduled tribes in India, under the President's Order 1950. Some
Scholars hold the opinion that this classification is political rather
than strictly ethnographic (Krisha Iyer, 1961). In order to
understand a particular group as a tribe we should know about
their physical features, area of settlement, social distance from the
advanced groups, marriage systerrs - ploygarr:y, polyandry, marriage
by service, purchase and exchange sororate and levirate
rr.arriages, taboos, religious conventions, Iraterial culture I language
etc. According to Luiz the existence of discrirrination, culture and
custOIr.S, cOlJ1bined with the fact that they are nomadic prirr.itive
and still 0 bserve ta boos and convention likely to be descri bed by
modern society as derogatory and anti-social is proof to confirm a
group as a tri be. If ha bitaticns are far froIr. civilisation and of
the external features of a tri be are present, these will certainly
strengthen the decision (L uiz, 1962).
0.1 Tribeg in India
According to the 1981 Census report the total population in
India is 6552.87 lakhs. It includes a tribal population of 516.29
lakhs I 1. e. 7.76 percentage of the total population of the country.
2
TabJ.e I
State-wise distribution of the tribal population
S1.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
State/Union Territories
Andra Pradesh
Bihar
Gujarath
Himachal Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerela
Madhya Pradesh
Maharastra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Nagaland
Orissa
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
Andaman 6 Nicobar Islands
Arunachal Pradesh
Dadra 6 Nagerhaveli
Goa, Daman 6 Diue
Lakshad weep
Mizoram
INDIA
Population
3,176,001
5,810,867
4,848,586
197,263
1,825,203
261,475
11,987,031
5,772.038
387.977
1,076,345
650,885
5,91'5,067
4,183,124
73.623
520,226
583,920
232,705
3,070,672
22,361
441,167
81,714
10,721
37,760
461.907
51,628,638
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Over fourfifths of the scheduled tribe population in the
country is concentrated in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Bihar, Maharashtra, Gujarath, Rajastan, Andhra Pradesh and West
Bengal.
Linguistically the tribal people belong to
Austroloid, Mongoloid and Dravidian. Geographically
areas in India are divided into five regions.
the
the
groups
tribal
They are:- 1 Himlayan Region
3 North East India
5 South India.
2. Middle India
4. Western India and
The hilly areas of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala come
tmder the 5th region (South India). Anthropologists and Sociologists
both foreign and Indian have taken a lot of interest on the tri bes
of this area. Linguistically the tribals of this area are Dravidians.
0.2 TRmES OF KERALA
0.2.1 Classification
As per the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Act of
1976, there are 35 tribal communities in Kerala whereas Luiz
describes about 48 tribes (Luiz, 1962). The largest tribal group is
Paniyas with a population of about 50,000. Five tribal communities
4
viz. Cholanaickans, Kattunaickans, Kadars, Kurum bas and Koragas
are declared as primitive tribes of Kerala. They are found in
Wayanad, Malappurarr., Palakkad, Trissur and Kasargod Districts.
Com munities with Pre-agricultural stage of development, stagnant
population and very 10\\ literacy rate are recognised as prirr.itive
tribes. These communities account for about 3 percent of the total
scheduled tribes population of the state. There are nearly 1500
primitive tribal house-holds in Kerala with a total population of
about 12,000.
0.2.2. General Characteristics
Of the Kerala tribes, a few groups such as Aranadans,
Koragas, Mala Pandarams, Nayadis etc. are the most backward
tribes who are still in the primitive food gathering stage.
Ulladans, Karimpalans,
and Maratis are some of the
among the tribal communities.
Kanikkar, Kurichian, Mala Arayan
relatively more advanced sections
Usually the tribal huts are made with bamboo, thatched
"'ith leaves or grasses. A few live in cave under over hanging
rocks or in the hollows of big trees. Separate dormitories for boys
and girls were popular, but they are fast disappearing except
among a few tribes such as Urali Kurumans, Vishavans etc.
G a7/ltJ
Chavadies (common hall) are available in the tribal settlements for
the use of visitors when necessary.
Generally a tribal family consists of the father, ITlother and
their umr.arried children. Joint family system (family consists of
more than one married couple) is also seen among the tri bes. The
tribals practice interesting social customs and taboos. In some
tribes it is objectionable for a man to talk to his nieces after they
have attained puberty. Also, there are taboos regulating diet,
drinking smoking and even the use of utensils. All tribal,)
communities except Kurichians and Kunduvadiyans follow the rule of
patrilineal inheritance. Regarding the succession most of the tribes
have no clear rules because they have nothing to be inherited
especially among those who are still in the primitive stage. Some
groups which have given up matriarchal rule now follow a mixture
of matriarchy and patriarchy, 1. e. they divide the assets equally
among sons and nephews.
In almost all tribal groups their exist the headman system.
The headman (Muuppan) is respected and his decision and
arbitrations are accepted by the members of the community. The
headman presides over the council of elders which takes decisions.
He is consul ted before finalising marriage arrangements, and is
expected to attend marriages and funerals. The headman usually
carries a stick with crested silver knot 8S a symbol of authority
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vested in hiII1. The office of the headman is hereditary except
among a very few groups such as Kurichians etc. Certain tribes
follow the matrilineal system of succession. In this system of
succession, the status of headman goes to the nephew (rratrilineal
marumakkattayam). In all other cases the son succeeds the father.
Burial is the popular form of disposal. Son-.e tribes follow
the system of cremating the headman.
Makkathayam (succession through the male line 1. e.
patrilineal inheritance) is followed by all groups except
Kurichians, Kanikkars, Kundu Vadiyans and ~;alayalars. Most of the
tribes have no clear rule regarding succession because there is
nothing to be inherited especially among those \\ ho are still in the
hunting or nomadic stage.
The tribals live in groups in a hamlet or settlement. They
may generally be related to each other except a few families \\hich
had come to the particular hamlet from other hamlets after
marriage or in search of livelihood. Families belonging to the same
tribal sect only are found in a settlement and there is hardly any
measure of intermingling among them. The intermingled life pattern
is against their traditional practice. There might have been a
period of promiscuity and sexual freedoIr among the priIr.itives. but
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later marriage by capture, service, purchase and exchange
developed. Now the last three types exist. Parents are anxious to
have their children married as early as possible. Marrying outside
the group is strictly forbidden in all the tribal groups.
The majority of the tri bes are engaged in agricultural
operations. They cultivate rice, ragi, cholam, tapioca, ginger,
cardamom and other products as conditions permit. Collection of
forest produces is another important occupation of the tribals.
Basket making and mat weaving are very popular among
Malavettuvans, Mannans, Mavilans and Koragas. Hunting is practised
by the male rr.embers of most of the tribal communities.
According to the 1981 Census report the combined work
participation rates for main workers and marginal workers among
scheduled tribes are higher than the corresponding rates for the
total population. The percentage of main workers in the agricultural
sector among scheduled tribes are much higher than the total
population rate (41. 30). In the non-agricultural sector their
population is very 10 W , the percentage being 21. 99 per cent against
58.70 per cent for the total population.
Palakkad is the sole district in the state which has a
work participation rate above 50 per cent with 54.46 per cent and
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t!re lowest is in Kottayam with only 31. 63 per cent. More than
tIlree fourth of man workers under scheduled tribes in Wayanad,
Malappuram, Palakkad, Idukki and Thiruvananthapurarr: belong to the
~ricultural sector. The highest percentage being in Idukki (87.53
per cent) closely followed by Palakkad (86.62). Idukki records the
highest percentage of cultivators with 46.73 followed by
Thiruvananthapuram (44.46) Kottayam (36.15) Palakkad (28.99) and
KoHan, (27.50). In respect of agricultural labourers the largest
J:ercentage is in l-Ialappuram with 74.83 followed by ~ayanad with
72.57.
Households
There are 52,421 households belonging to scheduled tri bes
in Kerala which account for 1.19 ~per cent of the total households.
The average household size of scheduled tribes in 4.99 person per
household as compared to 5.75 for the general population of the
state.
\\-ayanad district has highest proportion of scheduled tribe
households with 17.99 per cent. Idukki (4.34) Palakkad (1. 77),
Kannur (1. 56) and Kottayam (1. 01) are the other districts having
scheduled tribe households over 1 per cent. The lowest percentage
of scheduled tribe households is recorded in Alappuzha District
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with 0.15 per cent of the total scheduled tribes households in the
state. Wayanad district accounts for 35.38 per cent, followed by
Idukki (15.44) Kannur (13.18) and Palakkad (12.55), while
Alappuzha district ranks last with only 1. 24 per cent.
sex Ratio
Compared with the sex ratio Le., 1032 females for 1000
males for the total population, tribes are lower with only 992
females for 1000 males.
The sex ratio is above 1000 only in four districts namely
Malappuram (1055), Thiruvananthapuram (1025), Kottayafil (1012) and
Vvayanad (1010). In all other districts males out-number females.
Trissur being the lowest with 937 feIIiales per 1000 males.
Education
Education has been considered as the chief instrument to
bring the back\\ard tribals into the mainstrearr. of national life.
:I1'l3d:q.Jacy 0 f schools in tri bal areas is one of the reasons for the
educational backv..ardness. The number of children attending schools
constitute a small percentage of the total number of children in the
corresponding age group. Some tribes like the Kurichians of
Wayanad believe that it is a sin to send the children, especially
girls, to schools. In the tri bal areas general educational facilities
10
are provided by the Educational department and special
supplemental facilities for the tribal children are provided by the
Tribal Welfare Department. The Government departments are granting
educational concessions and other kinds of assistance to the tri bals
from pre-primary stage to post-graduate level. Tribal students are
exempted from all kinds of fees. They are also given lumpsum
grant meant for the purchase of books, stationery, dress and
monthly stipend at varying rates depending on the course of study.
In order to ensure proper and regular attendance of tribal children
in primary schools parents of children were granted incentives.
There are 112 hostels, 56 balawadies, 14 nursery schools, 12 single
teachers schools, and one vikasvadi are functioning for the tribals
in Kerala. In the hostels the tribal pupils are eligible for free
educational facilities including boarding, lodging, and dress. A
Model Residential School in the pattern of central school was
started during the 1990-91 academic year in Wayanad District.
At present educational fadli ties upto high school level are
easily available to the tribes. Schools are functioning inside or
within 3 kms. from the tribal settlements. But the tribal children
are reluctant to complete their studies. So the number of students
at the University level is much less. Now there are 2172 tribal
students studying in college level (1991 Report of the Govt.)
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lhe Scheduled Tribes Development Department of the State
Government takes so many steps for the educational development of
the tribes. Besides all the above mentioned facilities there are 33
institutions in important tribal areas imparting training in
vocational, technical and industrial subjects.
Literacy
Literacy rate among scheduled tribes in Kerala is 31. 79% as
against 70.42% for the total population. Female literacy is as low
as 20%. Comparative figures of literacy rate of 1971 and 1981 show
that the literacy rate has increased from 25.72% in 1971 to 31. 80%
in 1981. As per 1981 Census the lowest level of literacy is in
Palakkad district (12%) and the highest rate of literacy is in
Kottayam district.
0.2.3 Tribal Population in Kerala
According to the 1981 Census of the Scheduled Tribes
Population in Kerala is 2.61 lakhs and this constitues 1. 03 per cent
of the total population of the state.
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Table II
Cummunity- wise Distribution of
Scheduled Tribes Population
S1. Name of Tribe PopulationNo.
Male Female Total
1 Adiyan 3,953 4,199 8,152
2 Aranadan 37 58 95
3 Eravallan 1,050 1,021 2,071
4 Hill Pulaya .1,540 1,552 3,092
5 Irulas, Irulan 9,445 9,253 18,698
6 Kadar 774 779 1,503
7 Kammara 39 44 83
8 Kanikkaran, Kanikkar 6,741 6,983 13,724
9 Kattunayakam 4,532 4,271 8,803
10 Kochuvelan 4 6 10
11 Kondakapus 6 5 11
12 Kanda reddis 534 530 1,064
13 Koraga 592 506 1,098
14 Kota 24 17 41
15 Kudiya, Melakudi 299 298 597
16 Kurichian 11,293 10,922 22,215
17 Kurumans 10,542 10,199 20,745
13
18 Kurumbas 673 610 1,283
19 Mahamalasar 5 4 9
20 Malai Arayan 12,247 12,252 24,499
21 Malai Pandaram 1,077 1,045 2,122
22 Mala Vedan 1,229 1,206 2,435
23 Mala Kuravan 117 137 254
24 Malasar 501 466 967
25 Malayan 1,272 1,122 2,394
26 Malayarayan 1,413 1,333 2,746
27 Mannan 2,907 2,906 5,813
28 MaraU 11,240 10,955 22,195
29 Muthuvan , Mudugar 5,664 5,549 11,213
30 Palleyan 16 14 30
31 Palliyan 406 387 793
32 Palliyar 214 206 420
33 Paniyan 27,910 29,042 56,952
34 Ulladan 6,456 5,231 12,687
35 Uraly 4,660 4,372 9,032
36 Unclassified 1,831 1,802 3,633
Total 1,31,243 1,30,232 2,61,475
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0.2.3.2 District Level Population
Of all the Districts of Kerala, the largest percentage of
Scheduled tribes population is in Wayanad (17.25). Idukki (3.98),
Kannur (1. 42) and Palakkad (1. 41) are the other Districts having
percentage of Scheduled Tribe population higher than the state
average. The lowest percentage of scheduled tribe population is in
Trissur District (0.13 per cent)
Table III
District- wise Distribution of Scheduled Tribes
S1. District Persons Male Female PercentageNo. total
1 Kannur 39,704 20,144 19,560 1.42
2 Wayanad 95,557 47,547 48,010 17.25
3. Kozhikode 3,888 1,954 1,934 0.17
4. Malappuram 7,955 3,871 4,084 0.33
5 Palakkadu 28,794 14,553 14,241 1.41
6 Trissur 3,227 1,666 1,561 0.13
7 Eranakulam 3,551 1,828 1,723 0.14
8 Idukki 38,712 19,733 18,979 3.98
9 Kottayam 15,227 7,567 7,660 0.90
10 Alappuzha 3,273 1,638 1,635 0.14
11 Kallam 7,442 3,758 3,684 0.24
12 Thiruvananthapuram 14,145 6,984 7,161 0.54
Source: Census of India, 1981.
15
Rural and Urban Picture
The percentage of Scheduled Tribe population is
substantially higher in rural areas as compared with urban areas.
The percentage of Scheduled Tribe population in rural areas is 1.24
as against 0.10 in urban areas (1981 Census).
0.2.4 Important Tribal Areas
The tribal areas in Kerala may be divided into seven major
regions. They are:
1. Thiruvananthapuram
2. Idukki
3. Pararr. bikkulam
4. Attappady
5. Nllambur
6. \\ayanad
7. Kasargod
The Kerala Governement has divided the tribal areas into
seven project areas. They are:-
1. Kannur (Kannur District)
2. Kal petta ( \\ ayanad District)
3. Attappady (Palakkad District)
4. Nllambur (Malappuram District)
5. Thodupuzha (Idukki District)
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6. Kanjirappally (Kottayam District)
7. Nedumangad (Thiruvananthapuram District)
In addition to this, former Kollam Distrct
divided into Kollam and Pathanamthitta Districts)
important tribal settlement area espe~ially in
Malavedas, the tri bes for the present study.
(TID\\! it
is also
the case
is
an
of
1. Kmmur (Kmmur District)
According to 1981 Census, the total tribal population in
this districtis 39,704. Kasargod (19,651) and Tellicherry (13,573)
are the Taluks having major tribal areas. Paniyas Maratis and
Kurichias are the major tribes in this district.
2. Kalpetta (Wayanad District)
Paniyas and Kurichias are the major tribal comOlUnities in
this area. The total tribal population in this district is 95,557.
All the three Taluks Mananthavady (32,991) , Sulthanbathery
(36,821) and Vythiri (25,745) are the major tribal settlement areas.
3. Attappady (Palakkad District)
Irulars, Mudugas
communities in this area.
is 28,794.
and Kurumbas are the major tribal
The total tribal population in this area
17
4. Nilambur (Malappuram District)
Chola Naickans, Malamuttthans and Paniyans are the major
tribal communities in this area. According to 1981 Census the total
tri bal population is 7,955. Ernad Taluk (Nilam bur) is the major
tribal area having a tribal population of 7,678.
5. Thodupuzha (Idukki District)
Malayarayan, Muthuvar, Mannan, Uraly and Ulladan are the
major tribal communities inhabiting in this area. The total
population of the tribes as per 1981 Census in this district is
38,712. The Taluks having major tri bal areas are
a. Thodupuzha (18,749) b. Devikulam (11,554)
c. UdulP. banchola (5,411) d. Peermade (2,998)
6. Kanjirappally (Kottayam Distrct)
According to 1981 Census the total tribal population in
Kottayam District is 15,227. The important tribal areas are in
Meenachal (8,412) and Kanjirappaly (4,605) Taluks. The major
tribes in Kottayam District are Malayaran, Ulladan, Uraly,
Malavedan and Malapandaram.
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Table IV
Distribution of Major tribes in Kottayam District
51. Tribes Male Female TotalNo.
lo ~~alayarayan 5,037 5,165 10,202
2. Ulladan 1,474 1,482 2,956
3 Uraly 329 308 637
4 Malavedan 310 289 599
5 Malaypandaram 272 281 559
7. Nedumangadu ( Thiruvananthapuram District)
The tribal population in Thiruvananthapuram District is
14,145. Arr..ong them 341 are ~lalavedans (Census, 1981) . Malavedans
are seen in both Nedumangadu and Neyyattinkara Taluks.
Table - V
Distribution of Major Tribes in Thiruvananthapuram District
Tribes Male Female Total
Kanikaran 6,185 6,369 12,534
Kondareddis 153 145 298
Malapandaram 191 213 404
Malavedan 166 175 341
Uraly 86 73 159
19
Kallam - Pathanamthitta District
According to the provisional report of the Scheduled Tri bes
Development Department 1991, the total tribal population in
Pathanamthitta District is 5720 and in Kollam District it is 3063.
As per 1981 Census, the total tribal population in Kollam District
was 7,442. The total Malavedan population in this district was 1090
which is the largest among all other districts. Majority of the
Malavedan population is in Pathanapuram and Pathanamthitta Taluks.
Table - VI
Distribution of Tribes in Pathanamthitta and Pathanapurarr. Taluks
Taluk
Pathanamthitta
Pathanapuram
~jale
2,206
1,126
Female
2,162
1,060
Total
4,368
2,186
PathanalJ'thitta is the District having the largest Malaveda
population in the State of Kerala.
Major tribes in Kollam district are Malavedas and Mala
Arayas.
20
Table - VIII
Distribution of Woajor Tribal Population in Kallam and
Pathanamthi tta District
Tribes Male Female Total
Malayarayan 647 603 1,250
Ulladan 804 793 1,597
Kanikkar 506 548 1,054
Malavedan 554 536 1,090
Uraly 397 385 782
tv) alapandaram 498 410 908
Table - VIII
Distribution of tribes in Kottarakkara and Kallam Taluk
Taluk
Kottarakkara
Kallam
Important Tribes
Male
134
505
in
Female
146
246
Kottayam,
Total
280
751
Pathanamthitta and
Thiruvananthapuram Districts other than tv'alavedas are
1. Malayarayan 2. Ulladan 3. Kanikkaran.
21
0.2.5 Malavedas
0.2.5.0 Malavedas are relatively an advanced tribal group.
According to 1981 Census the population of Malavedas in Kerala is
2.384. The major settlement areas are in Pathanarnthitta. Kottayam.
Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram districts.
Table - IX
District-wise distribution of Malavedas
District Male Female Total
1. Kannur/Kasaragod 19 13 32
2. \\ayanad 2 2
3. Kozhikode 0
4. Malappuram 0
5. Palakkad 34 88 122
6. Trissur 1 1
7. Ernakularr. 16 14 30
8. Idukki 65 66 131
9. Kottayam 310 289 599
10. Alappuzha 12 24 36
11. Kollam/PathanaJr. thitta 554 536 1090
12. Thiruvananthapuram 166 175 341
Total 1178 1206 2384
22
The Vedas are described in the North Arcot manual as
having been formerly hunters and soldiers. They are supposed by
some to be the remnants of the earliest inhabitants of the peninsula
and identical with the Veddas of Ceylon. Malavedas in Tamil Nadu
were formerly known as Valmiker indicating that they lived on the
contents of ant-hills. The name 'Vedan' connotes hunter and hunting
was an early occupation.
In the W'adras Census report of 1901, the Vedas are
descri bed as a Tamil Speaking labouring and hunting caste, the
members of which are formerly soldiers and subsequently dacoits.
In the Madurai Manual, the Vedas are described as a very
low caste who live in jungle. They are described in Coimbatore
~anual as a very degraded poor tribe living by basket-making.
They speak a low Canarese.
The Vedas of Travancore are people who live in jungles
or \\orking in rice fields and formerly sold and taught as slaves.
Now Malavedans are living in wretched huts amid the rice
flats at the foot of the hills and are employed by farmers. Most
of these settlements are nearer to the villages.
23
Formerly Malavedans had no temples of their own. Hindus
permit them to offer money at the Hindu Temple. But now certain
settlements have their own temple and poojari. Their Gods are
, Chattan ' and 'Chavu'. A legend connected with the origin of Vedas
states that when Lord Parameswaran was on hunt with them he was
attacked and those v.ho deserted him came to be known as Kattans
or Ulladans, while those who rerrained and participated in the
fight continued to be described as Vedas.
2.5.1 Internal Structure
The ~ala Vedans are divided into the following Sub
divisions:-
1. Tolvedans 2. Chingannivedans 3. Cheruvedans
4. Elichativedans and 5. Valiyavedans.
The Tolvedans are found in the Neyyattinkara and
Nedumangad Taluks, the Chingannivedans in the Pathanapuram and
Pathanan,thitta Taluks and the Cheruvedans in Thiruvalla and
Pathanamthitta. The Elichativedans are found on both banks of the
Manimala river in the Changanasseri Taluk. The Cheruvedans neither
interdine nor intermarry with the other Vedans. When a Cheruvedan
dies, the widow and her children go back to her house. Each
endogamous group claims superiority to the rest and neither
24
interdines nor interrr.arries with the other groups. The
Chingannivedans observed the custom of chipping their incisors in
the form of sharp pointed cones.
Clans
Each group is divided into a number of clans. The
Cheruvedans are divided into four clans. They are:-
1. Venaten iUam
2. Vendiri iUam
3. Churulayar iUam
4. Modandan iUam
The members of a clan considered themselves as blood
relations. Hence a rr.an cannot marry a ,""oman of the same clan. He
can marry from any of the other clans. A woman after marriage
continues to be of her own clan and her children take after her
clan.
The chingannivedans are divided and classified into twelve
clans:
1. Veliyan iUam
2. Kavatayan iUam
3. Venatan iUam
7. Vartyan iUam
8. Karumaruvan illam
9. Thurn boyarr. illam
4. Polachan illam
5. Kozhakatan illam
6. Vazhakaten illam
25
10. Modayanatan illam
11. Padayan illam
12. Molavana illam
The clans are exogamous. The first eight illams constitute
brother illams and a man of one illam cannot rrarry a" woman from
anyone of the other illams. He can only marry a woman from any
one of the other four clans which constitute 'macharr,pi' illams. The
children belong to the clan of the mother.
The 'Elichathivedans' are also divided into four clans.
1. Vellillarr. 2. kumari illam 3. Konchillam 4. Velillam
The clans are exogamous
Tolvedans are divided into eight clans.
1. Panni illam 5. Puli illam
2. Manni illam 6. Veli illam
3. Vayali illam 7. Paral illam
4. Mutt illam 8. Pallikal illam
The first four clans constitute brother illams. The last
four clans are 'machampi' illams to the first four. In the event of
the death of a man, all the members of a clan observe death
pollution for sixteen days. The pollution does not extend to other
clans. If a fine is imposed on a man for committing an offence, and
26
he cannot pay it, the clans men collect the amount from among
themselves and pay it. A needy man is helped with money by the
merr,bers of a clan as occasions like the marriage of his daughter.
Habitation
The Malavedans live in clusters with 10 or 50 households
in each settlement. Most of the huts are one roomed, an average
dimension of 15 x 12. They are made of jungle wood posts and
reeds with grass for thatching. This huts are called '''Kuti''. The
floors are plastered with cowdung.
Eesides these huts, there are houses provided by the
Government which consists of a long hall separated into several
apartments by brick walls. The apartments are brick buildings with
tile roofs.
Households articles
Mats made of grass and barn boo splinters are used for
furnishing the huts. Mats are spread out to sleep and offered for
the gu'ests to sit. The earthen wares purchased from the market are
used for cooking and serving and aluminium vessels are also used.
Dress and Ornaments to Wear
Men use a towel round the waist reaching up to the knee
and the upper portion of the body is exposed. Certain advanced
~lalavedans wear banians, shirts and lunkies.
27
The old women also wear towel round the waist. Young
women use lunkies and blouses. Malavedans "ear ear rings of brass
or silver. Some wear a cylindrical tube or brase (ola) in the lobes
of the ear. They used to wear necklases.
While women have their hair long. men cut their hair
frequently.
Chipping
Chipping the upper incisor teeth in the form of short
serrated cones is a custom arrong a group of ~'alavedans. The
operation is done both by men and women. It is done for rr.en by
men at the age of nine or ten. The chipping is done with a small
knife or bill-hook. The pain and swelling last for a day or two.
Agriculture
Malavedas had rights to private plots of land. They
cultivate all the products as the non-tribals in their areas.
Besides, they are working in the agricultural fields of non-tribals
for wages. Few Malavedas are engaged in other works like making
bamboo baskets etc.
Food
eaters.
Rice
They
is the staple food of Malavedas. They are meat
eat the meat of san: bur. black and white monkey.
28
crocodiles. crab and fish. They also use tapioca. sweet potatoes
and other tubers. They are fond of eating rats.
Gods
Their main God is Chattan or Sattan who has no fixed
abode. They also worship "Chavu" the soul of ancestor. They also
worship all Hindu Gods. Toddy is an important item for "Chavu"
worship.
2.5.2 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS AND CEREMONIES
Puberty and Menses
Vihen a girl attains pUberty. a seclusion shed is put-up and
she is kept their during the period of pollution. On tenth day
cow-dung liquid is sprinkled to her and over all present there.
The girl baths in a stream and puts on a new cloth. Pollution
ceases and a feasting follows.
A woman in menses is segregated for five days and she is
forbidden to cook food or touch the vessels on those days. On the
fifth day she baths and come horr,e.
Marriage Customs
A rr:alaveda groorr. can rr.arry either his maternal uncle's or
his paternal aunt's daughter (cross cousin marriage). Marriage by
29
exchange is also prevalent. Child marriage was practised by
Cheruvedans in early days. The brides parents go in search of a
bride groom. If the elders agree, an auspicious day is fixed and
the marriage takes place at the bride's house. On the auspicious
day, the bridegroom I s party go the bride's house. A pair of cloth
is presented by the bridegroom to the bride who gives it to her
"naa ttuun" (husband's sister). One cloth is tied round the loins;
the other is thrown over the head. The bridegroom ties the 'tali'
(marriage badge) on the neck of the bride and the couple are taken
into a roolT' where they are served with food. The visiotrs are
treated with a feast. The couple remains under the parental roof
for a few months until they find a new horr:e for themselves.
The marriage preliminaries take a tortuous turn among the
Chingannivedans. The groom's uncle and father go to the girl's
house where they are fed. The groan;' s uncle then moots the
marriage question by handing over some pan supari to the girl's
father, who ask them why they do so. He is told that they are
g1ven for chewing. He holds the betel and nut in his hand and
asks questions if they will given him pan-supari to chew for all
time, to which they answer that they will. They talk in the strain
for sometime. If the bride's father does not chew what is offered,
it signifies that he is not agreable to that marriage. If he is
agreable he chews and sends the groan-.' s uncle and father to the
30
bride's uncle. In the event of the approval, they take the uncle to
the bride's house. The marriage is then settled and the day is to
be fixed for the marriage. The uncle and the father of the bride
are then taken to a toddy shop, where they all drink toddy.
Sirr.ilarly the bride's father and uncle entertain them with toddy.
This gives the hallmark of approval to the n:atch.
The marriage takes place in the bride's house and consists
of the presentation of two clothes to the bride by the bridegroom
elect, and his party go to the bride's hut. The 'taalikettu I (tying
the w.arriage badge) cererr.ony is generally in the morning. The
bride-groolT' presents the clothes to the bride, \\<ho puts on round
the loins and covers the head \\<ith the other. The bridegroom I s
sister then ties the ' taaU I (marriage badge), generally a necklace
of beads, round the bride's neck. The couple are then seated on a
mat, and they take a handful of cooked rice, served on a planktain
leaf. This is called 'Kantu Kanjikuti' or partaking of food in the
presence of all. The bride's father is then given money as "Kettu
artha panan: II , given for the purchase of his wife. All are then
treated with a feast.
The next day, the bride and her party visit the
bridegroom I shut, where they are again treated to a feast. Before
the gathering disperses, the bride stands in front of the hut and
31
her uncle places before her a measure of paddy, pan-supari, and
one rupee. He then takes a few grains of paddy and places them on
his left hand. He removes them in pairs. If an odd num ber remains
in the end, all the grain is thrown over the head of the girl. He
repeats the process again and if he gets an even num ber in the end
he says' the girl will be blessed with a large num ber of children
who will work for the master, and that the master should enjoy a
bountiful harvest as a result of their labour. This is reItiniscent
of the days of slavery. If it so happens that an odd number CDlfles
a second time, it is treated as an evil woIten and they believe
that the married life may not be happy.
The girl lives in the husband's parent's house. On the
seventh day, the bridegroom's parents go to the bride's parent's
house with five measures of rice, pan and money. The bride's
father also provides an equal quantity of these rr:aterials for the
occasion. Rice is separately cooked by the women of the two
parties. Meanwhile, the men go to the toddy shops and regale
therrselves vvith toddy. They return and exchange the cooked rice
and pan. All enjoy a feast. Next Irorning the married couple go to
the groom's house. Even if the girl has not attained puberty she
is allowed to live with her husband.
An Elenchathi vedan may marry the daughter of his
maternal uncle or the paternal aunt. Marriage by exchange is also
32
prevalent. Marriage takes place in the bride's house. \\ hen a man
has a daughter of marriageble age, he ascertians frorr, his brother
in-Ia w v.hether he is agreeable to the marriage of his daughter to
his son. If he agrees, the Astrologer chooses the auspicious date.
The bridegroom elect and his party go to the brides house on the
date fixed, and the bridegroom elect presents the bride with t\\O
pairs of cloths and a jacket. The pair go to the marriage booth,
where the bridegroom ties the 'taali'. All are treated v.ith a feast
and pan-supari. The bridegroom then departs \\ith his wife to his
house v.here he stays \\ith his parents.
Divorce is not resorted among Cheruvedans. The marriage
bond is very loose among the Chingannivedans. If a man dislikes
his wife, he takes her horne, and in the presence of elders he
divorces her. If a woman puts away her husband she has to return
the money when she is taken back to her parent's home.
Funeral Ceremonies
\\-hen a man dies, inforrr,ation is sent round to all
relations. V,hen they assemble the brother-in-law of the deceased
persons digs the grave four feet deep near the habitations. As soon
as the grave is ready, the corpse is washed, covered with a new
cloth and carried to the grave. The nephew first throws some soil
and then the others fill in the grQve. A handful of paddy is put
33
into a leaf and tied up with a creeper and the packet is laid at
the head of the grave. All disperse. bath and return to the home
of the deceased. The mourners are then treated to a bowl of
toddy. They do not take any food at that day. On the sixteenth
day. the nephew rr,akes an offering of fried paddy. beaten rice.
tender coconuts and toddy saying "oh. spirit. pray. accept all my
offerings and join the other ancestor spirits on any of the crests
of hills". The offerings are taken of by those present. All the
sub-divisions follo\\ this systerr; of ceremonies with little
difference.
Religious Ceremonies
Most of the Tolvedans in Neyyattinkara have embraced
Christianity. All others are Christians or Hindus. Forrr,erly
Malavedans had no temples. They visit Hindu shrines for worship.
Now they have teulples of their own in certain settlements. A
Malaveda temple is seen in Valiyavenkodu ~alavedan settlement in
Kadakkal. They \\<orship ancestor-spirits in ~:alaveda temples and in
his ov.n home. Three measures of beaten rice. one measure of
toddy. four tender coconuts, tobacco. a bunch of plaIi<tains and
molasses are placed in front of the house at night. A fowl is
sacrificed and the following prayer is offered.
"enRe muuRttiyee, ninakku kooliyute pari tarinRi
raccakkaayi iruntu kollanam caavumaaR ellaam
34
vellamkuti eeRRukollanam koccinootum kuttiyoot,¢m
yaatooru upatravavum untaakarutee".
'Oh, God, I am offering you a fov-!. Pray, protect
me
Oh, ancestor spirits, pray protect me. Oh
ancestor - spirits,
Pray accept my offering. May no harm be done to
my children".
After saying this, he distributes the offering to all
assembled there.
0.2.6 Tribal Languages
Though the tribes of Kerala speak their ov.n languages it
cannot be stated that there are as rrany different languages as
there are tribal groups, since more than one tribe can speak one
and the same language. The tribal languages in Kerala can be
classified into five groups, viz.
1. Walayalam or Dialect of W.alayalam
2. Dialect of Tamil
3. Dialect of Kannada
4. Tulu or Dialect of Tulu and
5. Mixed language (Somasekharan Nair, 1977)
35
0.2.6.1 Earlier works on the Tribal languages of Kerala
Though much attention had not been given to the tribal
languages of Kerala in earlier periods, scholars have now been
giving considerable attention to this study. The Dravidian
Linguistics Association had conducted a project in which the speech
forms of Kanikkars, Malavedas, Malappulayars, Malakkuravans,
Malavettuvans, Malayadiyars and Malappandarams were studied and
the result of this research work has been published in 1976.
(Bhattacharya 1976). There are five Ph.D. thesis about the
languages of 1ribes. Namboodiri has been studied the language of
fv'Iuthuvan (Nan-. boodiri, 1976). Annie Joseph prepared the
Gescriptive Grammar of Mannans (Annies Joseph, 1976); The language
of Kadars has been studied by Indira (Indira, 1976) . Tham puran
prepared the Grammar of the language of Mala Arayar (ThaIT,puran
1979). Rajendran prepared a complete grammer of the language
spoken by the W:udugas of Attappady with notes on the languages
and culture of the Irulas and Kurumbas of Attappady (Rajendran,
1978) .
In addition, minor attelT1pts at constructing grammars and
phonological outlines of some tri bal dialects have been made by the
students of the Department of Linguistics, University of Kerala. A
detailed study of the speech of Veda (Vettuvar) was conducted in
1977 by the Linguistics M.A. students of the University of Kerala.
36
(Kumari, Nirmala, 1977), Padmakurr.ar, 1977) ; PadmakurrJari Amma
1977; Radhakrishnan Nair, 1977; Ranganathan, 1977; Thankacci,
1977; Thankam, 1977; Vimalakurr.ar, 1977) • Noun ~jorphology of the
Malaveda language of Vembayam was studied by Vimala, M rv,.A.
student of Linguistics Department (Virr,ala 1984). A cOlI'plete grammer
of the language of kanikkar has been prepared by the M.A.
students of the Department of Linguistics University of Kerala in
1972 and Krishna Iyer published the 'caattupaatu' and the Kinship
Terrr,s of Kanikkar (Krishna Iyer 1937). Chandrasekhar (1961) and
VisVvambharan (1967) have published a few folksongs of Kanikkar.
The tribal dialects of Idukki have also been studied in ",hich the
culture and languages of the Mala Arayas, Mala Ulladars, Urali,
Mannans, Muthuvan, Paliyar, Kurumbapulayar and Karvazheppulayar
have been investigated (Prabodhachandran Nayar 1980). Another
study on the Paniyas of Kerala has been attempted by Somasekharan
Nair (Somasekharan Nair 1977).
Adiv aasikalute naatti! (Am pattu Sukumaran Nair, 1982)
Sahyante makkal (Paanoor 1990), Socio cultural approaches to Tribal
languages (Shukla 1985), The language of Cholonaickans (Somasekharan
Nair, 1981), Personal pronous in the Paniya and Adiya speech forms
of Kerala - sorrle Sociolinguistic 0 bservation (Somasekharan Nair,
1985)J A note on the Tribal speech Investigations (Somasekharan
Nair, 1988) and rviuduga Language (Rajendran, 1986) are some of the
important studies published recently on the Tribal languages of
Kerala.
37
0.3 PRESENT STUDY
The present study is based on the speech of Malavedas, a
hill tribe inhabiting in the Hilly areas of the Southern districts of
Kerala.
Collection of data
An intensive cultural and linguistic inforrr.ation from a
single settlement is of far greater 1m portance than conducting a
wide and extensive survey of the whole settlements with lesser
information details. Only seven Malaveda settlements have been
selected and the data have been collected in the months of August,
September and October in 1986, April and May of 1987 and October
and November in 1990. Informants were selected frolT' all the seven
settlements. The data were elicited mainly by recording the
informal speech of the informant. After the collection of the data
the forms were checked with suitable informants.
Details about the informants were given in the following
table.
Table - X
List of Informants
----Sl. Name Sex Age Settlements Marital Educational OccupationNo. status status
1 PODDan Male 40 Valiyaveenkatu married illiterate Agricul turelabourer
2 Veluttiran Male 46 Valiyaveenkatu married illiterate Agriculturist
3 Paakkiran W:ale 48 Urukunnu married illiterate Agricul turist
4 Aniyaaran Male 44 Urukunnu married illiterate Labourer
5 Vellaattan ~:ale 49 Urukunnu married illiterate Agricul turist
6 Raamati Ferr.ale 50 Valiyaveenkaatu married illiterate Labourer
7 Ponnani FelT'ale 49 Thadikkaatu married illiterate House wife
8 Cakkira Female 46 Thadikkaatu married illi terate House wife wco
9 Ponnani Female 34 Kollaayil married illi terate Labourer
10 Vellaattan Wale 42 Arkkannoor married illiterate Agriculturist
11 Pavaani Female 46 Arkkannoor married illi terate House wife
12 CiRRa Female 46 Arkkannoor married illiterate House wife
13 Velleemma Female 57 Puuthoor married illiterate Agricul turist
14 Arumanayakarr ~1ale 53 Achencoil married illiterate Agricul turist
15 Nalluuran Male 58 Achencoil married illiterate Labourer
39
Besided the introduction, this thesis consists of phonology,
Morphophonemics, Morphemics, Syntax, Socio-linguisticS of Malaveda
kinship Terms, Personal Pronouns and Personal narr,es, Sample text
and sample vocabulary.
In phonemics, inventory and distri bution of phonemes,
allophones and their distribution, syllable structure, phonotactis,
phrase intonations, sentence intonations, consonant clusters,
functional yield of segmental phonemes etc. have been discussed. In
the chapter on rv'orphophonfmt:C5 every change has been arranged by
giving rules. In Morphemics, on the basis of the distribution of
certain type of suffixes sterns have been classified into four sets;
verbs, nouns, appellatives and clitics. The position classes of the
grarr, matical categories are given in the beginning of each chapter.
All suffixes have been described and the al ternations of the stems
have been accommodated. Syntax deals with the major types of
sentences such as sirr:ple, complex and compound. Seven major types
of sentence patterns viz. intransitive, transitive, causative,
irr.perative, optative, negative and interrogative are also discussed.
The classification and analysis of the kinship terms, Personal
Pronouns Personal nanies of Malavedas are also illustrated in the
chapter on the sociolinguistics of Malaveda kinship terms, Personal
Pronouns and Personal names. Sarr,ples sentences and vocabulary list
\\ hich includes simple and complex words follo\\ the analysis of the
language.